2.

Overview of the Wind Load Provisions of the ASCE

7-16 Standard
2.1. Building Risk Categories
Building design methods for wind and other loads, such as snow and earthquake loads, are generally based on a building
classification given in the structural design section of the International Building Code (IBC). In this classification, building types
are divided based on their "importance" which is connected to the "nature of occupancy." In the past, the categories were
referred to as Building Occupancy Categories. In the 2015 edition of the IBC,1 these categories are called Risk Categories. The
principle of design is simple; certain types of buildings are considered more "important" than other types, and are therefore
generally designed to be stronger using larger design loads. This is understandable because some buildings are, for instance,
essential facilities that must continue to function in a case of emergency, such as fire stations, police stations, or hospitals with
emergency services.

Table 2.1 shows the various risk categories of buildings and other structures.

Table 2.1 Risk Categories of Buildings and Other Structures—2015 International Building Code*

Risk Nature of Occupancy

Category

I Buildings and other structures that represent a low hazard to human life in the event of failure, including but not limited to:

Agricultural facilities.

Certain temporary facilities.

Minor storage facilities.

II Buildings and other structures except those listed in Risk Categories I, III, and IV.

III Buildings and other structures that represent a substantial hazard to human life in the event of failure, including but not limited to:

Buildings and other structures whose primary occupancy is public assembly with an occupant load greater than 300.

Buildings and other structures containing Group E occupancies with an occupant load greater than 250.

Buildings and other structures containing educational occupancies for students above the 12th grade with an occupant load
greater than 500.

Group 1–2 occupancies with an occupant load of 50 or more resident care recipients but not having surgery or emergency
treatment facilities.

Group 1–3 occupancies.

Any other occupancy with an occupant load greater than 5000. a

Power-generating stations, water treatment facilities for potable water, wastewater treatment facilities, and other public utility
facilities not included in Risk Category IV.

Buildings and other structures not included in Risk Category IV containing quantities of toxic or explosive materials that:

Exceed maximum allowable quantities per control area as given in Table 307.1(1) or 307.1(2) or per outdoor control area in
accordance with the International Fire Code; and

Are sufficient to pose a threat to the public if released. b

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 Risk Nature of Occupancy
Category

IV Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities, including but not limited to:

Group 1–2 occupancies having surgery or emergency treatment facilities.

Fire, rescue, ambulance and police stations, and emergency vehicle garages.

Designated earthquake, hurricane, or other emergency shelters.

Designated emergency preparedness, communications and operations centers, and other facilities required for emergency
response.

Power-generating stations and other public utility facilities required as emergency backup facilities for Risk Category IV
structures.

Buildings and other structures containing quantities of highly toxic materials that:

Exceed maximum allowable quantities per control area as given in Table 307.1(2) or per outdoor control area in accordance
with the International Fire Code; and

Are sufficient to pose a threat to the public if released. b

Aviation control towers, air traffic control centers, and emergency aircraft hangars.

Buildings and other structures having critical national defense functions.

Water storage facilities and pump structures required to maintain water pressure for fire suppression.

2.2. Introduction to the ASCE/SEI 7 Standard

As mentioned in the previous chapter, buildings in the United States are designed according to the IBC. The current edition of
the code is the 2015 one. The structural design chapter and the wind load provisions of the IBC are largely based on a standard
published by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and its Structural Engineering Institute (SEI). The standard is
known as the ASCE/SEI 7 standard titled Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. In the latest edition of this
standard, the ASCE/SEI 7-16, the title was slightly changed to Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and
Other Structures.2 In this book we will simply refer to it as the ASCE 7 standard. This standard is generally reviewed every five
years. The most recent version from 2015 was actually published in 2017 and it is referred to as the ASCE/SEI 7-16. The
previous edition, the ASCE 7-10, came out in 2010. Chapters 26 to 31 of the ASCE 7 standard deal with the wind provisions and
wind design procedures of buildings and other structures.

2.3. Overview of Wind Design Procedures of the ASCE 7

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2.3. Overview of Wind Design Procedures of the ASCE 7
Standard
According to the ASCE 7 standard, the design of a building for wind forces consists generally of two parts. One part deals with
the design of the Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS). A second part deals with the design of Components and
Cladding (C&C). MWFRS is the structural system of the building that supports the structure. C&C are the envelope elements of
the building that are not part of the main structural system.

For the design of the MWFRS, there are different procedures that can be used, depending on the building type and height and on
the criteria met by that building. In general, procedures used are summarized as follows:

1. Buildings of all heights are designed using the "Directional Procedure," if they meet the criteria as outlined in the standard.

2. Low-rise buildings are designed according to the "Envelope Procedure," if they meet the special criteria of the standard.

3. Building appurtenances and special structures such as rooftop equipment, signs, chimneys, and so forth are designed using
the "Directional Procedure for Building Appurtenances."

4. Other buildings and structures such as tall buildings and highly eccentric structures are designed using the Wind Tunnel
Procedure. In this procedure, reduced-scale models of the structure are tested in a wind tunnel laboratory.

Chapters 27, 28, 29, and 31 of the ASCE 7-16 standard deal with the design of the MWFRS. Some of these procedures are
explained in greater detail in later chapters of this book.

For the design of C&C, the above-mentioned methods can be used according to Chaps. 30 and 31 of the ASCE 7 standard.

Chapter 31 of the ASCE 7 relates to the wind tunnel procedure for any building or other structure.

2.4. Open, Partially Enclosed, and Enclosed Buildings

The ASCE 7 standard classifies buildings as open, enclosed, or partially enclosed as follows:

1. A building is classified as open if each wall is at least 80% open.

2. A building is classified as partially enclosed if it meets the following conditions:

a. The total area of openings in a wall that receives a positive pressure is larger than 4 ft2 (0.37 m2 ), or 1% of that wall's
area, whichever is smaller, and the percentage of openings in the building envelope does not exceed 20%.

b. If the total area of openings in a wall that receives a positive pressure exceeds the sum of areas of all openings in the
building by 10%.

3. A building is classified as enclosed if it is not considered open or partially enclosed.

2.5. Low-Rise Buildings

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2.5. Low-Rise Buildings
The ASCE 7 standard defines a low-rise building as a building with a mean roof height (h) that does not exceed 60 ft (18 m), and
does not exceed the least lateral dimension of the building as well.

The mean roof height has a specific definition in the ASCE 7 standard. For buildings with roof slopes not exceeding 10 degrees,
this height can be considered the mean eave height. Otherwise, this height should be the average of the roof eave height and the
height to the highest roof point.

The roof eave height is generally the average height from the ground near the building to the roof eave line.

2.6. Flexible and Rigid Buildings and Structures

As indicated earlier, the ASCE 7 standard classifies buildings and structures as flexible if they are slender with a fundamental
natural frequency of less than 1 Hz. Buildings and structures that have a fundamental natural frequency greater or equal to 1 Hz
are classified as rigid.

2.7. Diaphragms and Simple-Diaphragm Buildings

A diaphragm is generally a roof or a floor system that satisfies certain requirements, and that has the function of transferring
lateral loads, such as wind or seismic loads, to vertical structural elements in a building, which, in turn, will transfer these loads
to the foundation.

Diaphragms are typically classified as rigid or flexible. For wind load analysis, the ASCE 7 standard allows the classification of
diaphragms as rigid in the case of unfilled and concrete-filled steel decks and concrete slabs that have a span-to-depth ratio of
2 or less. It also allows diaphragms constructed using wood structural panels to be considered flexible.

A simple-diaphragm building is defined by the ASCE 7 standard as a building in which both windward and leeward wind loads
are transferred by roof and vertically spanning wall assemblies through continuous roof and floor diaphragms to the MWFRS.

2.8. Wind Hazard Maps of the ASCE 7-16

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2.8. Wind Hazard Maps of the ASCE 7-16
As explained earlier in Chap. 1, the current IBC and the ASCE 7-16 standard provide wind hazard maps of the United States, with
basic wind velocity contour lines based on the 3-second gust speed at 33 ft (10 m) above the ground, for Exposure Category C,
and for various Risk Categories. The wind hazard map is used by designers to get the basic wind speed needed for the design
calculations. Wind speeds are given on the wind hazard maps in miles per hour (m/s).

The ASCE 7-16 provides four wind hazard maps to determine the basic wind speed (V). These maps are for:

Risk Category I buildings and structures

Risk Category II buildings and structures

Risk Category III and IV buildings and structures

Risk Category IV buildings and structures

The maps also show some crosshatched areas that are special wind regions. As mentioned in Chap. 1, in these regions, wind
conditions can be different from those indicated on the map, and the areas must be examined for unusual wind conditions.
Designers must use local wind data for these regions, and adjust the map wind values as necessary and possibly for higher
local wind speeds.

2.9. Mean Roof Height

The concept of mean roof height is used in wind pressure calculations as outlined in the ASCE 7-16 standard. The mean roof
height is referred to using the symbol h. It is defined by the ASCE 7 standard as the average of the roof eave height and the
height to the highest point on the roof. For roof angles of less than or equal to 10 degrees, the ASCE 7 standard allows the use
of the roof eave height as the mean roof height.

2.10. References
1. 2015 IBC, International Building Code, International Code Council, Inc., 2014.

2. Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures ASCE/SEI 7-16, American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE), 2017.

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