6401

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Course: General Mathematics and Statistics (6401)
ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 Discuss different type of banking systems used in Pakistan. Also, what are
the types of cards used by banks? What is finance?
Banking System in Pakistan
A banking system is a group of organizations or institutes that provides financial services to the
public. Banks accept money from the public and invest that in a safe way. Bank returns
the money to the public through the draft, order, and cheque. Here, in this article, we
will do an in-depth analysis of the banking system in Pakistan. So without any delay,
let's start.
Types of Banks
On the basis of functions, the banks are categorized as follows:
• Central Bank
• Financial Bank
• Micro Finance Bank
• Islamic Bank
• Commercial Bank
• Industrial Bank
• Exchange Bank
• Saving Bank
• Investment Bank
• Development Finance Institutions
Central Bank
The State Bank of Pakistan is known as the Central Bank of Pakistan. It was established on 1 July
1948 in Karachi.
Functions of State Bank of Pakistan
The State Bank of Pakistan performs the following functions.
Skilling.pk Stamflay.com Diya.pk

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• Regulates the banking system in Pakistan.

• Maintains the bank accounts of all the banks working in Pakistan.
• Issues money to the banks.
• Provides guidance to the banks and is known as the Banker’s Bank.
• Maintains the record of the government's expenditures and revenues.
• Decides the interest rate of bank deposits.
• Helps the government in developing economy building policies.
• Determines the foreign currency exchange rates.
• Issues the currency notes and regulates them throughout the country.
• Regulates the bank loans and their interest.
Commercial Banks
Commercial Banks are of the following three types.
• Public Sector Banks

• Private Sector Banks
• Foreign Banks
Public Sector Banks
These banks are under the control of the State Bank of Pakistan. Public Sector banks in Pakistan
are:
• The Bank of Punjab

• First Women Bank Limited
• Bank of Khyber
• Corporation Bank
• Sindh Bank Limited
Private Sector Banks
Individuals or organizations have significant shares in private sector banks. Private Sector Banks
working in Pakistan are vast in number. Some of them are:
• Bank Al-Habib

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• NIB Bank Limited

• United Bank Limited
• Askari Bank
• Bank Al-Falah
• Allied Bank Limited
• Faysal Bank
• Silk Bank Limited
• Soneri Bank
• Standard Chartered Pakistan
• MCB Bank Limited
Foreign Banks
These banks are not Pakistani banks, but they have branches in Pakistan. These are the
international level banks. Some of the foreign banks in Pakistan are:
Deutsche Bank AG
It is the German investment bank and provides multinational financial services in Pakistan.
Citi Bank N.A
It is a multinational financial services bank. It is the bank of the United States, having branches in
19 countries of the world.
Bank of Tokyo - Mitsubishi UFG
It is one of the largest banks in Japan, established in January 2006.
Bank of China
It is the fourth biggest bank in China and is a commercial bank.
Industrial and Commercial Bank of China Limited

It is a multinational banking company in China.
Islamic Banks in Pakistan

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Pakistan is an Islamic country, so Islamic banking is prevalent in the nation. Banks having Islamic
banking in Pakistan are as follows.
• Meezan Bank Limited

• Dubai Islamic Bank
• Bank Alfalah Islamic
• Askari Bank Ltd.
• National Bank of Pakistan
• Bank of Punjab Islamic Banking
• Bank Al Habib Islamic Banking
• Allied Islamic Bank
• UBL Islamic Bank
• HBL Islamic Bank
Bank Accounts
To deal with a customer, a bank issues a specific number or identity to them, which is known as a
Bank Account. Each customer has a unique bank account number. All the customer information
related to a person is retained in the account number. Cash deposits, money-saving, money
transfer, billing, loans, each and everything occurs through a bank account.
TYPES OF BANK ACCOUNTS
On the basis of money and dealing with the bank, a bank has three types of accounts. If a person
wants to deal with a particular bank, he will open the account in the required bank. The types of
bank accounts are:
• Current account
• Saving account
• Fixed deposit account
Current Account
This account has particular requirements and is for the traders or the businessman community.
The features of the current account are as follows:

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• It provides the checkbook, cash book, and debit card facility.

• It provides the online or telephone banking facility to the customers.
• The current account can also have the facility of overdraft.
Saving Account
As its name indicates, it saves money. A savings account is best for the person who wants monthly
savings. The savings account is the cheapest account. It can be created with the amount of Rs. 100.
The features of a saving account are as follows:
• It is a profitable account.
• It has a minimum monthly balance limit.
• This account has ATM access to the client.
• It has unlimited transactions.
• It provides an online banking service facility.
• This account is easily accessible.
• It does not have any special requirements.
• It provides the checkbook facility.
Fixed Deposit Account
It is the account in which a client fixes its money. The amount of this account is not usable in the
near future. The client fixes the amount for a specific time and then withdraws it with interest. It
is a type of investment. The account is for a specific time, e.g., 10, 15, or 20 years. The bank pays
interest to the customer only at the end of the fixed term. If the customer withdraws the amount
before the time limit, then the bank will not pay interest to the customer.
The features of the fixed deposit account are:
• It is a profitable account.
• It has requirements.
• Time duration is limited.
• It provides good interest at the end of the account duration.

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Swift Code
A Swift code is the bank identifier code. Swift code is used to identify a bank or its branch. Swift
codes are useful in transferring money from one bank to another. They are also essential for
transferring money at the international level. Swift codes are also used in exchanging the
information of a client between two banks.
Swift code consists of 8 or 11 digits. The information regarding the swift codes is as follows:
• The first four characters contain the bank codes, and they consist of only letters.
• The fifth and sixth characters contain country code, and they consist of letters.
• After that, the seventh and eighth characters contain location code, and they consist of
letters and digits.
• The last three characters contain the branch code, and they consist of letters and digits.
Top Five Banks of Pakistan
Banks play an essential role in driving the economy of a country. The top five banks of Pakistan
are as follows.
Habib Bank Limited
This bank was established at the request of Muhammad Ali Jinnah in Mumbai in 1941. The
purpose of the bank was to help the Muslim community in India. Habib bank is the largest bank in
Pakistan. It provides commercial and financial services to clients. The bank offers its services
abroad as well.
The headquarter of Habib Bank Limited is in Karachi. It has 1500 branches within Pakistan and
55 operational branches across Pakistan. The bank has approximately 2000 ATMs. Habib Bank
Limited drives the following sectors:
• Retail financing
• Branch banking
• Corporate banking
Bank provides loans to small-scale businesses, agriculture support, securities, and commercial help
to the clients.

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National Bank of Pakistan
This bank was established in 1949. It provides a wide range of services in the commercial as well
as the public sector. The headquarter of NBP is in Karachi. It has 1450 branches all over Pakistan
and 21 branches across Pakistan. The bank has approximately 1000 ATMs in the country. The
representative offices are present in Canada and China also.
National Bank of Pakistan is considered as the best bank in Pakistan.
Bank Alfalah
Bank Alfalah was established in 1997. The Dubai group of companies controls this bank. It is the
6th largest bank in Pakistan, having approximately 600 branches within Pakistan and across
Pakistan. Bank Alfalah is operational in Bangladesh, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and
Afghanistan as well. It provides loans, savings, credit cards, Islamic banking, corporate, and
financial investment to the customers.
Askari Bank
Askari Bank was established in 1991 under the supervision of the Fauji Foundation. The bank was
registered in the Pakistan stock exchange in 2013. For further progress, the bank was registered
with Lahore stock exchange, Karachi stock exchange, and Islamabad stock exchange. Askari Bank
has headquarters in Rawalpindi. Bank has 440 branches.
Askari bank provides customer banking, sales and retails, trading, finance investment, commercial
banking, payment, and settlement, etc., to the customers.
Allied Bank Limited
It is one of the most popular banks of Pakistan, established in 1942. Allied bank has more than
1100 branches and approximately 1150 ATMs in Pakistan. The bank has more than 5000
employees. Allied bank provides a number of facilities to the customers.
E-Banking
E-banking is electronic banking. It is also called online banking. The development of the
information technology department has changed the whole world. Nowadays, technology is used

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everywhere. An e-banking customer can regulate the account from anywhere; he does not need to
visit the bank. A bank provides the following services under e-banking:
Debit cards, smart cards, credit cards, ATMs, mobile banking, telephone banking, electronic data
interchange, internet banking, online funds transfer, online payment transaction, etc.
Advantages of E-Banking
The main advantages of e-banking are as follows:
• This system has very rare chances of error.

• Customers withdraw the required amount from anywhere through the ATM.
• There is no need to visit the bank branch.
• Anyone can easily transfer funds from one account to another.
• E-banking reduces transaction costs.
• It reduces the pressure on the banks.
• It provides the 24 hours service to the customers.
• Clients can check the balance and print the bank statement without the help of the bank.
• A person can view his bank record and transactions anytime.
• People can easily pay bills through e-banking.
• Clients can check the processed checks in the form of images.
Conclusion
The Pakistani banking system has been progressing in the right way since 2000. Pakistan's
financial system is at 34 out of 52 countries in the world. Internet banking is getting more popular
among the public as it makes life easier. It is helpful in payment of bills, funds transfer, and
regulating the bank account. Indicators show that the business environment in Pakistan has been
changed, and it is attracting investors.
SECP, State Bank of Pakistan, and Finance Ministry, along with the government of Pakistan, are
striving hard to make the banking system in Pakistan better. The role of Islamic banking is also
very important as more people are showing interest in it. The government should take more steps
to encourage Islamic banking in Pakistan.
TYPES OF CARDS

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There are three types of cards: Debit cards, Credit cards and Prepaid cards. These cards can be
issued by banks or other entities too. We will discuss each type of card and the issuance authority
for particular type of card.
Finance
Finance is a term for matters regarding the management, creation, and study of money and
investments. Finance can be broadly divided into three categories:
• Public finance
• Corporate finance
• Personal finance
There are many other specific categories, such as behavioral finance, which seeks to identify the
cognitive (e.g., emotional, social, and psychological) reasons behind financial decisions.
Q.2 Write down different types of sets each with example. Also discuss operation on
sets.
TYPES OF SETS
Since, a Set is a well – defined collection of objects; depending on the objects and their characteristics,
there are many types of Sets which are explained with suitable examples, as follows: –
Empty or Null or Void Set
Any Set that does not contain any element is called the empty or null or void set. The symbol used to
represent an empty set is – {} or φ. Examples:
• Let A = {x : 9 < x < 10, x is a natural number} will be a null set because there is NO
natural number between numbers 9 and 10. Therefore, A = {} or φ
• Let W = {d: d > 8, d is the number of days in a week} will also be a void set because
there are only 7 days in a week.

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Finite and Infinite Sets
Any set which is empty or contains a definite and countable number of elements is called a finite set.
Sets defined otherwise, for uncountable or indefinite numbers of elements are referred to as infinite
sets. Examples:
• A = {a, e, i, o, u} is a finite set because it represents the vowel letters in the English
alphabetical series.
• B = {x: x is a number appearing on a dice roll} is also a finite set because it contains –
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} elements.
• C = {p: p is a prime number} is an infinite set.
• D = {k: k is a real number} is also an infinite set.
Equal and Unequal Sets
Two sets X and Y are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements (irrespective of the order
of appearance in the set). Equal sets are represented as X = Y. Otherwise, the sets are referred to as
unequal sets, which are represented as X ≠ Y. Examples:
• If X = {a, e, i, o, u} and H = {o, u, i, a, e} then both of these sets are equal.
• If C = {1, 3, 5, 7} and D = {1, 3, 5, 9} then both of these sets are unequal.
• If A = {b, o, y} and B = {b, o, b, y, y} then also A = B because both contain same

elements.
Equivalent Sets
Equivalent sets are those which have an equal number of elements irrespective of what the elements
are. Examples:

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• A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {x: x is a vowel letter} are equivalent sets because both
these sets have 5 elements each.
• S = {12, 22, 32, 42, …} and T = {y: y2 ϵ Natural number} are also equal sets.
Singleton Set
These are those sets that have only a single element. Examples:
• E = {x: x ϵ N and x3 = 27} is a singleton set with a single element {3}
• W = {v: v is a vowel letter and v are the first alphabet of English} is also a singleton
set with just one element {a}.
Universal Set
A universal set contains ALL the elements of a problem under consideration. It

is generally represented by the letter U. Example:
• The set of Real Numbers is a universal set for ALL natural, whole, odd, even, rational
and irrational numbers.
Power Set
The collection of ALL the subsets of a given set is called a power set of that set under consideration.
Example:
• A = {a, b} then Power set – P (A) = φ, {a}, {b} and {a, b}. If n (A) = m then generally,
n [P (A)] = 2m
Thus, these are the different types of sets.
Solved Examples

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Question 1: If A = {x: x is an even natural number} and B = {y: y is the outcome of a dice roll},
determine the nature of the two sets.
Answer: A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, …} And B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. So, set A is an infinite set while
set B is a finite set.
Question 2: If X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, Y = {a, e, i, o, u} and Z = {u, o, a, i, e}; determine the nature of
sets.
Answer: Since the pairs of sets X – Y, Y – Z as well as Z – X have the same number of elements,
i.e., 5 they are EQUIVALENT sets. And sets Y and Z are also EQUAL sets because apart from
having the number of elements the same, they also have the same elements, i.e., the alphabets of
English vowel letters.
Q.3 Use Cremer’s rule to solve the following system of equation. Give the
reason where solution is not possible;
2 x = 13 − 5 y
2 y = 17 − 5 x

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Q.4 (a) Simplify ( a2 + 3a2b+ 3ab2+ b3)  ( a – b).

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(b) The product of two polynomials is 9x4 -4x2 + 15x + 10.

If one polynomial is 3x + 2, then find the other polynomial.
Other Polynomial is =
Q.5 State the proof of Quadratic formula i.e.,
− b + b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
ax2 + bx + c = 0
Divide both sides of the equation by a so that you can complete the square.

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Subtract c/a from both sides
Complete the square: The coefficient of the second term is b/a. Divide this coefficient by 2 and
square the result to get (b/2a)2 Add (b/2a)2 to both sides.
Since the left side of the equation right above is a perfect square, you can factor the left side by using
the coefficient of the first term (x) and the base of the last term(b/2a) Add these two and raise
everything to the second.
Get the same denominator on the right side:
Now, take the square root of each side:
Simplify the left side:

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Rewrite the right side:
Subtract b/2a from both sides:
Adding the numerator and keeping the same denominator, we get the quadratic formula:
ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 Discuss different type of banking systems used in Pakistan. Also, what are the types of
cards used by banks? What is finance?
There are five common types of bank accounts offered by banks in Pakistan.
• Basic Banking Account
• Current Account
• Savings Account
• Foreign Currency Account

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• Fixed Deposit Account

BASIC BANKING ACCOUNT
Almost all major commercial banks in Pakistan offer the Basic Banking Account (BA) to their
clients. As the name suggests, it is a simple bank account that provides basic banking facilities.
BA is ideal for account holders who don’t need to make frequent transactions.
Salient Features of Basic Banking Account
These are some of the main features of a Basic Banking Account:
• No account maintenance fee
• No interest rate, which means it’s a non-profit bearing account
• Exempt from Zakat deduction
• The account may be closed if the balance remains ‘nil’ for a consecutive period of six months
• Maximum four transactions, i.e. two deposits and two withdrawals via check, are allowed
free of charge on a monthly basis. Account-holders will have to pay a small fee for additional
transactions
• Unlimited ATM service. While withdrawals from the bank’s ATM are free of charge, ATMs
of other banks may charge a transaction fee
• Customers can switch to BA from any other type of account
Minimum Account Opening Amount: PKR 1000 (may vary with each bank)
Minimum Balance Amount: None
CURRENT ACCOUNT
The current account is easily one of the most popular types of bank accounts in Pakistan, widely
used by working individuals, businessmen and commercial entities. This account is ideal for
making business transactions on a day-to-day basis, which means you can deposit and withdraw
your money at any time.
You can open a current account in any private or public sector bank, most of which offer a
number of different current accounts to their customers.
Salient Features of a Current Account
These are some of the key features of current account:
• No-interest bearing account
• Exempt from annual Zakat deductions

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• Debit card service with unlimited transactions. However, the amount you can withdraw via
ATM per day may vary with each bank.
• Free of charge phone banking service
• No restriction on the number of deposits and withdrawals via checks
• Free online and internet banking
• SMS and email alerts for every transaction
Minimum Balance Amount: None (may vary with each bank)
SAVINGS ACCOUNT
As the name suggests, savings accounts are meant for securing your savings. In addition to that,
unlike the current account, they also allow you to earn a certain percentage of interest over time.
It means the amount you deposit in your savings account will accumulate a modest profit.
Moreover, banks in Pakistan offer a number of different savings accounts for individuals who
want to earn income through interest.
Salient Features of a Savings Account
Here are some of the main features of saving accounts:
• Profit-bearing account
• Most banks calculate profit on a monthly average basis.
• Zakat and withholding tax are deducted
• Funds can be accessed at any given time
• Banks periodically credit the profit to the client’s account
• Debit cards can be used to make unlimited transactions
• Free online banking services
• Free of charge phone banking services
Minimum Account Opening Amount: PKR 100 (varies with banks)
Minimum Balance Amount: None (varies with banks)
FOREIGN CURRENCY ACCOUNT
This type of bank account is usually maintained by overseas Pakistanis, dual national citizens,
charitable institutions and commercial entities. It only allows customers to deposit money in
foreign currency. Most banks in Pakistan offer both savings and current foreign currency

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accounts where customers can deposit money in US Dollar, Euro, Japanese Yen and British
Pound.
Salient Features of a Foreign Currency Account
Here are some of the most important features of a foreign currency account.
• Only deposits amount in a foreign currency
• Can transfer funds abroad
• Depositors can earn interest if they choose a savings account
• Zakat and other taxes to be deducted from foreign currency savings accounts.
• Availability of Traveler’s checks and other remittance services
• Its credit card can be utilized in and outside Pakistan.
• Transfer amount from one account to another
• Non‐residents don’t have to pay withholding tax and Zakat, depending on the bank.
Minimum Account Opening Amount: USD 250 or equivalent (may vary with banks)
Minimum Balance Amount: USD 1000 or equivalent (may vary with banks)
Q.2 Write down different types of sets each with example. Also discuss operation on sets.
A set is well defined as the collection of data that does not carry from person to person.
1. Empty Sets -
The set, which has no elements, is also called a Null set or Void set. It is denoted by {}.
Below are the two example of empty set.
Example of empty set: Let, Set A = {a : a is the number of students studying in Class 6th and Class
7th}. Since we all know, a student cannot learn in two classes, therefore set A is an empty set.
Another example of empty set is, set B = {a: 1 < a < 2, a is a natural number}, we know natural
cannot be a decimal, therefore set B is a null set or empty set.
2. Singleton Sets-
The set which has just one element is named a singleton set.
For Example: Set A = { 8 } is a singleton set.
3. Finite and Infinite Sets-
A set which has a finite number of elements is known as finite sets, whereas the set whose elements
can't be estimated, but it has some figure or number, which is large to precise in a set which is
known as Infinite Set.
For Example: Set A = {3,4,5,6,7} is a finite set, as it has a finite number of elements.

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Set C = {Number of Cows in India} is an infinite set, there is an approximate number of Cows in
India, but the actual number of cows cannot be expressed, as the numbers could be very large and
counting all cows is not possible.
4. Equal Sets-
If every element of set A is also the elements of set B and if every element of set A is also the
elements of set A are called equal sets. It means set A and set B have equivalent elements and that
we can denote it as:
A=B
For Example: Let A = {3,4,5,6} and B = {6,5,4,3}, then A = B
And if A = {set of even numbers} and B = { set of natural numbers} the A ≠ B, because natural
numbers consist of all the positive integers starting from 1,2,3,4,5 to infinity, but even numbers
start with 2,4,6,8, and so on.
5. Subsets-
A set S is said to be a subset of set T if the elements of set S belong to set T, or you can say each
element of set S is present in set T. Subset of a set is denoted by the symbol (⊂) and written as S
⊂ T.
We can also write the subset notation as;
S ⊂ T if p ∊ S ⇒ p ∊ T
According to the equation given above, “S is a subset of T only if “p” is an element of S as well
as an element of T.”Each set is a subset of its own set, and a void set or empty set is a subset of all
sets.
6. Power Sets-
The set of all subsets is known as power sets.We know the empty set is a subset of all sets, and
each set is a subset of itself. Taking an example of set X = {2,3}. From the above-given statements,
we can write,
{} is a subset of {2,3}
{2} is a subset of {2,3}
{2,3} is also a subset of {2,3}
Therefore, power set of X = {2,3},

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P(X) = {{},{2},{3},{2,3}}
7. Universal Sets-
A set that contains all the elements of other sets is called universal sets. Generally, it is represented
as ‘U.’
For Example: set A = {1,2,3}, set B = {3,4,5,6} and C = {5,6,7,8,9}
Then, we will write universal set as, U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,}
Note: According to the definition of the universal set, we can say that all the sets are subsets of the
universal set.
Therefore,
A⊂U
B⊂U
And C ⊂ U
8. Disjoint Sets
If two sets X and Y do not have any common elements, and their intersection results in zero(0),
then set X and Y are called disjoint sets.It can be represented as; X ∩ Y = 0.
All of the operations on sets are ways for us to take two or more sets and make a new set using the
elements of the ones we have.
The most basic of these operations are union, intersection, absolute complement, and relative
complement (also called set difference). Then there are a little more complicated operations like
the symmetric difference and Cartesian product.
To start, suppose A, B, and CC are sets.
Union:
Technically we need the axiom of union and axiom of pairing to define this. What I have below is
the general idea.
The union of A and B is the set
A∪B={x:x∈A∪B={x:x∈A or x∈Bx∈B}}.
What this is saying is that we take all of the elements that are in A and all of the elements that are
in B, then we put them into a new set that we denote A∪B. And if there’s any repeated elements
that happen to be in both A and B we just have one of them in their union, because we view
something like {1,2,2} as the same as {1,2}.
The union operation is both associative and commutative.

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Associative means, for any three or more sets that you union, you can group them however you
want and get the same thing. In symbols that is:
(A∪B)∪C=A∪(B∪C)
Commutative means, it doesn’t matter which set comes first, because it comes out to the same
thing in any order you want to do it. That looks like this:
A∪B=B∪A∪B=B∪A
Intersection:
The intersection of A and B is the set
A∩B={x∈A∪B:x∈A and x∈B}
This means the new set we make has only the elements that A and B have in common. Like the
union, this is also both associative and commutative. Those words have the same meaning as
before. Here is what they look like in practice:
(A∩B)∩C=A∩(B∩C)
A∩B=B∩A
Absolute complement:
This can only make sense if all of the sets you are working with are known to be a subset of an
ambient set. Suppose our sets A,B, and C are all subsets of a different set E. Then we denote each
of their complements as Ac, Bc, and Cc. That is defined to be every element of E that is not in the
subset and it looks like this:
Ac={x∈E:x∉A}
This is different from the relative complement, because it is assumed that EE contains all of the
elements we’re working with. One can’t stress this point enough, since there is no universal set
that contains every element and every set, this notation only makes sense if we state first that the
sets we’re working with are all subsets of a common ambient set. If this is not the case, then the
operation to use is called the relative complement or sometimes set difference.
Relative complement:
The relative complement is defined to be all of the elements of the first set that are not elements
of the second and it looks like this:
A∖B={x∈A:x∉B}
The absolute and relative complements are the same if B is a subset of A, but that doesn’t have to
be the case here.

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This operation is neither associative nor commutative. It is pretty common for people to refer to it
as set difference.
Symmetric difference:
There’s two ways that you can get the symmetric difference. One way is to take the union of the
two sets and then do the set difference with their intersection. That looks like this:
A⊕B=(A∪B)∖(A∩B)
The other way, which gives you the same result, is to union the relative complement when A is the
first set with the relative complement when B is the first set.
A⊕B=(A∖B)∪(B∖A)
This operation is both associative and commutative.
(A⊕B)⊕C=A⊕(B⊕C)
A⊕B=B⊕A
Cartesian product:
For this operation, it’s easiest to just talk about the case with two sets. The Cartesian product
between two sets is the set of all ordered pairs where the first element of the pair is from the first
set and the second element is from the second set.
A×B={(a,b):a∈A b∈B}
This operation is not commutative because (a,b)≠(b,a) if a≠b
Q.3 Use Cremer’s rule to solve the following system of equation. Give the reason where
solution is not possible;
2 x = 13 − 5 y
2 y = 17 − 5 x

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Q.4 (a) Simplify (a2 + 3a2b+ 3ab2+ b3)  ( a – b).
(b) The product of two polynomials is 9x4 -4x2 + 15x + 10. If one polynomial is 3x + 2,
then find the other polynomial.

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Q.5 State the proof of Quadratic formula i.e,
− b + b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
ax2 + bx + c = 0

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square the result to get (b/2a)2 Add (b/2a)2 to both sides:
Since the left side of the equation right above is a perfect square, you can factor the left side by
using the coefficient of the first term (x) and the base of the last term(b/2a) Add these two and raise

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Assignment No. 1
Q.1 A contractor contract to build a house in 30 days. He employed 10 men to build the
house. After 20 days, they completed only 1/3 of the total work. How many more men
will be required to finish the remaining work within due time?
r, one-man rate
Amount of job done was ;
Need to do still, of the job, and use additional n men with the same 10, and need to do this
amount of work in 10 days.

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------------30 more men needed, to complete the work.

Q.2 Elaborate the concept of real numbers and discuss their properties.
A real number is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous number line. Real numbers can be ordered.
The symbol for the set of real numbers is , which is the letter R in the typeface "blackboard bold". The
properties of the Real Number System will prove useful when working with equations, functions and formulas in
Algebra, as they allow for the creation of equivalent expressions which will often aid in solving problems. In
addition, they can be used to help explain or justify solutions.
Property (a, b and c are real

numbers, variables or algebraic Examples Verbal hints
expressions)
1. Distributive Property "multiplication

a • (b + c) = a • b + a • c 3 • (4 + 5) = 3 • 4 + 3 • 5 distributes across
addition"
2. Commutative Property of Addition "commute = to get up and

a+b=b+a 3+4=4+3 move to a new location :
switch places"
3. Commutative Property of "commute = to get up and

Multiplication 3•4=4•3 move to a new location:
a•b=b•a switch places"
4. Associative Property of Addition "regroup - elements do

a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c not physically move,
3 + (4 + 5) = (3 + 4) + 5
they simply group with a
new friend."
5. Associative Property of
"regroup - elements do
Multiplication 3 • (4 • 5) = (3 • 4) • 5
not physically move,
a • (b • c) = (a • b) • c

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they simply group with a

new friend."
6. Additive Identity Property "the value that returns the

4+0=4
a+0=a input unchanged"
7. Multiplicative Identity Property "the value that returns the

4•1=4
a•1=a input unchanged"
8. Additive Inverse Property "the value that brings you

a + (-a) = 0 4 + (-4) = 0 back to the identity
element under addition"
9. Multiplicative Inverse Property "the value that brings you

back to the identity
element under
multiplication"
10. Zero Property of Multiplication "zero times any value is

4•0=0
a•0=0 0"
11. Closure Property of Addition "the sum of any two real

a + b is a real number 10 + 5 = 15 (a real number) numbers
is another real number"
12. Closure Property of Multiplication "the product of any two

a • b is a real number 10 • 5 = 50 (a real number) real numbers is another
real number"
13. Addition Property of Equality "adding the same value

If a = b, then a + c = b + c. to both sides of an
If x = 10,
equation will not change
then x + 3 = 10 + 3
the truth value of the
equation."

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14. Subtraction Property of Equality "subtracting the same

If a = b, then a - c = b - c. value from both sides of
If x = 10,
an equation will not
then x - 3 = 10 - 3
change the truth value of
the equation."
15. Multiplication Property of Equality "multiplying both sides

If a = b, then a • c = b • c. of an equation by the
If x = 10,
same value will not
then x • 3 = 10 • 3
change the truth value of
the equation."
16. Division Property of Equality "dividing both sides of an

If a = b, then a / c = b / equation by the same
If x = 10,
c, assuming c ≠ 0. non-zero value will not
then x / 3 = 10 / 3
change truth value of the
equation."
17. Substitution Property

If x = 5, and x + y = z, "a value may be
If a = b, then a may be substituted
then 5 + y = z. substituted for its equal."
for b, or conversely.
18. Reflexive (or Identity) Property of

"a real number is always
Equality 12 = 12
equal to itself"
a=a
19. Symmetric Property of Equality "quantities that are equal

If a = b, then b = a. can be read forward or
backward"
20. Transitive Property of Equality "if two numbers are

If 2a = 10 and 10 = 4b,
If a = b and b = c, equal to the same
then 2a = 4b.
then a = c. number, then the two

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numbers are equal to

each other"
21. Law of Trichotomy "for two real

Exactly ONE of the following numbers a and b, a is
If 8 > 6, then 8 6 and
holds: a < b, a = b, a > b either equal to b, greater
8 is not < 6.
than b, or less
than b." (common sense)
Q.3 Solve equations using the matrix.

 x + 8 y = −3 
 
2 x − 6 y = −17
Q.4 Find the relation independent of y for the following equations:

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a) y2–2y+1=0 –y2 +3y+m=0
b) m y2 + 3y+2=0; ny2 + 5y +1=0

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Q.5 Solve equations using Completing square method.

3 1
a) b2 − b + = 0
4 8

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b) m 2 + 3m − 180 = 0

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ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 Discuss different type of banking systems used in Pakistan. Also, what are the types of
cards used by banks? What is finance?
There are five common types of bank accounts offered by banks in Pakistan.
• Basic Banking Account
• Current Account
• Savings Account
• Foreign Currency Account
• Fixed Deposit Account
BASIC BANKING ACCOUNT
Almost all major commercial banks in Pakistan offer the Basic Banking Account (BA) to their
clients. As the name suggests, it is a simple bank account that provides basic banking facilities.

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BA is ideal for account holders who don’t need to make frequent transactions.
Salient Features of Basic Banking Account
These are some of the main features of a Basic Banking Account:
• No account maintenance fee
• No interest rate, which means it’s a non-profit bearing account
• Exempt from Zakat deduction
• The account may be closed if the balance remains ‘nil’ for a consecutive period of six months
• Maximum four transactions, i.e. two deposits and two withdrawals via check, are allowed
free of charge on a monthly basis. Account-holders will have to pay a small fee for additional
transactions
• Unlimited ATM service. While withdrawals from the bank’s ATM are free of charge, ATMs
of other banks may charge a transaction fee
• Customers can switch to BA from any other type of account
Minimum Balance Amount: None
CURRENT ACCOUNT
The current account is easily one of the most popular types of bank accounts in Pakistan, widely
used by working individuals, businessmen and commercial entities. This account is ideal fo r
making business transactions on a day-to-day basis, which means you can deposit and withdraw
your money at any time.
You can open a current account in any private or public sector bank, most of which offer a
number of different current accounts to their customers.
Salient Features of a Current Account
These are some of the key features of current account:
• No-interest bearing account
• Exempt from annual Zakat deductions
• Debit card service with unlimited transactions. However, the amount you can withdraw vi a
ATM per day may vary with each bank.
• Free of charge phone banking service
• No restriction on the number of deposits and withdrawals via checks
• Free online and internet banking

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• SMS and email alerts for every transaction

Minimum Balance Amount: None (may vary with each bank)
SAVINGS ACCOUNT
As the name suggests, savings accounts are meant for securing your savings. In addition to that,
unlike the current account, they also allow you to earn a certain percentage of interest over time.
It means the amount you deposit in your savings account will accumulate a modest profit.
Moreover, banks in Pakistan offer a number of different savings accounts for individuals who
want to earn income through interest.
Salient Features of a Savings Account
Here are some of the main features of saving accounts:
• Profit-bearing account
• Most banks calculate profit on a monthly average basis.
• Zakat and withholding tax are deducted
• Funds can be accessed at any given time
• Banks periodically credit the profit to the client’s account
• Debit cards can be used to make unlimited transactions
• Free online banking services
• Free of charge phone banking services
Minimum Account Opening Amount: PKR 100 (varies with banks)
Minimum Balance Amount: None (varies with banks)
FOREIGN CURRENCY ACCOUNT
This type of bank account is usually maintained by overseas Pakistanis, dual national citizens,
charitable institutions and commercial entities. It only allows customers to deposit money in
foreign currency. Most banks in Pakistan offer both savings and current foreign currency
accounts where customers can deposit money in US Dollar, Euro, Japanese Yen and British
Pound.
Salient Features of a Foreign Currency Account
Here are some of the most important features of a foreign currency account.
• Only deposits amount in a foreign currency
• Can transfer funds abroad

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• Depositors can earn interest if they choose a savings account

• Zakat and other taxes to be deducted from foreign currency savings accounts.
• Availability of Traveler’s checks and other remittance services
• Its credit card can be utilized in and outside Pakistan.
• Transfer amount from one account to another
• Non‐residents don’t have to pay withholding tax and Zakat, depending on the bank.
Minimum Account Opening Amount: USD 250 or equivalent (may vary with banks)
Minimum Balance Amount: USD 1000 or equivalent (may vary with banks)
Q.2 Write down different types of sets each with example. Also discuss operation on sets.
A set is well defined as the collection of data that does not carry from person to person.
1. Empty Sets -
The set, which has no elements, is also called a Null set or Void set. It is denoted by {}.
Below are the two example of empty set.
Example of empty set: Let, Set A = {a : a is the number of students studying in Class 6th and Class
7th}. Since we all know, a student cannot learn in two classes, therefore set A is an empty set.
Another example of empty set is, set B = {a: 1 < a < 2, a is a natural number}, we know natural
cannot be a decimal, therefore set B is a null set or empty set.
2. Singleton Sets-
The set which has just one element is named a singleton set.
For Example: Set A = { 8 } is a singleton set.
3. Finite and Infinite Sets-
A set which has a finite number of elements is known as finite sets, whereas the set whose elements
can't be estimated, but it has some figure or number, which is large to precise in a set which is
known as Infinite Set.
For Example: Set A = {3,4,5,6,7} is a finite set, as it has a finite number of elements.
Set C = {Number of Cows in India} is an infinite set, there is an approximate number of Cows in
India, but the actual number of cows cannot be expressed, as the numbers could be very large and
counting all cows is not possible.
4. Equal Sets-

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If every element of set A is also the elements of set B and if every element of set A is also the
elements of set A are called equal sets. It means set A and set B have equivalent elements and that
we can denote it as:
A=B
For Example: Let A = {3,4,5,6} and B = {6,5,4,3}, then A = B
And if A = {set of even numbers} and B = { set of natural numbers} the A ≠ B, because natural
numbers consist of all the positive integers starting from 1,2,3,4,5 to infinity, but even numbers
start with 2,4,6,8, and so on.
5. Subsets-
A set S is said to be a subset of set T if the elements of set S belong to set T, or you can say each
element of set S is present in set T. Subset of a set is denoted by the symbol (⊂) and written as S
⊂ T.
We can also write the subset notation as;
S ⊂ T if p ∊ S ⇒ p ∊ T
According to the equation given above, “S is a subset of T only if “p” is an element of S as well
as an element of T.”Each set is a subset of its own set, and a void set or empty set is a subset of all
sets.
6. Power Sets-
The set of all subsets is known as power sets.We know the empty set is a subset of all sets, and
each set is a subset of itself. Taking an example of set X = {2,3}. From the above-given statements,
we can write,
{} is a subset of {2,3}
{2,3} is also a subset of {2,3}
Therefore, power set of X = {2,3},
P(X) = {{},{2},{3},{2,3}}
7. Universal Sets-
A set that contains all the elements of other sets is called universal sets. Generally, it is represented
as ‘U.’

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For Example: set A = {1,2,3}, set B = {3,4,5,6} and C = {5,6,7,8,9}

Then, we will write universal set as, U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,}
Note: According to the definition of the universal set, we can say that all the sets are subsets of the
universal set.
Therefore,
A⊂U
B⊂U
And C ⊂ U
8. Disjoint Sets
If two sets X and Y do not have any common elements, and their intersection results in zero(0),
then set X and Y are called disjoint sets.It can be represented as; X ∩ Y = 0.
All of the operations on sets are ways for us to take two or more sets and make a new set using the
elements of the ones we have.
The most basic of these operations are union, intersection, absolute complement, and relative
complement (also called set difference). Then there are a little more complicated operations like
the symmetric difference and Cartesian product.
To start, suppose A, B, and CC are sets.
Union:
Technically we need the axiom of union and axiom of pairing to define this. What I have below is
the general idea.
The union of A and B is the set
A∪B={x:x∈A∪B={x:x∈A or x∈Bx∈B}}.
What this is saying is that we take all of the elements that are in A and all of the elements that are
in B, then we put them into a new set that we denote A∪B. And if there’s any repeated elements
that happen to be in both A and B we just have one of them in their union, because we view
something like {1,2,2} as the same as {1,2}.
The union operation is both associative and commutative.
Associative means, for any three or more sets that you union, you can group them however you
want and get the same thing. In symbols that is:
(A∪B)∪C=A∪(B∪C)

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Commutative means, it doesn’t matter which set comes first, because it comes out to the same
thing in any order you want to do it. That looks like this:
A∪B=B∪A∪B=B∪A
Intersection:
The intersection of A and B is the set
A∩B={x∈A∪B:x∈A and x∈B}
This means the new set we make has only the elements that A and B have in common. Like the
union, this is also both associative and commutative. Those words have the same meaning as
before. Here is what they look like in practice:
(A∩B)∩C=A∩(B∩C)
A∩B=B∩A
Absolute complement:
This can only make sense if all of the sets you are working with are known to be a subset of an
ambient set. Suppose our sets A,B, and C are all subsets of a different set E. Then we denote each
of their complements as Ac, Bc, and Cc. That is defined to be every element of E that is not in the
subset and it looks like this:
Ac={x∈E:x∉A}
This is different from the relative complement, because it is assumed that EE contains all of the
elements we’re working with. One can’t stress this point enough, since there is no universal set
that contains every element and every set, this notation only makes sense if we state first that the
sets we’re working with are all subsets of a common ambient set. If this is not the case, then the
operation to use is called the relative complement or sometimes set difference.
Relative complement:
The relative complement is defined to be all of the elements of the first set that are not elements
of the second and it looks like this:
A∖B={x∈A:x∉B}
The absolute and relative complements are the same if B is a subset of A, but that doesn’t have to
be the case here.
This operation is neither associative nor commutative. It is pretty common for people to refer to it
as set difference.
Symmetric difference:

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There’s two ways that you can get the symmetric difference. One way is to take the union of the
two sets and then do the set difference with their intersection. That looks like this:
A⊕B=(A∪B)∖(A∩B)
The other way, which gives you the same result, is to union the relative complement when A is the
first set with the relative complement when B is the first set.
A⊕B=(A∖B)∪(B∖A)
This operation is both associative and commutative.
(A⊕B)⊕C=A⊕(B⊕C)
A⊕B=B⊕A
Cartesian product:
For this operation, it’s easiest to just talk about the case with two sets. The Cartesian product
between two sets is the set of all ordered pairs where the first element of the pair is from the first
set and the second element is from the second set.
A×B={(a,b):a∈A b∈B}
This operation is not commutative because (a,b)≠(b,a) if a≠b
Q.3 Use Cremer’s rule to solve the following system of equation. Give the reason where
solution is not possible;
2 x = 13 − 5 y
2 y = 17 − 5 x

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Q.4 (a) Simplify (a2 + 3a2b+ 3ab2+ b3)  ( a – b).
(b) The product of two polynomials is 9x4 -4x2 + 15x + 10. If one polynomial is 3x + 2,
then find the other polynomial.

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Q.5 State the proof of Quadratic formula i.e,
− b + b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
ax2 + bx + c = 0

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square the result to get (b/2a)2 Add (b/2a)2 to both sides:
Since the left side of the equation right above is a perfect square, you can factor the left side by
using the coefficient of the first term (x) and the base of the last term(b/2a) Add these two and raise

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ASSIGNMENT No. 2
Q.1 Write down construction of different types of circles (At least 4) along with their
diagrams.
1. Circle: A circle is a collection of all those points in a plane that are at a given constant
distance from a given fixed point in the plane.
2. Centre: Circle is a closed figure made up of points in a plane that are at the same distance
from a fixed point, called the centre of the circle. In the figure O is the centre.
1. Radius: The constant distance from its centre is called the radius of the circle. In the figure,
OA is radius
2. Chord: A line segment joining two points on a circle is called a chord of the circle. In the
figure, AB is a chord of the circle. If a chord passes through centre then it is longest
chord. PQ, PR, and ST are chords of the circle. Chord ST passes through the centre, hence

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it is a diameter.
3. Diameter: A chord passing through the centre of a circle is called the diameter of the circle.
A circle has an infinite number of diameters. CD is the diameter of the circle as shown in
the figure. If d is the diameter of the circle then d = 2r. where r is the radius. or the longest
chord is called diameter.
In the figure, AB is the diameter and the arcs CD and DC are semicircles.
4. Arc: A continuous piece of a circle is called an arc. Let A,B,C,D,E,F be the points on the
circle. The circle is divided into different pieces. Then, the pieces AB, BC, CD, DE, EF etc.
are all arcs of the circle.
Let P,Q be two points on the circle. These P, Q

divide the circle into two parts. Each part is an arc. These arcs are denoted in anti-clockwise

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direction
5. Circumference of a circle: The perimeter of a circle is called its circumference. The

circumference of a circle of radius r is 2πr.
6. Semicircle: The diameter of a circle divides the circle into two equal parts. Each part is
called a semi-circle. We can also say that half of a circle is called a semi¬circle. In the
figure, AXB and AYB represents two semi-circles.
7. Segment: Let AB be a chord of the circle. Then, AB divides the region enclosed by the
circle (i.e., the circular disc) into two parts. Each of the parts is called a segment of the circle.
The segment, containing the minor arc is called minor segment and the segment, containing
the major arc, is called the major segment and segment of a circle is the region between an

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arc and chord of the circle.
8. Central Angles: Consider a circle. The angle subtended by an arc at the centre O is called
the central angle. The vertex of the central angle is always at the centre O.
9. Degree measure of an arc: Degree measure of a minor arc is the measure of the central
angle subtended by the arc.
The degree measure of the circumference of the circle is always 360°.

10. Interior and Exterior of Circle
A circle divides the plane on which lies into three parts.
(i) Inside the circle. which is called the interior of the circle
(ii) Circle
(iii) Outside the circle, which is called the exterior of the circle.

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The circle and its interior make up the circular region.
11. Sector:
A sector is that region of a circular disc which lies between an arc and the two radii joining
the extremities of the arc and the centre. OAB is a sector as shown in the figure.
Quadrant: One fourth of a circular disc is called a quadrant.
12. Position of a point:

Point Inside the circle: A point P, such that OP < r, is said to lie inside the circle.
The point inside the circle is also called interior point. (Example :
Centre of cirle)
Point outside the circle: A point Q, such that OQ > r, is said to lie outside the circle C (O,
r) = {X, OX = r}
The point outside the circle is also called exterior point.
Point on the circle: A point S, such that OS = r is said to lie on the circle C(O, r) = {X ,OX
= r}.
Circular Disc: It is defined as a set of interior points and points on the circle. In set notation,

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it is written as : C(O, r) = {X : P OX ≤ r}
13. Concentric Circles:

Circles having the same centre and different radius are said to be concentric circles.
Remark. The word ‘radius’ is used for a line segment joining the centre to any point on the
circle and also for its length.
14. Congruence of Circles & Arcs

Congruent circles: Two circles are said to be congruent if and only if, one of them can be
superposed on the other, so as the cover it exactly. It means two circles are congruent if and
only if, their radii are equal. i.e., C (O, r) and C (O’ , r) are congruent if only if r = s.
15. Congruent arcs: Two arcs of a circle are congruent, if either of them can be superposed on
the other, so as to cover it exactly. It is only possible, if degree measure of two arcs are the
same.
Q.2 Prove the following identities:

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i. (sec + tan) (1- sin) = cos

(sec  + tan ) (1 – sin )
= (1/cos  + sin /cos )(1−sin )
= {(1+sin  )/cos }(1 − sin )
= (1− sin )(1 + sin )/cos 
(a + b)(a – b)= a2 – b2, So,
(1 + sin )(1 – sin A) = 1 – sin2.
= (1 – sin2 )/cos 
sin2 + cos2 = 1. So,
1 – sin2 = cos2
Putting it in above expression,
= cos2/cos 
= cos 
sec 2 
ii. = csc 2 
sec  − 1
2

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Q.3 Define volume. Show how to find the volume of different shapes with diagrams. Also
differentiate between area and volume.
The area is defined as the region covered by two-dimensional shapes. The area of different shapes
depends on their dimensions. It is measured in square units.
The 2d shapes include circle, triangle, square, rectangle, parallelogram, pentagon, hexagon, etc.
Hence, all these shapes have different areas.
Volume is a parameter that is defined only for three-dimensional objects. For each three-
dimensional shape, such as sphere, cube, cuboid, cylinder, cone, etc., the volume is different. It is
measured in cubic units.
Area Volume
It is to be noted that area is always defined for The volume is always defined for a
two dimensions objects or plane figures three-dimensional object.

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The area is the amount of space occupied by a Volume is defined as the space occupied
two-dimensional flat object in a plane. by a three-dimensional object.
The unit of area is in square units. The unit of volume is in cubic units.
It is measured in 2 dimension It is measured in 3 dimension
Examples: Square, circle, rectangle, etc. Examples: sphere, cube, cylinder, etc.
Difference of Area and Volume of Shapes

Let us see the areas of different shapes here:
Name of the shape Area
Circle Πr2 (r = radius)
Semicircle ½ πr2 (r = radius)
Triangle ½ × base × height
Square Side2
Rectangle Length × Width
Parallelogram Base × Height
Rhombus Side × Height
Trapezoid ½ (Sum of parallel side) × height
Let us find the volumes of different shapes here:
Name of the shape Volume
Cube 3 Side

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Length × Width ×
Cuboid
Height
Sphere (4/3)πr3
Hemisphere ⅔ (πr3)
Cylinder πr2h
Cone 1/3(πr2h)
Area of Base ×
Prism
Height
Q.4 Write a detailed note on classification and tabulation of data and explain their types.
Draw graphs where needed.
The primary difference between classification and tabulation is that the process of classifying data
int groups is known as classification of data, whereas tabulation is the act of presenting data in
tabular form, for better interpretation.
After the collection of data is completed, it is prepared for analysis. As the data is raw, it needs to
be transformed in such a way, that it is appropriate for analysis. The form of data, highly influences
the result of analysis and so, to get positive results, the data preparation should be proper. There
are various steps of data preparation, which include editing, coding, classification, tabulation,
graphical representation and so on.
For a layperson, classification and tabulation are same, but the fact is they are different, as the
former is a means to sort data, for further analysis while the latter is used to present data.
BASIS FOR
CLASSIFICATION TABULATION
COMPARISON
Meaning Classification is the process of grouping Tabulation is a process of

data into different categories, on the summarizing data and presenting

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BASIS FOR
CLASSIFICATION TABULATION
COMPARISON
basis of nature, behavior, or common it in a compact form, by putting

characteristics. data into statistical table.
Order After data collection After classification
Arrangement Attributes and variables Columns and rows
Purpose To analyse data To present data
Bifurcates data into Categories and sub-categories Headings and sub-headings
Classification refers to a process, wherein data is arranged based on the characteristic under
consideration, into classes, or groups, as per resemblance of observations. Classification puts the
data in a condensed form, as it removes unnecessary details that helps to easily comprehend data.
The data collected for the first time is raw data and so it is arranged in haphazard manner, which
does not provide a clear picture. The classification of data reduces the large volume of raw data
into homogeneous groups, i.e. data having common characteristics or nature are placed in one
group and thus, the whole data is bifurcated into a number of groups. there are four types of
classification:
• Qualitative Classification or Ordinal Classification
• Quantitative Classification
• Chronological or Temporal Classification
• Geographical or Spatial Classification
Tabulation refers to a logical data presentation, wherein raw data is summarized and displayed in
a compact form, i.e. in statistical tables. In other words, it is a systematic arrangement of data in
columns and rows, that represents data in concise and attractive way. One should follow the given
guidelines for tabulation.
• A serial number should be allotted to the table, in addition to the self explanatory title.

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• The statistical table is required to be divided into four parts, i.e. Box head, Stub, Caption
and Body. The complete upper part of the table that contains columns and sub-columns,
along with caption, is the Box Head. The left part of the table, giving description of rows
is called stub. The part of table that contains numerical figures and other content is its body.
• Length and Width of the table should be perfectly balanced.
• Presentation of data should be such that it takes less time and labor to make comparison
between various figures.
• Footnotes, explaining the source of data or any other thing, are to be presented at the bottom
of the table.
The paramount differences between classification and tabulation are discussed in the points given
below:
1. The process of arranging data into different categories, on the basis of nature, behavior, or
common characteristics is called classification. A process of condensing data and
presenting it in a compact form, by putting data into statistical table, is called tabulation.
2. Classification of data is done after data collection process is completed. On the other hand,
tabulation follows classification.
3. Data classification is based on similar attributes and variables of the observations.
Conversely, in tabulation the data is arranged in rows and columns, in a systematic way.
4. Classification of data is performed with the objective of analysing data in order to draw
inferences. Unlike tabulation, which aims at presenting data, to ensure easy comparison of
various figures.
5. In classification, data is bifurcated into categories and sub-categories while in tabulation
data is divided into headings and sub-headings.
Q. 5 What is variance? Differentiate between variance and standard deviation. Write down
their properties and application in field of science.
Standard deviation and variance are basic mathematical concepts that play important roles
throughout the financial sector, including the areas of accounting, economics, and investing. In
the latter, for example, a firm grasp of the calculation and interpretation of these two
measurements is crucial to the creation of an effective trading strategy.
Standard deviation and variance are both determined by using the mean of a group of numbers in
question. The mean is the average of a group of numbers, and the variance measures the average

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degree to which each number is different from the mean. The extent of the variance correlates to
the size of the overall range of numbers—meaning the variance is greater when there is a wider
range of numbers in the group, and the variance is less when there is a narrower range of numbers.
• Standard deviation looks at how spread out a group of numbers is from the mean, by
looking at the square root of the variance.
• The variance measures the average degree to which each point differs from the mean—
the average of all data points.
• The two concepts are useful and significant for traders, who use them to measure market
volatility.
Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is a statistic that looks at how far from the mean a group of numbers is, by
using the square root of the variance. The calculation of variance uses squares because it weighs
outliers more heavily than data closer to the mean. This calculation also prevents differences
above the mean from canceling out those below, which would result in a variance of zero.
Standard deviation is calculated as the square root of variance by figuring out the variation
between each data point relative to the mean. If the points are further from the mean, there is a
higher deviation within the date; if they are closer to the mean, there is a lower deviation. So the
more spread out the group of numbers are, the higher the standard deviation.
Variance
The variance is the average of the squared differences from the mean. To figure out the variance,
first calculate the difference between each point and the mean; then, square and average the
results.
For example, if a group of numbers ranges from 1 to 10, it will have a mean of 5.5. If you square
the differences between each number and the mean, and then find their sum, the result is 82.5. To
figure out the variance, divide the sum, 82.5, by N-1, which is the sample size (in this case 10)
minus 1. The result is a variance of 82.5/9 = 9.17. Standard deviation is the square root of the
variance so that the standard deviation would be about 3.03.
Because of this squaring, the variance is no longer in the same unit of measurement as the original
data. Taking the root of the variance means the standard deviation is restored to the original unit
of measure and therefore much easier to interpret.

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For traders and analysts, these two concepts are of paramount importance as they are used to
measure security and market volatility, which in turn plays a large role in creating a profitable
trading strategy.
Standard deviation is one of the key methods that analysts, portfolio managers, and advisors use
to determine risk. When the group of numbers is closer to the mean, the investment is less risky;
when the group of numbers is further from the mean, the investment is of greater risk to a potential
purchaser.
Securities that are close to their means are seen as less risky, as they are more likely to continue
behaving as such. Securities with large trading ranges that tend to spike or change direction are
riskier. In investing, risk in itself is not a bad thing, as the riskier the security, the greater potential
for a payout.
ASSIGNMENT No. 2
Q.1 Write down how to construct different types of triangles (at least 4) along with their
diagrams.
In Geometry, a triangle is the most important shape, defined as a closed two-dimensional
diagram containing 3 sides, 3 angles, and 3 vertices. In simple words, a triangle is a polygon with
3 sides. The word triangle is taken from the Latin word ‘triangulus,’ which means three-cornered.
During ancient times, astronomers had created a method called triangulation to determine the
distances of the distant stars. They measure the distance from two different locations, then measure
the angle created by shift or parallax, formed by the observer’s movement between the two
locations. Then they used to apply the law of sines for calculating the required distance.
The Egyptians created the pyramids around 2900 B.C. Its shape is actually that of a 3D pyramid,
which has triangular faces. It is a perfectly engineered model that its lengths and angles on all sides
are the same. Miletus (624 BC – 547 BC), a Greek mathematician, adopted Egypt’s geometry and
was brought to Greece.
Aristarchus (310 BC – 250 BC), a Greek mathematician, used the above method to find the
distance between the Earth and the Moon. Eratosthenes (276 BC – 195 BC), again, used the same
method to determine the distance around the surface of Earth (called circumference).
This article will discuss the meaning of a triangle, the different types of triangles and their
properties, and their real-life applications.

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A triangle is a two-dimensional closed figure with 3 sides. It is a polygon with three corners, three
vertices, and three angles joined together that forms a closed diagram. We use the symbol ∆ to
denote a triangle.
Different Types of Triangles
The types of triangles are classified based on:
• The lengths of their sides
• Interior angles
Classification of triangles according to the measure of interior angles
According to the measure of interior angles, we can classify triangles into three categories:
1. Acute-angled
2. Obtuse-angled
3. Right-angled
Acute triangle
An acute angle triangle is a triangle in which all three interior angles are less than 90 degrees.
Each one of the angles a, b and c is less than 90 degrees.

Obtuse triangle
An obtuse triangle is a triangle in which one of the interior angles is more than 90 degrees.
Angle a is more obtuse, while angles b and c are acute.
Right Triangle
A right triangle is a triangle in which one of the angles is exactly 90 degrees. The hypotenuse is
the side of a right triangle with the longest length.

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In the illustration above, angle a = 90 degrees while angles b and c are acute angles.
Classification of triangles according to the length of their sides
We can classify triangles into 3 types based on the lengths of their sides:
1. Scalene
2. Isosceles
3. Equilateral
Isosceles triangle
An isosceles triangle is a triangle in which two sides and two angles are equal. Equal lengths of a
triangle are shown by making an arc on each side.
In the diagram above, the length of side AB = AC and ∠ ABC =∠ ACB.
Equilateral triangle
An equilateral triangle has all three sides equal, and all three interior angles equal, too. In this case,
each interior angle of an equilateral triangle is 60 degrees. An equilateral triangle is sometimes
referred to as an equiangular triangle because all three angles are equal.
In an equilateral triangle, the sides AB = BC = AC and ∠ ABC =∠ ACB = ∠ BAC

Note that the angles of an equilateral triangle do not depend on the lengths of the sides.

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Scalene Triangle
A scalene triangle is a triangle in which all the sides have different measures and all the interior
angles are also different.
Q.2 Prove the following identities:

1 − sin  cos 
a) =
cos  1 + sin 
b) (sin 2  + cos 2  ) 5 = 1
Hense LHS
(1)^5 = 1
LHS = RHS

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Q.3 What is perimeter? How to find perimeter of different geometrical shapes? Explain with
examples and diagrams.
In geometry, perimeter can be defined as the path or the boundary that surrounds a shape. It can
also be defined as the length of the outline of a shape.
The word perimeter has been derived from the Greek word ‘peri’ meaning around, and ‘metron’
which means measure. Perimeter is the total length of the sides of a two-dimensional shape. We
often find the perimeter when putting up Christmas lights around the house or fencing the backyard
garden. Other examples may include finding the total length of the boundary of the soccer field or
the length of the crochet or ribbon required to cover the border of a table mat.

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Q.4 What are the different ways of graphical representation of frequency distribution? Draw
figures and state what type of graph is effective for what sort of data?
The frequency (f) of a particular observation is the number of times the observation occurs in the
data. The distribution of a variable is the pattern of frequencies of the observation. Frequency
distributions are portrayed as frequency tables, histograms, or polygons.
Frequency distributions can show either the actual number of observations falling in each range or
the percentage of observations. In the latter instance, the distribution is called a relative frequency
distribution.
Frequency distribution tables can be used for both categorical and numeric variables. Continuous
variables should only be used with class intervals, which will be explained shortly.
A frequency distribution shows us a summarized grouping of data divided into mutually exclusive
classes and the number of occurrences in a class. It is a way of showing unorganized data notably
to show results of an election, income of people for a certain region, sales of a product within a
certain period, student loan amounts of graduates, etc. Some of the graphs that can be used with
frequency distributions are histograms, line charts, bar charts and pie charts. Frequency
distributions are used for both qualitative and quantitative data.

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1. Decide the number of classes. Too many classes or too few classes might not reveal the
basic shape of the data set, also it will be difficult to interpret such frequency distribution.
2. Calculate the range of the data (Range = Max – Min) by finding the minimum and
maximum data values. Range will be used to determine the class interval or class width.
Generally the class interval or class width is the same for all classes. The classes all taken together
must cover at least the distance from the lowest value (minimum) in the data to the highest
(maximum) value. Equal class intervals are preferred in frequency distribution, while unequal class
intervals (for example logarithmic intervals) may be necessary in certain situations to produce a
good spread of observations between the classes and avoid a large number of empty, or almost
empty classes.
1. Decide the individual class limits and select a suitable starting point of the first class which
is arbitrary; it may be less than or equal to the minimum value. Usually it is started before
the minimum value in such a way that the midpoint (the average of lower and upper class
limits of the first class) is properly placed.
2. Take an observation and mark a vertical bar (|) for a class it belongs. A running tally is kept
till the last observation.
3. Find the frequencies, relative frequency, cumulative frequency etc. as required.
Managing and operating on frequency tabulated data is much simpler than operation on raw data.
There are simple algorithms to calculate median, mean, standard deviation etc. from these tables.
Statistical hypothesis testing is founded on the assessment of differences and similarities between
frequency distributions. This assessment involves measures of central tendency or averages, such
as the mean and median, and measures of variability or statistical dispersion, such as the standard
deviation or variance.
A frequency distribution is said to be skewed when its mean and median are significantly different,
or more generally when it is asymmetric. The kurtosis of a frequency distribution is a measure of
the proportion of extreme values (outliers), which appear at either end of the histogram. If the
distribution is more outlier-prone than the normal distribution it is said to be leptokurtic; if less
outlier-prone it is said to be platykurtic.
Letter frequency distributions are also used in frequency analysis to crack ciphers, and are used to
compare the relative frequencies of letters in different languages and other languages are often
used like Greek, Latin, etc.

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#1 Line Graphs
The most common, simplest, and classic type of chart graph is the line graph. This is the perfect
solution for showing multiple series of closely related series of data. Since line graphs are very
light-weight (they only consist of lines, as opposed to more complex chart types, as shown further
below), they are great for a minimalistic look.
#2 Bar Graphs
Bars (or columns) are the best types of graphs for presenting a single data series. Bar charts have
a much heavier weight to them than line graphs do, so they really emphasize a point and stand out
on the page.
#3 Combo Chart
The above two types of graphs can be combined to create a combo chart with bars and lines. This
is very useful when presenting two data series that have a very different scale and might be
expressed in different units. The most common example is dollars on one axis and percentage on
the other axis.
#4 Scatterplot
The scatterplot is excellent for showing the relationship between two data series and determining
their correlation. The scatterplot is great for showing what a distribution of data points looks like
and for drawing a line of best fit for regression analysis.
#5 Waterfall Chart
In Excel 2016, Microsoft finally introduced a waterfall chart feature. In all older versions of Excel,
analysts had to create a custom workaround using stacked column charts. If you are in a version
of Excel prior to 2016, then please see our free guide and waterfall chart template. The waterfall
chart is excellent for variance analysis and explaining how an “actual” result was different than a
“budget” or how something has changed relative to an original data point.
#6 Pie Graph
Pie charts have a bad reputation and are known for being messy and hard to read. However, if
you’re trying to illustrate the percentage breakdown of a small number of data points, then they
can be very effective. For example, the percentage of people who prefer bananas, pineapples, and
grapes.

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#7 Histogram
Histograms are a type of graph that shows the distribution of a dataset. They graph the percentage
or the number of instances of different categories. For example, to show the distribution of age
categories (0-10, 11-20, 21-30, etc.), we can clearly see which categories are the biggest and how
many people fall into each.
#8 Gauge Chart
The gauge chart is perfect for graphing a single data point and showing where that result fits on a
scale from “bad” to “good”. Gauges are an advanced type of graph, as Excel doesn’t have a
standard template for making them. To build one you have to combine a pie and a
doughnut. Learn how in our data visualization course.
#9 Area Graph
An area chart is a solid area and can be effective when showing stacked, cumulative data series –
for example, showing the cumulative sales revenue from different products. This allows the reader
to easily visualize the “area” (or weight) of each series relative to each other.
#10 Spider chart / radar graph
A spider or radar graph is a very useful type of graph for showing qualitative data or the overall
“score” or comparison of multiple series. For example, a spider/radar can be easily used to
compare three different types of phones based on five criteria (speed, screen size, camera quality,
memory, apps).
Q.5 What is standard deviation? How is it used to interpret data? What is use of standard
deviation in physics? Write down its advantages and disadvantages.
Standard deviation is the measure of dispersion of a set of data from its mean. It measures the
absolute variability of a distribution; the higher the dispersion or variability, the greater is the
standard deviation and greater will be the magnitude of the deviation of the value from their mean.
The concept of Standard Deviation was introduced by Karl Pearson in 1893. It is by far the most
important and widely used measure of dispersion. Its significance lies in the fact that it is free from
those defects which afflicted earlier methods and satisfies most of the properties of a good measure
of dispersion. Standard Deviation is also known as root-mean square deviation as it is the square
root of means of the squared deviations from the arithmetic mean. In financial terms, standard
deviation is used -to measure risks involved in an investment instrument. Standard deviation
provides investors a mathematical basis for decisions to be made regarding their investment in

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financial market. Standard Deviation is a common term used in deals involving stocks, mutual
funds, ETFs and others. Standard Deviation is also known as volatility. It gives a sense of how
dispersed the data in a sample is from the mean. In case of individual observations, Standard
Deviation can be computed in any of the two ways:
1. Take the deviation of the items from the actual mean
2. Take the deviation of the item from the assumed mean
In case of a discrete series, any of the following methods can be used to calculate Standard
Deviation:
1. Actual mean method
2. Assumed mean method
3. Step deviation method
Just like Range gave us the simple measure of spread by telling us the Min and Max values of data,
we have another measure called standard deviation (or an equivalent measure called variance) to
measure spread. Standard Deviation essentially
• Measures the spread (Differences of individual data points) from the mean
• Squares the differences (So that positives and negatives all become positive)
• Takes the average of these squared differences
• Excel makes your life easier. Just use the function, StdevP or VarP and show it the data.
It does all the number crunching on its own!
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of standard deviation:
Advantages:
• The value of standard deviation is always fixed, and it is rigidly defined.
• Mathematical operations and statistical analysis both are possible with the use of standard
deviation.
Disadvantages:
• The open end frequency distribution can be calculated using standard deviation.
• The extreme values in the series affect the standard deviation.

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Course: General Mathematics and Statistics (6401)

Banking System in Pakistan

On the basis of functions, the banks are categorized as follows:

Functions of State Bank of Pakistan

The State Bank of Pakistan performs the following functions.

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• Regulates the banking system in Pakistan.

Commercial Banks are of the following three types.

• Public Sector Banks

Public Sector Banks

• The Bank of Punjab

Private Sector Banks

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• NIB Bank Limited

Citi Bank N.A

Bank of Tokyo - Mitsubishi UFG

It is one of the largest banks in Japan, established in January 2006.

It is the fourth biggest bank in China and is a commercial bank.

Industrial and Commercial Bank of China Limited

Islamic Banks in Pakistan

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• Meezan Bank Limited

TYPES OF BANK ACCOUNTS

The features of the current account are as follows:

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• It provides the checkbook, cash book, and debit card facility.

The features of a saving account are as follows:

Fixed Deposit Account

The features of the fixed deposit account are:

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Top Five Banks of Pakistan

Habib Bank Limited

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National Bank of Pakistan

National Bank of Pakistan is considered as the best bank in Pakistan.

Allied Bank Limited

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The main advantages of e-banking are as follows:

• This system has very rare chances of error.

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Empty or Null or Void Set

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Finite and Infinite Sets

• C = {p: p is a prime number} is an infinite set.

• D = {k: k is a real number} is also an infinite set.

Equal and Unequal Sets

• If X = {a, e, i, o, u} and H = {o, u, i, a, e} then both of these sets are equal.

• If C = {1, 3, 5, 7} and D = {1, 3, 5, 9} then both of these sets are unequal.

• If A = {b, o, y} and B = {b, o, b, y, y} then also A = B because both contain same

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• E = {x: x ϵ N and x3 = 27} is a singleton set with a single element {3}

A universal set contains ALL the elements of a problem under consideration. It

Thus, these are the different types of sets.

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Q.4 (a) Simplify ( a2 + 3a2b+ 3ab2+ b3)  ( a – b).

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(b) The product of two polynomials is 9x4 -4x2 + 15x + 10.

Q.5 State the proof of Quadratic formula i.e.,

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Subtract c/a from both sides

Get the same denominator on the right side: