AUTONOMOUS UNIVERSITY OF SANTO DOMINGO

HUMANITIES FACULTY

GRADUATES UNIT AND PERMANENT EDUCATION

MASTER OF ARTS IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS TO THE TEACHING OF THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Sustainers:

Keila Tatis

Eduard De León M.

Héctor Batista

Andrés Tejada

Facilitator:

Luis Santana, M.A.

IDI-8311-03

Second Language Acquisition

Santiago, DR.

July 16th, 2023

 AFFECTIVE FACTORS

Encouragement, nurturing and exposure are some words that can

define as to what happens at the moment of acquiring a second
language.

Encouragement, when receiving both intrinsic or extrinsic motivation.

Nurturing and exposure, is not the same to be born and raised

in an English environment where an individual is expose to a
second language than start a process consciously to studying
a second language. These affective factors help on the second
language acquisition on an effective way, however, the authors, based on some researches
make reference to the following:

The affective domain is the emotional side of human behavior which involves a series of
personality factors and Feelings.

The affectivity of both children and adults has a five steps hierarchy process as per
bloom’s conception for its development.

1- Emotional development begins with receiving. In this stage, the individual

environmental inputs.

2- Next, we respond, committing ourselves to an object. Here, an output is given.

3- The foundations are now in place for valuing. Valuating what has been received.

4- Our values are now ready to be organized. To rank and determine relationships
stablished by values.

5- Finally, we develop a self- identity. Creating self-confidence based on the values and
beliefs.
 These steps demonstrate how an individual creates
his/her self-identity through the process of affective
factors in the second language acquisition, even
though it can be contrasted with the cognitive side.

In the 70s, the affective factors in second language

acquisition were a bone of contention, resulting in
the need to study the connection between
psychological personality and second language
acquisition. Consequently, it is established that emotions not only facilitate cognitive
learning, but even better, it manipulates it.

Thanks to the researches, there are some factors that were found which have to be
observed and taken into consideration in second language acquisition.

Self-Esteem, plays an important role in every aspect of human

behavior, where each individual has a value of himself/herself,
meaning to believe on the personal knowledge and capabilities,
however, self-esteem may vary based on its relevance. There are
three:

• Global self-esteem
• Situational self-esteem
• Task self-esteem

Pertaining to the second language acquisition has been said that both situational and task
self-esteem might help in some aspects of the L2 learning process since their effects in
SLA in an important variable. Also, the teachers play a significant and influential role on
the emotional student’s well-being.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY AND SELF-EFFICACY

The attribution theory expresses the four people’s attributes to achieve a goal or the causes
to fail which attributed to a lack of effort, based on the following: ability, effort, perceived
difficulty of a task, and luck, but on the other hand, a Self-Efficacy individual does not
attribute failure to luck, but will become devoted and won’t come up with an excuse for
the bad performance.
If Learners of the second language acquisition, do not have a high sense, their failure
in any goals will easily attribute it to external factor such as difficulty of a task and luck
which is an unhealthy psychological behavior not to complete any task lowering the
learner’s self-esteem.

The willingness to communicate has also sparked the attention as another factor related
to attribution and self-efficacy, however, it has been stated that high level’s ability does
not necessarily correspond to the willingness to communicate, but cognitive and affective
factors instead.

Considering the relation between self-efficacy, it must exist a need of the willingness to
communicate which is an external factor, otherwise, any goals won’t be achieved.

INHIBITION

All human beings, in their understanding of

themselves, build sets of defenses to protect the
ego. A young child, born with no concept of self,
gradually learns to identify a self that is distinct
from others, and then in stages of awareness,
responding, and valuing, constructs a self-identity.
In adolescence, physical, emotional, and cognitive
changes bring on mounting defensive inhibitions.

Affective Factors designed to protect a fragile ego from threats to the organization of
values and beliefs on which appraisals of self-esteem have been founded. The process of
building defenses continues into adulthood. Some people— those with higher self-esteem
and ego strength—are more able to withstand threats to their existence, and thus their
defenses are lower. Those with weaker self-esteem maintain stronger “walls” of inhibition
to protect what is self-perceived to be a weak or fragile ego or a lack of self-efficacy.

The human ego encompasses what Alexander Guiora (Guiora et al., 1972a) and Madeline
Ehrman (1996) referred to as language ego or the very personal, egoistic nature of second
language acquisition. Most SLA involves some degree of identity conflict as learners take
on a new identity with their newly acquired competence. An adaptive language ego
enables learners to lower the inhibitions that may impede success.
RISK TAKING

One of the prominent characteristics of “good

language learners” was the ability to make intelligent
guesses, something you cannot do without a healthy
level of risk taking. Learners have to be able to gamble
a bit, to be willing to try out hunches about the
language and take the risk of being wrong.

Beebe (1983) described some of the negative

ramifications that foster fear of risk taking in the classroom: a bad grade, a failure on the
exam, a reproach from the teacher, a smirk from a classmate. Outside the classroom, L2
learners fear looking ridiculous, a listener’s blank look, failure to communicate,
alienation, and perhaps worst of all, they fear a loss of identity. The classroom antidote to
such fears, according to Dufeu, is to establish an adequate affective framework so that
learners “feel comfortable as they take their first public steps in the strange world of a
foreign language”.

ANXIETY

Intricately intertwined with self-esteem, self-efficacy, inhibition, and risk taking, the
construct of anxiety plays a major affective role in second language acquisition.
Spielberger (1983, p. 1) described anxiety as a “subjective feeling of tension,
apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the autonomic
nervous system.” More simply put, anxiety is associated with feelings of uneasiness,
frustration, self-doubt, apprehension, or worry (Scovel, 1978, p. 134).

Two decades of research (summarized in Horwitz, 2010) have now given us useful
information on foreign language anxiety. Most studies conclude that “foreign language
anxiety can be distinguished from other types of anxiety and that it can have a negative
effect on the language learning process” (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991c, p. 112).
EMPATHY

In common terminology, empathy is the process of

“putting yourself into someone else’s shoes,” of reaching
beyond the self to understand what another person is
feeling. Empathy is a major factor in the harmonious
coexistence of individuals in society. Language is one of
the primary means of empathizing, but nonverbal
communication facilitates the process of empathizing
and must not be overlooked.

Communication requires a sophisticated degree of empathy. In order to accurately reach

out to another person, we need to transcend our own ego boundaries, or, using Guiora’s
(1972b) term, to “permeate” our ego boundaries so that we can send and receive messages
clearly. In oral communication, empathetic perceptions are made through immediate
feedback from a hearer. A misunderstood word, phrase, or idea can be questioned by the
hearer and then rephrased by the speaker until a clear message is interpreted.

EXTROVERSION AND INTROVERSION

Let’s first dispel a myth. We are prone to think of an

extroverted person as a gregarious, “life of the party”
person, and introverts as quiet, reserved, and reclusive.
Our worldwide culture of glitz, glamor, and Hollywood
values the stereotypical extrovert. Nowhere is this more
evident than in the classroom where teachers praise
talkative, outgoing students who participate freely in class discussions. On the other hand,
introverts are thought to present “issues” for teachers.

Extroversion is the extent to which a person has a deep-seated need to receive ego
enhancement, self-esteem, and a sense of wholeness from other people as opposed to
receiving that affirmation within oneself.

Introversion, on the other hand, is the extent to which a person derives a sense of
wholeness and fulfillment within oneself. Contrary to prevailing stereotypes, introverts
can have an inner strength of character, be more attentive to thoughts and concepts, and
be “energized by concentration on the inner world” (Wakamoto, 2009, p. 18). Introverts
can be pleasantly conversational, but simply require more reflection, and possibly
exercise more restraint in social situations.

PERSONALITY TYPE

Personality type refers to how people

behave, think, and make choices.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI) is a popular model that
categorizes individuals into 16
personality types based on four main
preferences: extraversion or
introversion, sensing or intuition,
thinking or feeling, and judging or
perceiving. These preferences determine a person's unique personality, including their
strengths, weaknesses, and communication style.

MOTIVATION

To say that someone is "motivated" means that they have a desire or drive to achieve
certain goals or outcomes. In the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA), motivation
has received significant attention. From a behavioral perspective, motivation is linked to
the pursuit of rewards. When individuals have experienced positive rewards in the past,
they are motivated to engage in activities that can lead to more rewards. From a cognitive
standpoint, motivation is associated with the choices individuals make, such as their goals
and the level of effort they are willing to invest. In a constructivist view, motivation is
influenced by both our social environment and personal decisions, which shape our
willingness to exert effort. Our actions are impacted by the culture and society we are a
part of.
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

According to Edward Deci's (1975) theory of motivation,

intrinsic motivation occurs when individuals engage in an
activity because they find it enjoyable or interesting, without
the promise of any external rewards. Conversely, extrinsic
motivation is driven by the desire for a reward or incentive,
such as money or good grades. Intrinsic motivation is
preferable as it stems from an individual's internal desires and
leads to personal growth. However, fulfilling basic needs
such as food and safety must be addressed before focusing
on self-actualization. Maslow's hierarchy of needs supports this notion, as it indicates that
motivation is dependent on satisfying physiological and safety needs before moving on
to social and esteem needs, and ultimately self-actualization.

INSTRUMENTAL AND INTEGRATIVE ORIENTATIONS

Motivation was studied in terms of a number of different kinds of attitudes. Two different
clusters of attitudes were identified as instrumental and integrative orientations. An
instrumental orientation referred to acquiring a language as a means for attaining practical
goals such as furthering a career, reading technical material, or translation. An integrative
orientation described learners who wished to integrate themselves into the culture of the
second language group and become involved in social interchange in that group.

MOTIVATIONAL INTENSITY

Motivational intensity, or the strength of one's motivation,

was a more meaningful and measurable factor compared to
the broad construct of integrativeness.

As motivational intensity became a key focus, two related

concepts emerged: demotivation and amotivation. Demotivation refers to the loss of
interest or commitment that was previously present in a learner. It can result from external
factors such as boring teaching or internal factors like exhaustion or embarrassment over
one's competence. Demotivation is a significant issue in second language acquisition as
learners need to sustain their motivation throughout the long and challenging process.
Amotivation, on the other hand, refers to the absence of motivation entirely. It is
characterized by feelings of incompetence, helplessness, and a lack of belief in the
worthiness of the effort or the enormity of the task. Learners who are amotivated present
a greater challenge for teachers compared to those who are demotivated.

To address demotivation and amotivation, teachers are encouraged to create a supportive

and engaging learning environment. This includes organizing a well-designed
curriculum, providing exciting classroom experiences, respecting students, and
incorporating various activities, rewards, social interaction, and goal-setting to maintain
learners' joy of learning and sustain their motivation.

In summary, the shift from integrativeness to motivational intensity in the study of second
language acquisition led to the recognition of demotivation and amotivation as important
factors. Understanding and addressing these challenges can help teachers support and
motivate their learners effectively.

SOCIODYNAMIC AND CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACHES IN SLA

The reading explores different approaches to

understanding and fostering motivation in the context
of second language acquisition (SLA). The author
discusses various motivational constructs, such as
intrinsic/extrinsic motivation and
integrative/instrumental orientations, highlighting the
importance of autonomy and self-determination in driving learners' motivation and
success.

The complexity of SLA and the challenges of isolating cause-and-effect relationships are
acknowledged. The sociodynamic perspective, proposed by Dörnyei and Ushioda,
suggests viewing motivation as a relational and dynamic concept. This perspective
emphasizes the interaction between individuals and the fluid and complex micro- and
macro-systems in which they are embedded. Ellis's dynamic systems theory is mentioned
as an important framework in SLA research.

By adopting a contextualized and dynamic view of motivation, researchers and educators

can celebrate the individual differences among language learners. Motivation can be
global, situational, or task-oriented, and learners may draw their determination from
diverse sources and needs. It is important to recognize that learners may have multiple
orientations beyond those commonly mentioned.

The reading emphasizes the significance of motivational drives in learners' affective

systems. Rather than seeking a single "final answer," educators are encouraged to
embrace the diversity of learners and consider multiple pathways to success. Social
interaction with peers and teachers, combined with the construction of dynamic
motivators, plays a crucial role in learners' unique journey.

Ultimately, teachers are challenged to blend scientific insights with intuitive

understanding to support learners in discovering their own pathways to success in SLA.

In summary, the reading highlights the importance of autonomy, self-determination, and

contextualized understanding in motivating language learners. It encourages educators to
appreciate the individual differences among learners and to create supportive learning
environments that foster motivation and success.

THE NEUROBIOLOGY OF AFFECT IN SLA

The reading explores the connection between affectivity, neural

processing, and second language acquisition (SLA) from a
neurobiological perspective. It emphasizes the importance of
understanding the brain's role in language acquisition and its
relationship with affect, memory, learning, and plasticity.

The amygdala, a section of the temporal lobes, is identified as a key player in the
relationship between affect and language learning. It helps us appraise stimuli,
determining their novelty, pleasantness, relevance to our needs or goals, manageability,
and compatibility with social norms and self-concept. When faced with a challenging task
in the L2 class, fear and anxiety may arise, indicating the amygdala's negative appraisal
of the stimulus.

Motivation, viewed as a powerful affective factor, is examined in terms of the brain's

appraisal system. Questions related to motivation, such as enjoyment, goal relevance,
coping potential, and self-compatibility, are tied to neural processes. Positive appraisals
of the language learning situation are found to enhance language learning, while negative
appraisals inhibit it.
Further exploration by Schumann and Wood (2004) reveals the neurobiological bases of
motivation as sustained deep learning (SDL). SDL, akin to intrinsic motivation, is rooted
in the concept of value. Value, in this context, biases human preferences and choices,
including homeostatic value for survival and sociostatic value for social interaction and
affiliation.

One significant application of neurobiological research in SLA is the recognition that

brains vary extensively, making it challenging to argue for a single "right" way to teach
a foreign language. This understanding dismisses the notion of a linear model of SLA that
fits all learners, emphasizing the need for individualized approaches.

In summary, the reading emphasizes the importance of understanding the neurobiological

underpinnings of affect and motivation in SLA. The amygdala's role in appraising stimuli
and its impact on language learning is highlighted. The connection between motivation
and neural processes is explored, with positive appraisals enhancing learning and negative
appraisals inhibiting it. The variation in brain functioning underscores the need for
diverse and personalized approaches to teaching foreign languages.

MEASURING AFFECTIVE FACTORS

The reading explores the challenges and methods involved in measuring affective factors
in language learning. It discusses various assessment approaches, including indirect
measures, paper-and-pencil tests, and self-check tests, highlighting their advantages and
limitations.

Indirect measures, such as Rorschach inkblot tests and formal interviews, provide reliable
measurements but are expensive and require expert administration. As a practical
alternative, the language-teaching profession has relied on self-ratings through paper-and-
pencil tests like the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). These tests assess factors such
as extroversion vs. introversion, self-esteem, and empathy through agree or disagree
statements.

While self-check tests are widely used in applied linguistics research, they have inherent
assessment problems. Validity is a primary concern as self-ratings lack objectivity.
External assessments involving multiple methods have shown greater accuracy but come
with higher costs. However, the validity of self-check tests for affective variables has
been upheld in research.
The "self-flattery" syndrome is another measurement problem, where test-takers may
provide answers that make them look good or avoid damaging perceptions. This bias can
significantly influence test results and skew self-perceptions.

Cultural ethnocentrism is a further challenge, with tests of extroversion, anxiety,

motivation, and other factors being culturally bound. Concepts and references used in test
items may be difficult to interpret cross-culturally and could lead to inaccurate
assessments.

In conclusion, measuring affective factors requires caution and consideration of the pros
and cons of different assessment instruments. While self-check tests have limitations,
they can still provide valuable insights when used alongside other methods. Cultural
considerations and the inherent biases of self-ratings must be acknowledged. Despite the
challenges in measurement, it is important to recognize the presence and influence of
affectivity in second language acquisition, even in the absence of sophisticated
instrumentation.

CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS: INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

The reading explores the applications and implications of affective

variables, specifically intrinsic motivation, in the language
classroom. It emphasizes the importance of attending to students'
self-efficacy, anxieties, motivations, and other personality
variables for successful instruction.

Intrinsic motivation is discussed in relation to the interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic
motives in the classroom. Extrinsic factors include prescribed curricula, course goals,
parental expectations, institutional assessments, and societal messages. The challenge for
teachers is to handle these extrinsic motives and capitalize on them through innovative
approaches.

Two examples of applying intrinsic motivation are provided:

Adding interesting learner-centered group and pair work alongside a teacher-centered

textbook to give students choices in topics and activities.

Incorporating peer evaluation, self-assessment, and portfolio compilation to build

intrinsic interest in achieving goals alongside traditional institutional tests.
The author shares a personal experience of requiring students to take a concurrent foreign
language and fostering intrinsic interest through discussions, reflective writing, and diary-
keeping about their language learning journey.

The report also suggests classroom techniques to enhance intrinsic motivation:

• Design activities that appeal to students' interests and relevance.

• Present activities in a positive and enthusiastic manner.
• Ensure clarity about the purpose of each activity.
• Provide students with some choice in selecting aspects of the activity.
• Encourage students to discover and use effective strategies independently.
• Foster autonomy, independence, and interactive negotiation with peers.
• Offer activities that present a reasonable challenge.
• Provide sufficient feedback on students' performance.
These suggestions demonstrate the direct application of affective factors, particularly
intrinsic motivation, in the second language classroom. They highlight the importance of
addressing affective variables to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes.