Communication Meaning

Communication is defined as “the process of passing information and

understanding from one person to another, it is essentially a bridge of
meaning between people” All communication is essentially sharing of
information or some message. Communication is the most important of
our social activities.

Three Simple Definitions

● Communication means sharing of information
● Communication is the giving and receiving of messages
● Communication is the transfer of information from one or more
people to one or more other people

The term communication is derived from the latin word “communis” or

“communicare” meaning "to share" or "to be in relation with")
• Thus communication means to make common facts, information,
thoughts and requirements.
• Communication, therefore, is the exchange of thoughts, message,
information etc. by way of speech, signal or in writing.
• Communication is a two-way process and works well with feedback, this
helps to confirm that the intended message has been successful.
'Communis' and communicare' are two Latin words related to the word
communication. Communis is a noun word, which means common,
communiality or sharing. Similarly, communicare is a verb, which
means 'make something common'.

Process Of Communication

Communication is effective when a concise and clear message is

delivered well, received successfully and understood fully. The process
of communication has the following distinct components:

Feedback is the response or message that the recipient (decoder)

returns to the sender (encoder).
● The sender has an idea
● Sender encodes the idea
● The sender transmits the message through a medium
● The receiver gets the message
● The receiver decodes the message
● Receiver sends feedback

Feedback in the communication process is the response that gives us

some indication of how effectively we communicate. It is the gauge of
efficiency in communication

Concept of Kinesics
● Kinesics is a major form of non-verbal communication.
● It is defined as „the study of non-linguistic body movements, such as
facial expressions and gestures‟.
● Kinesics is the interpretation of body language, such as facial
expressions and gestures or, more formally, non-verbal behaviour
 related to body movement, either any part of the body or the body as
a whole.
● According to Mehrabian, „Words account for 7%, Tone of voice
accounts for 38%, and our Body Language accounts for 55% of
communication‟.
● This has become the 7/38/55 rule.
● They are abbreviated as the 3 V‟s, i.e., Verbal, Vocal and Visual.
● Thus, in practice, it is always a mix of verbal as well as non-verbal
communication.

Classification On The Basis Of Relationship Element

Intrapersonal communication
1. It is communication within an individual almost all the time, including
talking to oneself, listening to oneself and relating one to oneself.
2. It includes individual reflection, meditation, contemplation and even
praying to God.
3. We conceptualise and formulate our thoughts or ideas before we
actually indulge in overt communication. Muttering ‗Oh My God‘, ‗Oh
No‘ (when in trouble), ‗Wow‘ and ‗Thank God‘ are few common
examples of intrapersonal communication.

Interpersonal Communication
1. It is also termed as dyadic communication.
2. It is a universal form of face-to-face routine communication between
two people, both sending and receiving messages.
3. It may be formal or informal, verbal or non-verbal.
4. It takes place anywhere by means of words, sounds, facial expression,
gestures and postures.
5. It is an effective communication situation because you can get
immediate feedback.

Group Communication
● Group communication situations are quite common in day-to-day
life.
● Our educational background, profession, economic status, religious
affiliation, etc., distinguish us and make us belong to one or more
groups at the same time.
● A group is a number of people that has a common goal, interact with
one another to attain the goal, recognize one another‘s existence, and
see themselves as part of the group.
Mass Media/Communication
a) It is also termed as ‗mediated communication‘.
b) It is a special kind of communication with mass audiences and hence,
the name mass communication.
c) Channels for mass communication are termed as mass media.
d) It uses mechanical devices that multiply messages and convey
information to a large number of people simultaneously.
e) Examples of mass media include radio, TV, newspapers, magazines and
films (both electronic and print media).
f) The audience is large and heterogeneous: Radio and television is
assumed to have a larger audience in comparison to newspapers.
g) The source is an institution or a group of people: For example, the
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, is
engaged in broadcasting television and radio programmes all over the
country.

Communication Types On The Basis Of Channel

1)Verbal communication
2)Non-verbal communication
Verbal Communication:
– It means communicating with words, written or spoken. Verbal
communication consists of speaking, listening, writing, reading, and
thinking. It may further be classified as Oral or Written Communication

Non-verbal communication:
– It includes using of pictures, signs, gestures, and facial expressions for
exchanging information between persons.
– It is done through sign language, action language, or object language.
– Non-verbal communication flows through all acts of speaking or writing.
– It is a wordless message conveyed through gestures (sign), movements
(action language), and object language (pictures/clothes) and so on.
– Further non-verbal communication can be identified by personal space
(proxemics), sense of smell (olfactics) and time (chronemics).
Meta Communication-
● Here the speaker‘s choice of words unintentionally communicates
something more than what the actual words state.
● For example, a flattering remark like ―I‘ve never seen you so
smartly dressed‖ could also mean that the regular attire of the listener
needed improvement.
● Psychologists define metacommunication as the sum of your verbal
and non-verbal communication. For example, if you say ―Glad to
see you‖ to someone and roll your eyes at the same time, they will
not feel that you are actually glad to see them

Classification Based On Purpose And Style

Formal Communication
● In formal communication, certain rules, regulations, conventions and
protocols are followed while formulating and communicating
messages.
● It follows an organisational structure.
● It can be upwards or downwards across hierarchy or authority lines.
● In formal communication, the use of right language and correct
pronunciation is required.
● For example, in case an Assistant Professor has to communicate
with College Principal, it is usually through the Head of Department
(HoD).
Informal Communication
● Informal communication channels exist along with formal
communication channels in any organisation.
● It mainly addresses the social needs of the employees.
● It is interpersonal and mainly face-to-face and with use of body
gestures.
● It happens among friends and family.
● In informal communication, there are no formal rules and
regulations for communication.
● A lot of distortion or filtering may take place in informal
communication and it is termed as grapevine.

Classification On The Basis Of Direction

Vertical Communication
1. This is basically formal communication.
2. This can be upwards (bottom up) and downwards (top bottom).

Lateral Or Horizontal Communication

1. Communication with people at the same level in hierarchy that are peers
and colleagues is termed as lateral communication.
2. This may combine both formal and informal communications. This is
the most effective communication, as it is generally not stalled by a chain
of command methods. This can help in building teams in an organisation.
3. The amount of horizontal communication depends upon the
interdependence of different departments.

Diagonal Communication
1. Diagonal communication is effective as hierarchical bindings are
removed and there is a free flow of information, cutting across positions or
status.
2. It facilitates in building relationships and bonding between the superior
and the subordinate.
Personal communication
Personal communications may be private letters, memos, emails,
personal interviews or telephone conversations. Personal
communications are only cited in text and are not included in the reference
list, as the information is unable to be retrieved by others.
Impersonal communication
● Impersonal communication is the opposite of personal
communication.
● In this type of communication you do not personally know the
person you are speaking to.
● You are not at all intimately familiar with the person on the opposite
side of the conversation.
● This type of conversation is probably with someone who you've just
met or someone who you will not meet again.
● An example of an impersonal conversation is asking someone on the
train what the next station is.

Mnemonics
● This is somewhat in a different context, mainly about learning and
recalling words, numbers, facts, etc.
● Mnemonics are memory devices that help learners recall larger
pieces of information, especially in the form of lists, like
characteristics, steps, stages, parts, phases, etc.
● A study conducted by Gerald R. Miller in 1967 found that
mnemonics increased recall.
● Mnemonics can even be used to recall words or remember numbers.
 ● For example, BRASS is an acronym for how to shoot a
rifle—Breath, Relax, Aim, Sight, Squeeze. They help in taking notes
also.

Adjacency Pairs
● One way in which meanings are communicated and interpreted in
conversation is through the use of what have been called adjacency
pairs.
● Adjacency pairs are utterances produced by two successive speakers
such that the second utterance is identified as related to the first as an
expected follow-up.
● The two form a pair, the first utterance constituting a first pair part
and the next utterance constituting a second pair part.
● Adjacency pair is described as the basic structural unit in
conversation, consider the following examples of adjacency pairs.
(a)Greeting-Greeting A: Hi B: Hi
(b) Compliment-Acceptance A: That‘s a nice cap. B: Thanks.

Characteristics Of Communication

1. It Involves at Least Two Persons:

● Communication involves at least two persons, a sender and a
receiver.
● The sender is called communicator and the receiver of the message
is known as communicate.
● A person who speaks, writes or issues some instructions is the
sender and the person for whom the communication is meant or who
receives the message is the receiver or communicates.
2. The message is a Must:
● A message is the subject matter of communication. e.g., the contents
of the letter or speech, order, instructions or suggestions.
● Communication must convey some message.
● If there is no message there is no communication.
3. Communication Maybe Written, Oral or Gestural:
● Communication is generally understood as spoken or written words.
But in reality, it is more than that.
● It includes everything that may be used to convey meanings from
one person to another, e.g., movement of lips or the wink of an eye
or the wave of hands may convey more meaning than even written
or spoken words.
4. Communication is a Two Way Process:
● It involves both information and understanding.
● Communication is not complete unless the receiver has understood
the message properly and his reaction or response is known to the
sender.
● Understanding is the end result of communication but it does not
imply agreement.
5. Its Primary Purpose is to Motivate a Response:
● The primary purpose of communication is to motivate response or
influence human behaviour.
● There is no doubt that motivation comes from within but
communicator can also motivate people by good drafting of the
message, proper timing of communication, etc.
● To create understanding, communication should be relevant to the
situation. It must always be remembered that communication is a
means of motivating and not an end itself.
6. Communication may be Formal or Informal:
● Formal communication follows the formal channels provided in the
organisation structure.
● For example, the Managing Director communicates with the
departmental heads, says Finance Manager, finance manager
communicates to the deputy finance manager, the deputy finance
manager with accounts officer and so on.
7. It Flows Up and Down and also from Side to Side:
● Communication flows downward from a superior to subordinate and
upward from subordinate to a superior.
● It also flows between two or more persons operating at the same
level of authority.
8. It is an Integral Part of the Process of Exchange:
It refers to the exchange of ideas, feelings, emotions and knowledge and
information between two or more persons.

Inter-cultural And Group Communications

Intercultural Communication –
• Intercultural communication refers to communication between people
from two different cultures.
• Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional,
contextual process, in which people from different cultures create shared
meanings.
• Intercultural communication refers to the effects on communication
behaviour when different cultures interact together.
• Hence, one way of viewing intercultural communication is as
communication that unfolds in symbolic intercultural spaces.

Group Communication
It can be among small or large groups, like an organisation, club or
classroom, in which all individuals retain their individual identity.

Mass Communication
It occurs when the message is sent to large groups of people, for example,
by newspaper, radio, or television. In this process, each person becomes a
faceless individual with almost no opportunity for personal response or
feedback.

Classroom Communication
In the classroom, the spoken word is the most effective medium of
communication because it enables the teacher to use voice inflection and
tone to underline and emphasise the meaning of the message.
Voice communication also enables the teacher to make use of direct
feedback from the students, so that the teacher can know what the students
are hearing and what they are failing to hear.

1) Listening:
● To improve your abilities as a classroom communicator, you must
first understand your students.
● In other words, seek not only to be understood but to understand.
● This can best be done by listening actively to what the students have
to say.
● Then you must cultivate the ability to think on your feet and form
accurate sentences while speaking.
● The guiding rule for effective classroom communication is: Know
your students and suit your expression to them.
2) Simplicity:
Simplicity is the best policy during classroom communication. Should
follow:
● Prefer words whose meanings are familiar to the students.
● Make special meanings of familiar words clear the first time you use
them.
● If you use a word likely to be unfamiliar to the students, define that
word.
A teacher needs to have:
a) A fairly accurate impression of the vocabulary of the students.
b) Accurate knowledge of the accepted meanings of words.
3) Proper Amount of Redundancy:
 ● Redundancy in communication roughly means the amount of
repetition a message contains.
● Teachers should ensure that they include an appropriate amount of
redundancy in their instructions to students.
● Then, if any phrase is misunderstood, other elements of the
communication will carry the point.
4) Feedback:
● The importance of paying attention to feedback in the classroom
cannot be over-emphasized.
● Two-way communication has the advantage of bringing from the
listener an immediate response which we call “feedback”.
● Often this is not verbal in nature, so the teacher should note facial
expressions, observe actions, and finally ask questions to see
whether the instruction has been understood.
● Do not assume that every “message” you send will be received by
the students in the form you intend.
● The teacher should also make use of feedback to adjust the pace of
the instruction to suit the students and repeat or explain any parts
indicated as confusing by feedback signals.
5) Empathy:
● Teachers who enjoy a good relationship with their students have
much less difficulty in communicating with them.
● If you can remember what it was like to be a student at the levels
you are teaching, and to understand their interests, it will be much
easier for you to communicate with your class.
● Take every opportunity that arises to convey something of help or
value to individual students.
● Let your students know that you enjoy teaching not only your
subject but also that particular class.
6) Timing:
● Time the giving of instructions so that the best conditions are
present.
● Do not talk over noise or permit students to call out or talk while you
are speaking.
 ● Do not overload the students but give sufficient information to
ensure adequate understanding.
7) Consistency of actions:
● It is poor communication to say one thing and to contradict it by
your actions.
● If a teacher is “sloppy” in setting out and writing on the blackboard,
that teacher can hardly expect his students to keep their exercise
books neat and tidy merely because he tells them to do so.
● A teacher’s actions are under constant scrutiny and criticism by
students.

Classroom Communication Process – Cole And Chan Model

According to Cole and Chan, a typical process of classroom
communication (and communication in general as well) includes the
following five distinct stages.
1. Formulation of message
2. Message encoding
3. Message transmission
4. Message decoding and interpretation
5. Feedback and evaluation

1. Formulation of message
● All communication starts with an idea or a message that is to be
transmitted to the target audience (individual) with a motive to get a
positive response.
● Communicator (sender or encoder) is the one who initiates the
communication process.
 ● A message is a set of verbal or non-verbal cues sent by a source.
2. Message Encoding
● The internal shaping, sorting and sifting of ideas for clarification and
organisation is called message formulation.
● Its purpose is to create a clear and meaningful message.
● Encoding involves converting an idea into a form that can be
transmitted to receivers
3. Message transmission
● It is a critical stage in the communication process and it answers
how a message is delivered.
● The sender selects an appropriate channel or mode of presentation.
● A ‘channel’ is the vehicle or means through which a message or
stimulus is carried from the communicator to the receiver.
● There are various options available as channels, like written, spoken,
verbal, non-verbal, mass media, etc.
4.Message decoding and interpretation
● Decoding is interpretation of the message by the receiver.
● Actually, the receiver looks for meaning in the message that is
common to both the receiver and the communicator
5. Feedback
● Feedback is the response or acknowledgement of the receiver to the
communicator’s message.
● The exchange is possible only if the receiver responds.
● It involves the receiver reacting to the transmitted messages and
conveying the response to the sender.
6. Noise
● Noise is an interruption that can creep in at any point of time in the
communication process and make it ineffective.
● Environment is one major cause that interferes with message
reception like noises from the roadside, constant chattering of
individuals, blaring loudspeaker, faulty transmission, etc

1. Physiological noise: It is the distraction caused by hunger, fatigue,

headache, medication, etc.
2. Physical noise: It is the most direct form of interference in our physical
environment, for example, traffic horns and poor lighting.
3. Psychological noise: It refers to the qualities in us that affect how we
communicate and interpret others. For instance, if a manager is
preoccupied with a very intense problem, then he/she may be inattentive in
the meeting
4. Semantic noise: It occurs when words themselves are not mutually
understood. Authors sometimes create semantic noise by using jargon or
avoidable technical language.

Principles Of Effective Classroom Communication

Effectiveness of classroom communication depends on five major factors,
namely
1) teacher,
2) student,
3) message,
4) instructional methods and media, and
5) Learning environment.

The principles of effective classroom communication.

1. Principles for teachers.
2. Principles for message design.
3. Principles for selection of instructional methods and media.
4. Principles for creating conducive learning environment

PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHERS

1) Develop a realistic self-concept and a perception about
surroundings: This requires analysis of one’s strengths and weaknesses,
acceptance of the reality and efforts to realise one’s potential.
2) Develop proficiency in the subject matter: Desire to acquire
knowledge is a must for the teacher. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi,
‘Live as if you were to die tomorrow Learn as if you were to live
forever’.
3) Understand the learners:
4) Develop effective communication skills (both verbal and
non-verbal):
5) Knowledge about pedagogy and andragogy
6) Adopt a flexible approach: This helps in modifying instructions as per
the needs of the students.
7) Being objective and unbiased.

PRINCIPLES FOR MESSAGE DESIGN

The message should have the following characteristics:
1. Clear and specific objectives: Objectives should satisfy the criterion of
being SMART.
(a) Specific
(b) Measurable
(c) Achievable
(d) Realistic
(e) Time frame

2. Contents should be relevant to cover all the objectives.

3. Properly sequenced.
(a) Simple to complex
(b) Easy to difficult
(c) Concrete to abstract
(d) Known to unknown
(e) Observation to reasoning
4. Use language comprehensible to the learners
5. Use appropriate symbols
6. Include relevant exercises
7. Make generous use of examples and non examples.

PRINCIPLES FOR SELECTION OF INSTRUCTIONAL

METHODS AND MEDIA
1) Select relevant and appropriate methods and media:
2) Use variety of methods and media
3) Use good quality media: The quality of media in terms of its visibility,
legibility, finish, colours and printing should be judged before its use.
4) Integrate media in teaching–learning: Media should not be used in
isolation.
For example, if a video film is being used at the end of a lesson to
reinforce what has been taught in the class, then it should either be
followed by a discussion or some quick assessment of students’
understanding.

Principles For Creating Conducive Learning Environment

1) Classes should not be overcrowded
2) Ensure proper seating arrangement in the class
3) Build rapport with the students
4) courage cooperation and healthy competition among students: This
can be achieved by assigning group activities and pairing
5) Feedback mechanism: It should work both ways.
6) Encourage experimentation:
7) Provide reinforcement: A teacher should reinforce the desired
communication behaviour of learners through praise, appreciation,
rewards, social recognition, etc.
8) Provide non-threatening environment

PARAPHRASING
1) Is a skill that is absolutely necessary for good listening.
2) It means stating in your own words, your understanding of what has just
been said. “ Putting Something in your own words”
3) It gives the speaker the opportunity to find out what message he/she is
getting across to you.
4) He/she can then make any corrections needed.
5) To begin paraphrasing, you might start by saying, ‘What I hear you
saying is ....’ or ‘It sounds like ....’ or ‘Let me see if I’m understanding you
....’ easily.
6) It helps to remember what was said frequently.
Advantages of Paraphrasing
1. It helps the students know that they are understood by the instructor.
2. It prevents misunderstandings from occurring.
3. It helps to avoid impulsive or angry reactions.
4. It will prevent you from getting distracted

Some Important Terms

1. Synchronous media: A communications medium that requires that
both parties are present at the same time in the same space (for
example: face-to-face or telephone)
Media that takes place in real time, such as live television or radio and that
requires the audience to be present when the media is being broadcasted or
performed is called synchronous media.
2. Asynchronous media: Media that does not require the audience to
assemble at a given time in order to use it is called asynchronous media.
Examples of asynchronous media are printed materials or recorded audio
or video.

3. Time shift:
 ● The recording of an audio or video event, usually by the audience, to
be watched later at a time other than when it was originally
broadcasted is called time shift.
● Time shifting is the recording of programming to a storage medium
to be viewed or listened to after the live broadcasting.
● Typically, this refers to TV programming but it can also refer to
radio shows via podcasts
● Setting a VCR to record a favourite program is an example of
time-shifting.
4. Surveillance: Primarily the function of mass communication is to
provide information about the processes, issues, events and other
developments in the society.
5. Convergence:
● Convergence is when two or more things come together to form a
new whole.
● It is the combination of computing, telecommunications and media
in a digital environment.
● Convergence and the changes that it is bringing are fundamentally
changing many aspects of mass media and communication.
For example, rather than carrying separate devices – like a cell phone,
camera and digital organizer – each technology converges on a single
device, or smartphone

Communication Networks
Communication network shows all communication patterns or
relationships that may exist in the organization.
1. Chain network: It follows a formal chain of command, as is the case
with a typical bureaucratic organization. Here, members communicate
with each other in a pre-planned sequence.
Characteristics of Chain Network:
(i) Equal to the Y network.
(ii) Follow the process of the formal channel of authority.
(iii) Step-by-step process
2. Wheel network: It is also known as ‘STAR’ network. Here,
information flows from one central 4 member of the group to the rest of
the members. Other group members may not have to communicate with
each other to perform well and all communication is channelized through
the supervisor.
For examples, one-to-one interactions of Heads of Departments (HoDs)
with the college Principal, but little or no interaction of HoDs among
themselves. It is not very effective in teams.

Characteristics of Wheel Network:

(i) Information passes only from authority.
(ii) Less chance of misunderstanding.
(iii) Follow the process of goal-oriented approach

3. Circle network: Here, members communicate informally with

adjoining members generally on the basis of shared experiences, beliefs,
areas of expertise, background, or office location. It may have a formal
leader as well, but interaction is still lateral. It works in an autonomous
team.
Characteristics of Circle Network:
(i) Equal to the chain network.
(ii) In this channel, a person can talk to two people at the same time.

4. All-channel network: An all-channel network is found in teams. Both

the intensity and frequency of interaction is high among members.
Information flows in all directions. There is no formal leader and
communication may be started by any member
Characteristics of Star Network:
(i) Only important information flows through this path.
(ii) It reduces the chances of miscommunication.
(iii) Superior control the activities of subordinates through effective
communication networks.

5. Y network: the flow of communication resembles an upside down Y;

information flows upward and downward through the hierarchy, widening
to encompass the number of employees reporting to a supervisor.
Characteristics of the Y network:
(i) Sequential in nature.
(ii) Centralization process.
(iii) Flexible in nature

Barriers To Effective Communication

1. Organizational Barriers
These barriers develop when an organization evolves. They can be
attributed to the following conditions:
1. Size of organisation.
2. Physical distance between employees.
3. Specialisation of jobs and activities.
4. Organisational culture—it impacts freedom and trust.
5. Organisational rules and regulations.
6. Power structure in the organisation.
7. Complexity in organisational structure.
8. Inadequate facilities and opportunities.
9. Lack of cooperation between seniors and subordinate.

2. Physical Barriers
● The geographic distance between the sender and receiver(s) can be
taken as the most pertinent example of physical barrier in
communication.
● Communication is generally easier over shorter distances as more
communication channels are available and less or no technology is
required.
● The ideal communication is face-to-face.
There are four kinds of physical barriers and they are explained as
follows.
1. Competing stimulus: There can be some other conversation going on
in the surrounding area, traffic noise in the background and so on.
2. Environmental stress: High temperature, poor ventilation and so on.
3. Subjective stress: Sleeplessness, ill health, effects of drugs, mood
variations and so on.
4. Receiver’s unfamiliarity with medium: The use of medium with
which the recipient is unfamiliar is also a communication barrier.

3. Psychological Barriers
1. Frame of reference: Each person has a frame of reference, a kind of a
window to view the world, people, events and situations. A frame of
reference is shaped by our cultural environment (norms, values, and
beliefs), childhood experiences and heredity.
2. Self-image: Self-image or self-concept is closely related to frame of
reference. People establish their point of view and interpret messages in
accordance with their self-concepts. They respond favourably to those
messages that reinforce their self-concept and reject those messages that
are perceived to be threatening self image.
3. Stereotyping: It perhaps emerges from ego, it becomes a barrier to
communication when people act as if they already know the message that
is coming from the sender or worse, as if no message is necessary because
everybody already known. But senders and listeners should continuously
look for and address thinking, conclusions and actions based on
stereotypes.
4. Field of experience: This barrier occurs when the field of experience is
not common to both the sender and the receiver. If a teacher is teaching
Einstein’s equation to commerce students, he/she will not get any response
but if it is taught to science students, his/her communication is likely to be
more effective.
5. Cognitive dissonance: Cognitive means thinking and dissonance means
conflict. Thus, it means conflict in thinking. Although a smoker accepts
the truthfulness of drug de-addiction in advertisement messages by the
Department of Social Welfare, he is not able to react favourably.
6. Defensiveness and fear: This is closely related to the desire to maintain
status quo and a person always justifies his/her viewpoint or idea. Along
with the feelings of nervousness, anxiety and tension, fear is the most
restricting of all effects, resulting in narrow thinking, which selects and
distorts communication. However, a little fear and anxiety can be turned
into a source of energy and enhance confidence as it motivates you to
perform better.
7. Selective perception: It is also characterised as ‘I-know-it syndrome’. If
somebody says, ‘It is a waste of time’, is also exhibiting selective
perception when one does not apply full mind to the communication
situation.
8. Filtering: A sender’s manipulation of information can be seen as more
favourable by the receiver.

4. Linguistic And Cultural Barriers

Linguistic And Cultural Barriers Language, both verbal or non-verbal,
makes use of words. Words are mere symbols. Symbols can be
comprehended differently by participants in communication. The
communication message might not use vocabulary that is understood by
the receiver. For example, excessive use of technical, financial, medical or
psychological terms and jargon.
1. Semantic barriers: Semantic barriers occur when there is disagreement
about the words being used, which is based on individuals being from
different cultures. Thus, disallowing the parties involved to determine a
common meaning of the words used. This frequently occurs when the
parties involved speak different languages.
2. High-context and low-context cultures:
● High context culture is the culture that relies heavily on non-verbal
and subtle situational cues to communicate.
● A lot of things are left unsaid, but it is already understood by the
members that constitute the group. Asiatic societies such as India,
Saudi Arabia and Japan are prominent examples of high-context
culture.
● Low-context culture relies heavily on words to convey meanings in a
communication.
● A few words can communicate a complex message very effectively
to an ingroup (in-group is one’s own culture) but less effectively
outside that group.
● In a lower context culture, the communicator needs to be much more
explicit. Western societies are usually low-context societies.
3. Cross-cultural communication: Cross-cultural communication is a
field of study that analyses how people from varying cultural contexts
communicate in similar ways and also in different ways among
themselves. How do they endeavour to communicate across cultures?

5. Mechanical Barriers
• Mechanical barriers can exist in both interpersonal or mass
communication. There can be difficulty in reception or some elements of
the message may not reach the destination or both.
• It can be in the form of absence of communication facilities.
• Channel noise is a technical term used for such mechanical barriers that
includes any disturbance in physical transmission of a message.
Some examples of mechanical barriers are disturbances in radio
transmissions, blurriness on TV screens, spreading of ink on a newspaper,
inaudibility in telephone devices, a barely readable point size or any kind
of improper functioning of a device. They can also be associated with
cultural or social issues, language, customs, beliefs, motives or simply
illiteracy..
1. Language: The same message can be interpreted differently by
different people. Several factors affect how an individual attributes
meaning to particular words.
2. Perceptual biases: It prevents us to look at reality in a truthful manner.
The most common perceptual biases are stereotyping, projection and self
fulfilling prophecies. Stereotyping comes into play when we assume that a
person belonging to a certain group will display specific characteristics.
However, the person may not actually exhibit those characteristics. This is
specifically true in the case of traditional societies.
3. Impersonal relationships: Our perception is also based on the past
experiences with the communicator. The same communication from the
highest authority may be perceived differently than that from a subordinate
or a colleague.
4. Cultural differences: Effective communication requires deciphering
the basic motives, values, assumptions and aspirations that operate across
different cultures

Conceptual Filters
• An individual’s particular psychological characteristics are basically
termed as Conceptual Filters.
• They can also put a limit on the encoding process of an individual.
• Communication skills, knowledge of the topic, and personality factors
such as attitudes, values, interests, and motivational needs are some of the
traits or mental conditions that combine to limit, screen or filter what is
encoded.
• They also add to the quality of the message.

Overcoming Barriers Of Communication

To make communication more effective, Supervisors/ Managers must try
to attempt to remove the barriers.
1. Regulate the flow of information.
2. Feedback: Acknowledgment of message.
3. Human resources should use simple language.
4. Level of knowledge: It is always advantageous to speak in the
subordinate’s language (level of knowledge, his educational qualification
and fluency of language of the receiver). It is best to communicate in the
mother tongue of a subordinate.
5. Listen carefully: Hearing is passive, whereas listening is an active and
intellectual process. While listening, one should stop talking, should be
patient, hold his temper, ask questions, remove distractions, and should
immensely concentrate on what the speaker is saying.
6. Control emotions: Emotion can be in any form, like anger, disgust and
upset. Emotions severely cloud and distort the meaning. The best thing is
to defer or postpone further communication until calmness and coolness is
established.
7. Watch for non-verbal cues or body language: In case of oral
communication, the sender should observe the actions of the receiver and
find whether they go along with the understanding. A supervisor should
watch the non-verbal cues or body language carefully.

Mass-media And Society

• Almost everyone gets his or her information about the world, national
and local affairs from the mass media.
• This fact gives both print and broadcast journalism important functions
that include influencing public opinion, determining the political agenda,
providing a link between the government and the people, acting as a
government watchdog and affecting socialisation.

Mass media makes an impact in the following forms:

1. Creating public opinion.
2. Setting up of political agenda: The term political agenda is broader in
scope than the term public opinion.
3. Mass media sets a link between the government and people.
4. Mass media works as a government watchdog.
5. Mass media has become an agency of socialisation as well.
Communication can also be categorized on the basis of involvement of
parties, such as intrapersonal (reading a newspaper, meditation,
introspection), interpersonal (conversation with a colleague) and
apersonal (use of mass media, publicity, advertisement).

Mass Media Model

A communication model called the „Attention-gaining Model” or
“Attention Model”. It is essential communicative activity of mass media
to attract and keep attention.

Communication has three models –

1) Transmission,
2) Expression/Ritual and
3) Attention-gaining.

1. The Transmission model is mostly linked with institutional contexts

such as education, religion and government. It is, however, not relevant
to most media activity.
2. The ritual model shares some elements with the transmission model,
but emphasises more on external interpretation by observers than the
stated purpose of receivers and senders.
3. The attention gaining model comes closest to the main media goal of
attracting audiences.
● Audiences view the media as escapist and diversionary. Thus it is in
conflict with the above two models.
● Media culture and practice have a lot to do with the attention holding
goal.
● Attention is measurable in the time allotted and the intensity of
involvement with the type of content.
● Attention-display forms and associations are associated with the
service mode.
● The mass communication market is mainly concerned with attention
more than anything else.
 ● This is what sells the medium to the advertisers

Models Of Communication
1. General Communication Model
2. Schramm Communication Model
3. Intermediary Model of Communication
4. Shannon-weaver Information Model
5. helical model of communication
6. Berlo's model of communication / S-M-C-R Model
7. Transmission/Linear model
8. Interactive model of communication
9. Transactional model of communication
10. Harold Lasswell

1. General Communication Model

 The Aristotle Model of Communication includes three communication
elements, such as the speaker, subject and audience. According to him,
persuasion was a result of the influence that a speaker makes, he used
„discovery of the available means of persuasion‟ for defining the whole art
of persuasive communication.

● According to Aristotle, the speaker plays an important role in Public

speaking.
● The speaker must prepare his speech and analyze the audience's
needs before he enters the stage.
● His words should influence the audience's mind and persuade their
thoughts towards him.
2. Schramm Communication Model Schramm (1954) talked about the
role of ‘Field of Experience’ (type of orientation or attitudes) in his
communication model.
• According to Schramm‟s model, whenever the information reaches the
recipient, it becomes his responsibility to give the feedback and let him
know if he has interpreted the message in exactly the manner the speaker
wanted.
• If he is not clear with anything or has any doubts, it must be cleared with
the speaker.
• Thus when the speaker conveys any message to the listener, the listener
decodes the message and once again passes the message to the speaker
after understanding it and completing the full circle.
•Thus encoding and decoding are two most important factors of an
effective communication without which information can never flow
between two individuals.
•Schramm‟s model also revolves around the above principle.
•According to the Schramm‟s model, coding and decoding are the two
essential processes of effective communication.
•He also emphasises that the communication is incomplete unless and
until the sender receives feedback from the recipient.
•Schramm believed that communication is actually a two way process
between the first party and the second party.

3. Intermediary Model of Communication

Katz‟s (1957) in his ‘Intermediary Model of Communication’ in
„speaker, gatekeeper and audience‟ talks about the role of „gatekeepers /
intermediaries‟, also called censor groups.

• Many of these intermediaries have the ability to decide what messages

others see, the context in which they are seen and when they see them.
They often have the ability, moreover, to change messages or to prevent
them from reaching an audience
4. Claude Shannon-Warren weaver Information Model
Shannon and Weaver proposed a mathematical model of communication.

● The Shannon and Weaver model is a linear model of

communication that provides a framework for analysing how
messages are sent and received.
 ● It is best known for its ability to explain how messages can be
mixed up and misinterpreted in the process of sending and
receiving the message.
Shannon and Weaver proposed a mathematical model of
communication. Other than the concept, sender, encoder, channel,
decoder, and receiver of ShannonWeaver‟s model, there is also a concept
of “noise” included in the model, that goes through the channel and
reduces the message more difficult to recognize by the receiver.
1) Source: Source decides the information message which has to be
transmitted. The message can be any part, idea, attitude opinion.
2) Transmitter:- The transmitter is actually which changes the
information message into signals which are then transmitted to the receiver
of the message.
3) Receiver:- In any communication process, there is always a receiver
that changes the signal again into the message which can be understood by
the destination.
4) Destination:- • The destination is that for which the message is actually
meant for. • The transmitted signal is decoded by the receiver and then it is
sent to the destination.
5) Noise:- The dictionary meaning of noise is an unpleasant sound.
● Noise actually distorts the source.
● This makes communication ineffective.
● It is the basic physical or technical barrier in the communication
process.
● Noise can completely change the actual meaning of the transmitted
message.
● Noise can be anything that can occur when the message is traversing
through the communication channel.
● Noise can be static, technical, or physical Noise may be verbal or
non-verbal.
● Anything that distracts the communication process like any physical
sound, tone, any buzz, etc.
Shannon and Weaver talked about the three levels of problems in the
communication of information. The three levels are
1) Technical (signals),
2) Semantic (interpretation of meaning) and
3) Influential (effectiveness).
Though the model attempts to explain the process of communication
further, it is a linear, one-way communication model without any
emphasis on feedback.

Shannon and Weaver talked about the following concepts as well.

1. Entropy: The information can be measured by entropy, i.e., one‟s
„degree of freedom of choice‟ to select a message.
2. Redundancy: The amount of information that can be eliminated or
added Communication in a noiseless channel, so that the message would
still have meaning.
3. Channel capacity:
● The amount of information that can be transmitted per unit of time.
Beyond optimum level of information would lead to errors.
● There are certain limitations of this model, it is usually applied more
for interpersonal communication than group communication and
mass communication.
● Here, the sender plays the primary role that sends messages and the
receiver plays the passive part. Feedback is taken as less important
in comparison to the messages sent by the sender.
5.Berol's Model Of Communication / S-M-C-R Model
● Berlo tried to explain communication as S-R Model or
sender-receiver model, where sender stands for stimulus and receiver
stands for response.
● This was later extended to S-M-C-R Model that stands for
Sender-MessageChannel-Receiver
 ● It is the basic communication process.
● It is a linear model of communication, there is no two way
communication.
● There is no concept of feedback.
● There is no noise as well and so no concept of barriers in
communication.
6.Transmission/Linear model

7. Interactive/Convergence Model Of Communication

• Communication is sending and receiving.
• Interactive model is also known as convergence model.
• Field of experience is a communication pattern alteration factor, like
culture, social, psychology, situation and channels use.
8. Transactional model of communication
Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication
Communication is integrated in our internal realities. Brown and Yule
(1983) use two terms to describe the major functions of language. The
functions of language where the transfer of information is involved is
called „Transactional‟ and That function involved in expressing social
relations and personal attitudes is called „Interactional‟.
The transactional model of communication refers to the continuous
exchange of information where both the sender and receiver are involved
in the process and take turns to communicate messages. Examples of the
transactional model include a face-to-face meeting, a telephone call, a
Skype call, a chat session, interactive training, or a meeting in which all
attendees participate by sharing ideas and comments.
9. Helical Model Of Communication
Frank Dance proposed a communication model inspired by a helix in
1967, known as helical model of communication. A helix is a
three-dimensional spring-like curve in the shape of a cylinder or a cone.
The model is linear as well as circular combined and disagrees the concept
of linearity and circularity individually.
• When a child is born the only means of communication for him is crying,
he cries for everything like hunger, pain, cold etc.
• As the child grows the means of communication become wider and
broader.
• He learns to make noises then he learns a language to obtain attention
and to fulfil his needs.
• As a Helix, the process of communication, in this case, started as crying
and later it developed into a complex and compound means.
• The Helical model of communication is largely dependent on its past.

A child learns to pronounce a word in his elementary classes and

throughout his life he uses that word in the same way he learnt. Just like
that, we used to react to certain things in a certain way in our childhood
and such reactions and habits lasts with us forever. The communication
evolves in the beginning in some simple forms then the same process of
communication functions and develops based on past activities. Thus, his
way of communication or his reactions may also different from the past
behavior and experiences. It develops further with modifications according
to the situations.
• Therefore the model concludes that the process of communication is like
a continuous curve with some changes or flexibility.
• The base of the helical curve (lower level) can be affected and/or altered
at any time accordingly the experience of an individual.

10.Lasswell's communication model

• Lasswell's communication model was produced by communication
theorist Harold D. Lasswell in 1948.
• This model of communication is also known as the action model/ linear
model and one way model of communication.
Lasswell‟s model is more about the process of communication along with
its functions to society;
Lasswell advocates about three functions for communication:
1)Surveillance of the environment
2)Correlation of components of society
3)Cultural transmission between generation

1. Surveillance of the environment media: As an „informer‟, ears, eyes

and voice of the audience and for shaping our thoughts, attitudes and
actions. For instance, the advertisements make known to us the new
products.
2. Correlation: Developing public opinion, thus helping to create
consensus in a society on key issues.
3. Admission of social inheritance: By this function of communication
Lasswell wants to say that media educate us toward better living and
preserving the values rituals and traditions of society.
-Mass media provide us an opportunity for culture we have to promote and
explore and easily understand about others culture and educate about them
too.

11. Riley & Riley Model

● The husband and wife team of Sociologists John W. and Matilda
White Riley developed the communication model called Riley and
Riley model.
● They discussed about their ideas about communication theory in an
article entitled Mass Communication and the Social System in 1959.
● The idea of their work revolves around the Aristotle and Lasswell
model of communication.
● The model shows communicator (C) emerges as a part of the larger
social system who sends messages and information according to the
 expectations or needs of group or people within the same social
structure.
● This process is also same for the receiver (R).
● This model clearly shows that the model is a two- way process.
● It is a two way communication and both C & R are part of this large
social system.
● It is a two way communication.
● This model helps to solve the dispute between two groups with in a
large social system.
● It creates better understanding between the groups.