PRAGMATICS

EGL 402
PROF. TAIWO
31ST MARCH

Utterances
An utterance is not necessarily a sentence. It is anything that you say or write. It is
important to note that some things we say or write are not qualified to be sentences.
Most of these expressions are utterances. In other words, any meaningful expression is
an utterance.
All sentences are utterances, but not all utterances are sentences.

Intended Speaker Meaning.

The speaker's intention is very important to make the meaning of any utterance.

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In pragmatics, one very major factor is CONTEXT. Context plays a very important role
in pragmatics.

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What is Pragmatics?
This is the study of aspects of meaning and language use that are dependent on the
speaker, the addressee, and other features of the context of utterance, such as
The effects that the following have on the speaker's choice of expression and the
addressee's interpretation of an utterance,
The context of utterance,
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The generally observed principles of communication and the goals of the speaker.
This means that we need the knowledge of pragmatics if we need fuller, deeper, and
generally more reasonable accounts of human language behaviour.

What this means is that we need to understand what is not explicitly stated and
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How we interpret utterances in a situational context.

The word pragmatics comes from the Latin word pragmaticus or the Greek word
pragmatikós. These mean "fit for action." The term was coined in the 1930s by
philosopher and psychologist Charles Morris. He was influenced by Charles
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Peirce, and he first used the word as a branch of Semiotics. But later, pragmatics was
developed in the 1970s to become a sub-field of linguistics.
There are some key fields that we can't do without in Pragmatics. They're:
● Semiotics: Study of signs
● Syntax: The study of formal relation of signs to one another.
● Semantics: The study of the relation of signs to the objects to which the signs are
applicable.
 ● Pragmatics: This studies the relation of signs to interpreters.

3RD APRIL 2023

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN PRAGMATICS

UTTERANCE
An utterance differs from a sentence. A sentence is normally expected to be syntactically
perfect. But utterances are not necessarily perfect syntactically. An utterance does not
have to be a sentence. It may be just a word or an expression that needs to be
interpreted based on context.

REFERENCE
This simply means what something points to. In Pragmatics, reference depends on the

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speaker's intention.

INFERENCE
This means to decode the pragmatic meaning of an utterance (to infer). To do this, you

TACT
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need a piece of additional knowledge to what you know ordinarily.

This is the ability to minimize expressions or beliefs that imply cost to others and
maximize the expression of beliefs that benefit others.
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CONTEXT
Context is everything that surrounds a particular instance of language use. This includes

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the following

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The participants and their relationships

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The event taking place
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The place and the time

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The type of discussion

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The code being used (dialects, style)

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The channel of communication

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The physical environment
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What took place before the current event
The participants
Types of Contexts
LINGUISTICS CONTEXT
This is also referred to as "co-text," and this co-text or context refers to the set of words
in the same sentence or utterance(what had been said before, what is said after) and also
the relationship between the words, phrases, etc.
This type of context can be explored from three aspects.

Deictic (discourse at a particular point in time),

Co-text (what comes before and after), and,

Collocation(the company words keep).

PHYSICAL CONTEXT

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This involves everything physical and visible. Place, ongoing activities, time, season,
topography, environment, etc.

INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

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This concerns the needs, desires, authority, status, and personalities of those involved.
The relationship between the participants.

SOCIO-CULTURAL CONTEXT
This context of culture includes the beliefs, conventions, value systems, traditions, and
all other factors that control human behaviour.
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INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT
Every institution has its convention, which guides its operation mode.

EPISTEMIC CONTEXT
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This is the background knowledge and beliefs shared by the speaker(s) and the
hearer(s).

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The Role of Context in Interpreting Utterances

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It helps to eliminate ambiguity.
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It indicates reference.
It eliminates assumptions

UTTERANCE AND SENTENCE

A Sentence can be defined as a string of words put together by the grammatical rules of
the language.
An utterance, traditionally, is a natural unit of speech bound by breath and pauses in
dialogue.
Each turn of a speaker in a dialogue can be considered an utterance.
E.g.,
Vicky: Does anyone know when the assignment in Discourse will be due?
Gallant: Not sure. Maybe next Thursday.
Lambo: Oh, Gosh! I'll be in Lagos from Wednesday that week.
Vicky: Okay! Your sister's wedding.
Lambo: Yes!
Vicky: I can submit it for you.
Lambo: Thanks! Nice girl.
Vicky: Cake, jollof rice, and chicken o
Lambo: No yawa.

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14th April 2022
IMPLICATURE
Implicature is from the word "implicate" and simply means the meaning of an utterance

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as understood in a given context.
Conversational Implicature explains how it is possible for speakers to mean and for
hearers to understand what is said. Conversational Implicature is a non-conventional
Implicature based on an addresse's assumption that the speaker follows the
conversational maxims. Implicatures are things that are not said but are explicitly
understood.
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How do we arrive at implicatures
1. Through the usual linguistic meaning of what is said.
2. Beyond that, we also have shared or general knowledge.
3. The assumption that the speaker obeys what Grice calls the "Cooperative
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principle."

Presuppositions
These are inferences about what is assumed in an utterance rather than what is directly
asserted. E.g
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You will find the book on my fridge.

The "book" simply means that one is sure to find one.

Speech Act Theory

The term Speech Act was coined by J. L Austin in 1962 in his book How to do things
with words. It was further developed by J. R Searle. Our utterances can be used to
perform actions such as requests, warnings, invitations, promising, apologizing,
predictions, etc.
Whenever humans interactively engage in speech acts, we simultaneously perform three
types of acts. They are

Locutionary: This is simply the act of producing a recognizable grammatical utterance in

a language. (saying something)

Illocutionary: This has to do with an attempt at some complicative purpose. (intention)

Perlocutionary: This is the effect produced by the utterance in a given sentence.

Consequences 👇
Locutionary produces understandable utterances. (meaning is the goal).

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Illocutionary acts are speaker-based and the speaker may be guided through the tone,
attitude, feeling, motive, and intention to achieve the purpose.

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Perlocutionary is hearer based. This is because it concerns the expected effect of
utterances on the hearers.

J. L Austin
Austin talks about performative acts. These are used to indicate that you want
something to be done.
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There are implicit and explicit performatives.
Implicit meaning that what you mean isn't clear from what you said and vice versa for
explicit.
Class ends
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Monday, 17th April 2023

Felicity Conditions

A performative utterance must be felicitous for it to be meaningful.

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Felicity Conditions are social conventions an utterer must fulfill for an utterance to be
meaningful. These social conventions are generally acceptable procedures for
successfully carrying out a speech act.
For instance, the person using the utterance must be the appropriate person, and he has
to use the utterance in a particular context.
Felicity conditions are rules that must be followed for an utterance to work.
Preparatory Conditions
These are the real-world prerequisites to each locutionary act. They include the status or
authority of the speaker to perform the speech act, the situation of other parties, and so
on.

Sincerity Conditions
These are prerequisite beliefs, feelings, and intentions of the speaker as appropriate to
each action. The speaker must intend what he or she says. Sincerity as genuine intention
now is no assurance that the apologetic attitude will last or the promise will be kept.
Read more here

Direct and Indirect Speech Acts

Direct - What you say is what you mean
E.g Please come in

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They could be declarative, imperative, interrogative etc

When there is no direct relationship between the structure and the function of an
utterance, it is an indirect speech act.

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Categories of Speech Acts
1. Declaratives: This is simply saying something for the other person's information.
They are used to change the world through utterances. E.g. "I hereby pronounce
you husband and wife," or the referee telling a player, "you're out!" on the pitch.
2. Expressives: This simply says what the speaker feels. It expresses the
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psychological state of the speaker. They can be statements of pleasure, pain, likes,
dislikes, Joy, sorrow, etc. E.g. "I am really sorry, oh yes, great! Etc
3. Directives: This gets the hearer to do something. They express what the speaker
wants. They could be commands, orders, requests, and suggesstate E.g. Please get
out, give me that book.
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Commands and orders show a hold of authority, while requests comes with
minimizing one's position E.g "May I have a bowl of sugar?"
Suggestions refusalsy don't you consider visiting him?
Each directive show how much of oneself is imposed on others.
4. Commisives: These are speech acts that commits a person to some future action.
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They are promises, threats, refusal, pledges etc

E.g I will be back (promise), I am going to get it right next time, I will never do
that, I will always be loyal to you etc.
5. Representatives: These are speech acts that states what the speaker believes to be
the case or not. They could be statements of facts, assertions, conclusions, or
dismission.
e.g Our president is hale and hearty, it is a world sunny day.
Grecian Principle or Grice's Cooperative Principle
Gricean is from the word Grice. This principle is coined by H. P Grice. GRICE says each
time we engage in conversations, we obey certain maxims. Many of which are
unconsciously obeyed.

General Formulation of Principles

Speakers try to contribute meaningfully productive utterances to further whatever
conversation they are involved with. Listeners also assume that their conversational
partners are doing the same. Make your conversational contributions such that is
required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the top
exchange in which you're engaged.

28-04-2023

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Maxim of Quantity: It says
- Make your contribution as informative as it is required for the current purposes
of the exchange.
- Do not make your contribution more informative than it is required. The basic

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issue here is you are not expected to say too much or too little.

Maxim of Quality
Try to make your contribution one that is true.
1. Do not say what you believe to be false.
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2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
3. Lying is not an acceptable speech.

Maxim of Relation:
Be relevant
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The important thing in this maxim is the notion of coherence. This is because it is
through this maxim you make sense of anything you say.

Maxim of Manner
Be perspicuous
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What are you expected to do under this maxim?

- Avoid obscurity of expression
- Avoid ambiguity
- Be brief
- Be orderly

What does it mean to violate a maxim?

This means that we break the maxim surreptitiously/covertly. The intention of this is to
mislead.

You violate the maxim of quality by not giving enough information. The intention of this
is to be deceitful.

When you flout a maxim, it means that it is you want to make it obvious to everybody
that you have chosen not to obey the maxim and it is a deliberate action.

05-05-23
DR. ARUA
DEIXIS AND REFERENCE
The term Deixis is termed from the word “deikticos” meaning “able to show.” This is
connected to mean “deiknimi” meaning “explain” or “prove,” and the adjective for deixis

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is deitic. Levison (1983) defines “deixis” as the ways in which language or languages
encode features of the context of utterance depending on the analysis of the context of
utterance. Thomas (1985) defines deixis as expressions that derive meaning from the
context of utterance. Deixis is often seen as verbal pointing via language. Linguistic

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forms used for pointing are called dexis expression/devices/markers/deixis
words/indexicals.
Deixis refers to the words outside the text. Deixis refers to the words outside the text.
Reference to the context of utterance is referred to as deixis when deictic expression is
used to point to a situation outside the text(situational deixis), and when used to refer to
speakers or hearers, shared knowledge is referred to as knowledge deixis. Deixis
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expressions are used in form:
1. Person
2. Time/temporal
3. Place
4. Discourse/Social Deixis
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Deixis is styled to the speaker’s context, and the most basic discussion is between
proximal and distal distinction.
Proximal deixis expressions include this, here, now, etc., while distal deixis expressions
include: that, then, there, etc. Deitic expressions are grouped into four.
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1. Personal/Person Deixis: include first, second, and third personal person

pronouns and also names.
The third-person pronouns are distal, and using a third-person pronoun when you can
use the second-person pronoun is possible. This can be used to create either rumour or
irony e.g.
a. Humour or Ironic purposes are normally in dictating distance in English. The
distant associates with third person pronoun(s) are also used.
b. To make potential accusations e.g “You didn’t inform the HOD”
c. To make an expression indirect e.g. someone to clean up.
When you use the expression “we” clean up ourselves here.

Place Deixis
They are used to point to a location. They include those, these (demonstrating
pronouns). When we use place deixis, it includes this, that, these, and those.
Distal features of clearly demonstrated in place deixis. Some verb of motion also
indicates deixis e.g. come, go. Sometimes, speakers project themselves in a particular
location. E.g. I will come later. This implies more merit to the location and is also
referred to as deictic projection.

Temporal/Time Deixis
This is used to point to the time of the event. It includes now, today, next week, etc.

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Nouns coincide with the speaker's presence. Time can be distal/proximal. The time
could in the future or at present. It also takes the use of present tense and past tense.
Past tense signal in If-clauses marks events presented by the speaker has not been close
to the present reality. E.g If I had the time, I would.

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Discourse and Social Deixis
The social deixis refers to the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.
E.g Your grace, His possible when you can use the second-person pronouns honorifics.
The following is a discourse deixis. Latter(the preceding), then the former.
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Politeness
Politeness can be verbal or non-verbal. Verbal is in speech, while non-verbal is in action.
Stacannot works of H.P Grice.

N.B: Kindly read more online as this note may seem confusing to you as you
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read. T for Tenks.

8th May 2023

Politeness is both verbal and non-verbal. It is a theoretical construct named to

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appropriate its verbal and non-verbal use in social construct. It complements the other
theories we have in Pragmatics, like speech acts, etc. In accounting for all aspects of
language use, the Gricean maxims are unable to explain while people violate, flout, and
infringe on the maxim. The speech act theory also gives an acceptable account of why
people use indirect speeches. Grice notes that apart from the maxims, there is this other
maxim that is aesthetical, social, and moral in nature. E. G 'Be polite'
Politeness in a communicative context.
Politeness is culture-specific. When employed, it reduces differences in opinion which
could have led to arguments and quarrels in interpersonal interaction. (Lakoff 1975). It
allows participants to take part in conflict-free communication (Fraser and Nolan 1981).
It establishes and maintains commity (Leech 1983) concord (Leech 2005).
It helps to minimize imposition caused by face-threatening acts(Brown and Levinson
1987). It is also a social behaviour used to maintain social equilibrium among people
within a social group. (Watts 1987). In China, it is geared toward achieving social
harmony and order. (Yu 2003) and constitutes a social index including participants'
relative positions (Ife 1989). In Igbo, it is a social contract among individuals used to
regulate behavioural expectations which is usually reciprocal. The Hausas and Yorubas
operate at two extreme ends. Whereas the Hausas are blunt in their descriptions of
persons and phenomena, including deformities, the Yorubas are largely reserved,
employing euphemisms regarding issues relating to psychosocial and emotional aspects

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of whole participants in an interaction. (Odebunmi 2005)

Politeness Theories
Lakoff 1973 notes two rules of pragmatic competence. They are:

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1. BE CLEAR
2. BE POLITE

Under "be polite," we have three maxims or principles.

1. Maxim of formality: Don't impose. Remain aloof
2. Maxim of hesitancy: Give the addressee options.
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3. Maxim of equality: Make the addressee feel good.

Leech Politeness Theory

Leech 1983 patterns his politeness theory in line with the Gricean maxims. He sees
politeness as an explanation for the reason behind the use of indirect speech acts in
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conveying what an individual means and as a rescue to the Cooperative principles. He

introduces a number of maxims that come in the form of cost benefits divide.
1. TACT maxim: Minimize the expression of beliefs that imply cost to the other and
maximize the expression of beliefs that imply benefits to the other. For instance,
you can minimize by using words like just, a bit, a sec, etc.
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2. Generosity Maxim: Minimize the expression of benefit to self and maximize the
expression of cost to self.
3. Approbation: Minimize the expression of beliefs that expresses dispraise of the
other. Maximize the expression of beliefs that express the approval of others.
4. Modesty Maxim: Minimize the expression of praise of self and maximize the
expression of dispraise of self.
 5. Agreement Maxim: Minimize the expression of disagreement between self and
others. Maximize the expression of agreement between self and others.
6. Pollyanna principle:

Brown and Levinson 1978/1987

This is the most influential and it employs the concept of face borrowed from (Goffman
1967). To Brown and Levinson, face means self-image that you want everyone to respect
and approve. To Brown and Levinson, the face can be either negative or positive face.
Negative has to do with the desire not to be impeded. The positive has to do with the fact
that you want to be loved, approved, respected, and appreciated by others.
Brown and Levinson believe that certain Illocutionary acts are face-threatening (FTA).
And in order to counteract this face threatening acts, they gave five strategies

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Videos for this explanation

1. https://youtu.be/mUl0_16nXP4
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2. https://youtu.be/rUBHvSuJJ0g
3. https://youtu.be/0XLT2SBNNGQ

Class ends

12-May-2023
Pragmatic language is the use of appropriate communication in social situations. This
involves knowing what to say, how, and when.
Teachers and students use spoken and written language to communicate with each
other. To present tasks, engage in learning processes, present academic content, assess
learning, display knowledge and skill, and build classroom life.
Instructional language involves the process of sharing ideas, knowledge skills and
attitudes between the teacher and the learner in a classroom situation. The way and
manner the teacher can pass across the idea, skills, and knowledge goes a long way in
helping learners.
English is Nigeria's official language and instruction language at all levels of education.
English is the language of instruction in most Nigerian schools which means students
can access a wider range of educational materials and Opportunities. English is also the
language of business and international communication. It gives students a wider access
to language opportunities.

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Language Education
This is the process and practice of teaching a second or foreign language. It is primarily
a branch of applied linguistics.

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What are the languages used in Nigeria's child education?
In the interest of national unity, it is expected that every child is required to learn one of
the three major languages (Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa).
Academic or school language provides the basic building blocks and material for
learning in school. Academic language can be organized into two main categories.
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1. Specific content language, and
2. General academic language.

Language of Medicine
The Language of medicine is English. There are over 200,000 specific words that define
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the spectrum of the practice of medicine, and they are all written in English. Research
confirms that since the 1950s, English has been the principal language of the medical
profession and also the foundation for today's medical nomenclature, which began in
ancient Greece.
Basically, medicine encompasses a variety of healthcare practices evolved to maintain
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and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illnesses.

Contemporary medicine…

Class ends

15th May 2023

Euphemism and Dysphemism

Dutz (1989) said Euphemisms are words or phrases used to avoid or express blunt or
direct terms considered. Ayto (1993) said euphemism is an indigenous lexico formula
that speakers of English have come up with to tiptop and around conversational areas.
David Crystal ( ) says that Euphemism is the use of a vague or indirect expression in
place of one which is thought to be unpleasant, embarrassing, or offensing.

There are several uses of Euphemism

1. To show respect for the feelings of others
2. Conferring prestige to others.
3. To indicate sensitivity to social norms.
4. To protect against hostility.
5. Veiling of uncomplimentary comment.

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6. Shifting of responsibility.
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Conferring of prestige: describing a pit toilet as VIP - Ventilated Include Pit Toilet

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Driver - Chauffeur
Toilet - Rest room, ladies and gents
Ashewo - Night workers, working women

Against hnocide - Ethnic clearing

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Uncomplimentary comments
Side effects (destructive consequences of taking a drug

Shifting of responsibility
Rough sleeper (people sleeping under bridge)
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Not accepting responsibility

Educationally disadvantaged areas

Sources of Euphemism
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1. Metaphor
2. Idioms
3. Verbal Irony
4. Acronyms
5. Rhetorical question
6. Proverbs
7. Oxymoronical expressions
8. Linguistic borrowing

Dysphemism
This is the opposite of Euphemism. It is an offensive way of saying something. It is also
making, something or things sound worse than they are. It can also be seen as coinages
that are as ugly as what they describe. It is full of exaggeration. It can also be regarded as
a verbal caricature. It states only half-truths or facts. Dysphemism can be syntactical or
lexical.

Uses of dysphemism
1. Dysphemism is used to perform a variety of communicative and
social-psychological functions.
2. They can be used as weapons against those things or people that constitute

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annoyance and who we disapprove of, dislike, despise, or hate.

Sources of Dysphemism
It can be derived from a range of linguistic sources such as similes, metaphors, proverbs,

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rhetorical questions, puns.

EGL 402 LECTURE NOTE 2 FROM DR. OLAREWAJU ON MONDAY,

THE LANGUAGE OF ADVERTISING
Advertisements consist of a mixture of regular language and paralanguage.
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Paralanguage is nonverbal communication that emphasizes and accompanying the
regular language, such as facial expressions, gestures, voice quality, letter sizes and so
on. Advertising is one of the most prominent, powerful, and ubiquitous contemporary
uses of language. Its seductive and controversial quality has attracted consistent and
intense attention across a range of academic disciplines including linguistics, media
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studies, politics, semiotics, and sociology.

The reasons for this academic interest are far from superficial. The study of advertising
brings together many of the key social and political issues of our time: the new
capitalism; globalization; overconsumption and the environment; cultural and
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individual identities; and the communications revolution. It provides insight into the
ideologies and values of contemporary societies.

Advertising’s creative use of language makes it a particularly rich site for language and
discourse analysis. Operating in all media and exploiting the interaction between word,
sound, and image, it provides a key location for studies of multimodal communication.
Simultaneously poetic and commercial, it raises questions about the nature of creativity
and art. Ever since the intensification of advertising in the 1950s, leading scholars have
analysed its use of language. This new four-volume Routledge Major Work brings
together for the first time the most seminal and controversial works, allowing users to
obtain a wide and inclusive view of this rewarding topic. It will be welcomed by scholars
and other researchers in the field as an invaluable ‘mini library’ on the language of
advertising.

Language is the ultimate power in advertising. A strong company name and tagline can
make or break a product. With the advent of social media and web 2.0, the written word
has become more prominent than ever. People are constantly reading on social media,
albeit not in the conventional sense. But with such a text-based form of media
dominant, advertising and the way in which is inhabits our lives has changed. Say the
word advertising to someone and the immediate images will spring to mind: billboards,
television ads, buses with banners, flyers shoved under your nose – the list goes on.

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Advertising is ubiquitous in modern society, and while many people have some
understanding of the power it wields over our everyday choices, few realise the subtle
nuances of advertising that cause it to be so effective.

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Once, advertising was confined to the generic – an advert on a bus, a 30 second TV
commercial, a half page in a newspaper. These were wide reaching, but not specific.
Now, adverts are much more powerful, track your location both online and offline to
target you and your individual habits. The power of an advert becomes that much
stronger when it is personally attached to your own daily life.
In having this more invasive strategy, how adverts are represented and portrayed must
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be smarter than ever before. An advert isn’t violating your social media profile; it’s
trying to help you (or at least, this is the message they are trying to portray). In this
sense, the language needs to be so much more refined than in previous eras.

A. Writing Radio and Television Advertisements

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Generally speaking, broadcast advertising is radio, television, and Internet advertising.

The commercials aired on radio and televisions are an essential part of broadcast
advertising. The broadcast media like radio and television reaches a wider audience as
opposed to the print media. What is meant by radio advertisement?
Radio advertising is the practice of purchasing ad spots on popular radio stations to
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promote your products and services. Businesses like yours pay for every second of
airtime, and the station broadcasts your radio commercials to its audience.
A television advertisement (also called a television commercial, TV commercial,
commercial, television spot, TV spot, advert, TV advert or simply an ad) is a span of
television programming produced and paid for by an organization. It conveys a message
promoting, and aiming to market, a product or service.
Successful radio advertisements motivate consumers to take action with powerful
words, catchy jingles, and attention-grabbing sound effects. Copy writers have to hold
their audience's attention 15, 30, or 60 seconds so that they provide all of the relevant
information. In order to achieve this balance, copy writers must remain persistent and
creative.

Easy Steps to Writing a Good Radio Advertisement

1. Establishing a Connection. Radio stations have different demographics, so make
sure you target the right audience.
2. Focusing on the Benefits. A good ad is short.
3. Building a Story That Flows.
4. Creating a Simple and Strong Call to Action.

Ethical consideration in the language of advertising:

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Ethics are the moral principles that guide the activities or behavior of a person. In
advertising, being ethical means upholding values such as fairness, justice, and truth
while sharing customer experiences and product messages. Various organizations
developed ethics in advertising for the sole purpose of protecting consumers from

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unethical advertising practices. It is against ethical standards to manipulate information
for selfish interests while advertising.

Ethical Considerations: Ethical considerations refer to those principles and

guidelines which highlight the goodness of all the society and mankind. There should
not be any harm to the society from our activities. For commercials, ethical
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considerations are a hazy area. An advertisement can be legally permissible (in the sense
that it is true, not deceptive, and backed up by objective information) but unethical. The
way in which the content is given and the message of the advertisement are both ethical
considerations. Ads that play on fear are unethical, according to the International
Charter. Ethical consideration in advertising prohibits the marketing attempt of those
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products which are harmful for society.

Ethical Issues in Advertisement: Any organizations or business firms should focus

on those aspects.
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Truth in Advertising: Truth in advertising is the main requirement in advertisement.

The information about any products and service should be based on reality. All the
promotional advertisements should not cross the boundary to share the fake news and
updates. Truth in advertising also regulated and guided by the provisions by the law of
different countries.
Advertising to Children: Children should not be used in advertisement mainly on
serious and socially as well as legally prohibited areas. The weapons, alcohol, sex
products etc. should be not be used by or for children. There are several other online
marketing and other work as well as labor related tasks which should be far from
children.

Advertising for Harmful Products: Ethical consideration in advertising prohibits

the marketing attempt of those products which are harmful for society. All those
products that damage the physical or psychological health of the people in the society
are harmful products. They may be the product of less quality to date expire and so on.
Different countries have different attitudes toward the promotion of vice products and
services, attempting to strike a balance between citizens' personal responsibility and
government regulation of what they are allowed to do.

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Advertising Tactics: Nowadays, people use various techniques and tactics to attract
people towards their products and services. The whole world is fully focused to the
financial gain by hook and crook. The sample of advertising tactics are emotional
appeals, taking advantage of less educated individuals, spreading propaganda for

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political campaigns, and other tactics ethical advertisers consistently refrain from using.
Finally, customers will be more attracted to businesses that do not utilize

THE LANGUAGE OF POLITICS

Language is used as a means to form a state and is enacted in various ways that help
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achieve political objectives. It allows for people in a very large number to communicate
with each other in a large scope to the effect that a state is formed. It is the currency of
politics, forming the basis of society from the most common, everyday interactions to
the highest ideals.
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The English word ‘politics’ is derived from the Greek word ‘polis’. The term ‘politics’
refers to the way that countries are governed and the ways that governments make rules
and laws to manage the human society properly. Politics can also be seen in order
groups, such as, in companies, clubs, schools, and churches.
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The major types of political systems are democracies, monarchies, oligarchies, and
authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. Political speech includes any form of speech
concerning politics, including the spending of or donation of money to political
campaigns or undertaking political activism, individuals and corporations are entitled to
only limited protection of political speech.
Language of politics is the way language and linguistic differences between peoples are
dealt with in the political arena. This could manifest as government recognition, as well
as how language is treated in official capacities.

The politicians often use vague wording and euphemisms. For instance, a politician
might use the phrase “the sacrifices of our ancestors” to influence constituents to
support a war. Also, in order to soothe angry tempers, they might talk about “service to
our dear nation” in speech about raising taxes. There are sixteen types of figures of
speech contained in the political language variation – euphemism, repetition,
parallelism, personification, parable, anticlimax, sarcasm, trope, hyperbole, pleonasm,
climax, antithesis, synecdoche, anaphor, allusion, and metaphor.

Topics covered include migration, citizenship, nationalism and

decolonization.

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In everyday life, the term "politics" refers to the way that countries are governed, and to
the ways that governments make rules and laws to manage the human society properly.

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Political fiction employs narrative to comment on political events, systems and theories.
Works of political fiction, such as political novels, often "directly criticize an existing
society or present an alternative, even fantastic, reality".

Nigerian politics takes place within a framework of a federal, presidential,

representative democratic republic, in which executive power is exercised by the
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government.

Political factors, applied to second language learning, are situations impacting a specific

cultural group of students, positively or negatively, due to governmental or
organizational policies and structures.
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A useful first step is to distinguish between the three components of the language policy
of a speech community: (1) its language practices – the habitual pattern of selecting
among the varieties that make up its linguistic repertoire; (2) its language beliefs or
ideology – the beliefs about language and language use.
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THE LANGUAGE OF MEDIA

The importance of English in most facets of life in Nigeria has made it imperative for
anyone with pretensions to advancement in society to be proficient in it. It is the
language used in formal situations, in services, in schools, for commerce at a higher
level, in our law courts and in the majority of items in the mass media. English is the
most prevalent language used in movies and TV series around the world. It is indeed the
language of journalism in most parts of the world because it is the language of
communication – sea, air, and even telecommunications. So also in Nigeria, other forces
that have aided the spread of English include the media. The English language is the
language of communication in Nigeria – Radio, Television, Telecoms, Print Media,
among others (Medubi, 1999). The fact that any media practitioner or newspaper which
aims at national coverage must necessarily publish in English is a better confirmation of
the important role the English language is playing in our country. In the words of Banjo
(1996: 69):

No African country is better served with English medium Newspapers than Nigeria, and
the scene has been further enriched in recent years by profusion in manner of
periodicals spanning the whole range from the basilectal to the acrolectal.

Academic American Encyclopedia (1989: 171) gives a broad description of newspaper as

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“an unbound publication issued at regular intervals that seeks to inform, analyse,
influence and entertain”. Babalola (2002: 406) also posits that another important role
of the newspaper in Nigeria is that of serving as a “catalyst to literacy development.”
Hynds (1975) provides nine criteria for classifying newspapers. Some of these are

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frequency of publication (a newspaper can be published at various intervals but usually
appears weekly or daily); time of publication; purpose; circulation; geography; method
of publication; and intended audience, among others.

Cheyney (1992) describes newspaper as “the textbook that provides up-to-date

information on local, state/provincial national, and world affairs; the most current
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analysis and criticism on executive and legislative decision-making; the latest in music,
theatre, television, and the fine arts and even columns and comics to make people
laugh” (cited in Babalola, 2002: 403). He states further that newspapers are among the
most accessible texts available to the vast majority of people including literate,
semi-literate, young and old, students, workers, elites and peasants in a community;
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because every category of reader stated above can find something they need in the
newspaper’s pages.

Nigerian newspapers can be categorised into two broad groups. The first group
comprises of daily newspapers. Examples are Nigerian Tribune, The Punch, The
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Guardian, The National Compass, The Daily Independent, The Mirror, The Observer,
Niger Delta Standard, The Herald, The New Nigerian, among others. There are other
publications within this group which are specifically published and released on
weekends – early mornings or evenings. Examples of such titles are Sunday Tribune,
The Sunday Punch, The Sunday Guardian, The Herald on Sunday, AM and PM News,
The second group comprises magazines, which are published weekly, bi-weekly or
monthly. There are two types of magazines in Nigeria. First, these are the magazines
that are devoted to investigative journalism. Examples are The News, Tell, Insider,
Newswatch, among others. The other types are called soft-sell magazines, which are
basically concerned with entertainment, celebrities, gossips, fashion and the like.
Examples are Hints, Ovation, Prime People, Genevieve, National Encomiums, Hearts,
Complete Fashion, among others. These newspapers including the few ones published
in indigenous Nigerian Languages which complement the ones in the two groups in
news reporting are good instruments to promote literacy and enlightenment
(Aderinwale, 2009; Babalola, 2002).

The mass media can be categorised under the print and the broadcast media, the latter
can further be divided into radio and television. The print media in Nigeria came into
existence as far back as the nineteen century, when Lagos Times and Weekly Records

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among other newspapers which were published only in English (Aderinwale, 2009;
Awonusi, 2004b; Babalola, 2002). However, a few local newspapers, for example, Iwe
Iroyin Yoruba (published in 1859) in Abeokuta, which sprang up towards the close of
the century, challenged the supremacy of the English language as the sole language of

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the print media. In Nigeria today, the picture is not radically different because
newspapers are still published mainly in English with only a few in Nigerian languages.
According to Awonusi (2004b: 78&79):

About 80% of the newspapers produced in Nigeria use English as their medium. In
addition, magazines using the same medium, began to flourish from the beginning of
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the 80s, with serious magazines like The New Times, African Concord, African
Guardian, Newsweek, This Week’ , among others publishing in English and Pidgin.

Awonusi (ibid: 79) posits further that” the use of English in the Nigerian print media
encouraged the development of characteristics which today mark off the variety we now
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call “Nigerian English”. Thus, the Nigerian media, just like the book industry, has been
an agent for the emergence of this variety. This is as a result of the fact that Nigerian
Television Authority stations primarily use English as the language of operation. News is
read in English and so are the drama presentations, children’s programmes, features,
documentaries, among others. However, some stations now devote time slots to the use
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of local languages and Pidgin. Such programmes constitute only 35% of air time, thus
giving English about 60%. This analysis excludes the period spent on educational
television which employs English as the medium of instruction about 90% of the time
(Awonusi, 2004b: 79).

English is the regular language of the radio in Nigeria. In the national network division,
Radio Nigeria broadcasts mainly in English and the Nigerian Languages. Also, network
news is usually broadcast in English. Other programmes like news analysis, editorial
reviewers, and world sports, among others, are aired in English. Apart from national
radio stations, each state has its own FM station in addition to a few private ones.
McQuail (1980:3 – 11) sees the premium placed on television viewing as a reflection of
the indispensability of mass media use to daily living in modern life. He links the
significance of the media with their role as mediators of mass communication process.

THE LANGUAGE OF RELIGION

The term ‘religious language’ refers to statements or claims made about God or gods. A
typical philosophical problem is here – if God is infinite, then words used to describe
finite creatures might not adequately describe God. Religions use linguistic and
non-linguistic codes of meaning to express their contents – natural tongues, music,
sculpture, poetry, rituals, practices, etc. religions also provide the sematic context and
the rules to produce, validate, and interpret their expressions

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Religion ideally serves several functions. It gives meaning and purpose to life, reinforces
social unity and stability, serves as an agent of social control, promotes psychological
and physical well being and may motivate people to work for possible social change.

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In most religions, it is believed that language is a God-given gift to human species. In
Christianity, God gave Adam the kingdom of all animals in the Garden of Eden and the
first thing Adam did was name these animals. According to religious sources, that is how
language started
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Language of religion is a register of language used in the domain of religion and
primarily aims at identifying those structures and functions of religious language
(lexicon, syntax, phonology, morphology, prosody, etc.), which differentiate it from its
non-religious counterpart. The use of symbols, similes, metaphors, allusion, hyperboles,
paradox, etc. is found in language of religion. This means that language of religion is
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figurative language in which we notice the use of figures of speech.

What are the different types of religious language?

Traditional terms to describe the forms of religious are – prayers, praise, petitions,
thanks, confessions and exhortation.
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