Write short notes on 6 Hindu/Indian philosophies.

Theistic Indian philosophy refers to philosophical systems and perspectives within the
Indian philosophical tradition that are founded on theism, or belief in a personal or impersonal
divine reality. These philosophical systems affirm the existence of a greater force or ultimate
reality and investigate various elements of the divine, its relationship with the world, and the
techniques by which it can be better understood or realized.

Theistic Indian philosophy is often referred to as "astika" philosophy because it

acknowledges the authority of the Vedas, Hinduism's ancient scriptures. It contrasts with
"nastika" philosophies like Buddhism and Jainism, which reject the Vedas. The Vedas are
regarded as a source of information about the divine and the nature of reality by theistic
philosophies.

Theistic Indian philosophy encompasses the six orthodox systems of Indian philosophy,
known as the "Sad-darshanas" or the six views. Each of these philosophical systems offers a
unique perspective on Vedic wisdom and is associated with a renowned sage who authored a
sutra (code) expressing the essence of their philosophical outlook. These six darshanas are
Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva-Mimamsa or Mimamsa, and Uttara-Mimamsa or
Vedanta. These darshanas generally deal with the existence and nature of Brahman, the nature of
the Jeeva or the individual soul, the creation of the Jagath or the world, and Moksha or the
liberation.

Nyaya Darshana
Nyaya Darshana, propounded by the sage Gautama (Aksapada), is a significant school of
Indian philosophy that focuses on logic, reasoning, methodology, and epistemology. The term
"Nyaya" translates to "Rules," "Method," or "Judgment." This philosophical system lays down
the principles and guidelines for engaging in philosophical debate and inquiry.

Nyaya scholars, known as Naiyyayikas, approach philosophy from a perspective of direct

realism. They assert that anything that truly exists is potentially knowable to humans.

This philosophy seeks to understand the conditions of correct knowledge and the means
of acquiring it. Nyaya, also called Nyaya Vidya or Tarka Sastra, emphasizes systematic
reasoning to discriminate between valid and invalid knowledge. It asserts that obtaining true
knowledge of the external world and its connection to the self is essential for attaining liberation
from suffering. While the study of logic and epistemology is important, Nyaya's philosophy
ultimately aims for liberation and the cessation of pain and suffering.

One of the key aspects of Nyaya is its recognition of four reliable means of acquiring
knowledge, known as Pramanas. These include Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference),
Upamana (Comparison and Analogy), and Shabda (Testimony). Knowledge is classified into two
types in the Nyaya philosophy: anubhava (experiential knowledge) and smrti (memory).
Experiential knowledge is gained by the four pramanas listed above: perception, inference,
comparison, and testimony. The second sort of knowledge, memory-based knowledge, is taken
from one's own mind's storehouse, but ultimately these memories rely on experiential knowledge
because no one can remember anything he has not experienced.

Perception: Perception is knowledge produced by the contact of the senses with the
objects of the world.

Inference: Inference is the process of knowing something not by means of contact

between the senses and the objects of the world and not by observation but rather through
the medium of a sign, or linga, that is invariably related to it. Inference involves the
process of analyzing memories, correlations, and uncontaminated arguments.

Comparison: Comparison is the kind of knowledge that comes when one perceives the
similarity between the description of an unfamiliar object and its actual appearance
before one's senses.

Testimony: Testimony is the knowledge of objects derived from words or sentences. In

Nyaya philosophy, sabda or testimony is defined as the statement of an apta, a person
who speaks and acts the way he thinks.

The Potency of Words

According to the Nyaya system of philosophy, all words possess significant symbolic
power and have the ability to designate their respective objects. This potency of words, known as
Shakti, is considered the will of God. The arrangement of words in a sentence is crucial as they
carry specific meanings based on their inherent potencies, expressing intended meanings within a
particular context. Additionally, Nyaya emphasizes four essential conditions for proper sentence
functioning: expectancy, fitness, proximity, and intention.

The Nature of the Physical World

The Nyaya system categorizes all objects of the world into twelve main categories: soul,
body, senses, objects of the senses, cognition (buddhi), mind (manas), activity, mental
modifications, rebirth, feelings, suffering, and absolute freedom from suffering. While the
physical world consists only of the four gross elements (earth, water, fire, and air), not all objects
of knowledge are found within it. The soul and mind, although involved in the physical world,
are not physical elements. Time and space, despite being nonmaterial, are considered part of the
physical world. While akasa (space or ether) is considered a physical substance, it is not regarded
as a productive cause of anything. The fundamental constituents of earth, air, fire, and water are
eternal and unchanging atoms. Ether, time, and space are also considered eternal and infinite
substances, each being a unified whole.

The Concept of the Individual Soul

Within the various schools of Indian philosophy, different concepts of the soul emerge. In
the Nyaya and Vaisesika systems, the soul is seen as a distinct, indestructible, eternal substance
with consciousness as its attribute. It experiences the external world through the mind and
senses, and its existence is inferred from desires, aversions, volitions, pain, pleasure, and
memories. While one's own soul can be known through mental perception, the soul of another
person can only be inferred. These diverse perspectives contribute to the complex understanding
of the soul within Indian philosophy.

The Concept of Liberation

The ultimate goal of human life, according to the Nyaya system, is attaining liberation,
which means absolute freedom from pain and misery. To achieve this state, the soul must be
completely disconnected from the body and senses, breaking all bondage. True knowledge,
called tattva-jnana, is crucial in this journey. The Nyaya philosophy outlines a three-stage path
for acquiring liberating knowledge. The first stage is sravana, studying spiritual scriptures and
listening to authoritative figures. This is followed by manana, using reasoning to contemplate
and internalize the teachings. The final stage is nididhyasana, deep contemplation and
confirmation of the soul's true nature, practicing it in daily life. Through Sravana, Manana, and
Nididhyasana, one realizes the soul as distinct from the body, mind, senses, and the world. This
realization dispels self-identification and misunderstandings, leading to selfless action and
detachment from desires. True knowledge also purifies past karma, preventing its future
consequences and breaking the cycle of birth and death. This state of liberation marks the
attainment of absolute freedom from suffering.

The Concept of God

According to the Nyaya system, God is seen as the operative cause of the universe's
creation, maintenance, and destruction. Rather than creating the world out of nothing, God
organizes the eternal entities of space, time, mind, and soul into the mortal realm. God is
considered the creator, preserver, and destroyer of the universe. Nyaya provides arguments to
support the existence of God, including the causal argument that states an intelligent cause is
necessary for the organization of atoms in the universe. The concept of adrsta, or fate, also
suggests the need for an intelligent agent to guide and direct the consequences of one's actions.
Additionally, scriptural testimony, such as the Vedas and Upanishads, affirms the existence of
God based on the direct experiences of enlightened sages. These philosophical viewpoints within
the Nyaya system emphasize the belief in an eternal, omnipotent, and omnipresent supreme
being who governs the workings of the universe.

Vaisesika Darshana
Vaisesika, founded by Kaṇāda Kashyapa around the 6th to 2nd century BCE, is a school
of Indian philosophy that puts forth key ideas about the nature of the universe. According to
Vaisesika, all objects in the universe are composed of five elements: earth, water, air, fire, and
ether. It posits that these objects can be reduced to Paramaṇu, which are atoms. The experiences
one has are derived from the interplay of various factors such as substance (which is determined
by the atoms, their number, and spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness,
particularity, and inherence. In essence, Vaisesika offers a comprehensive understanding of the
composition and nature of objects within the physical universe based on the concept of atoms
and their interactions.

Vaisesika is a philosophical system known for its Vedic Atomic Theory and analysis of
the aspects of reality. The distinctive feature of Vaisesika is the introduction of the concept of
uniqueness (visesa), which distinguishes it as a philosophical system.
The Concept of Action - Karma
In the Vaisesika school of thought, karma, or action, is understood as physical movement,
encompassing not only bodily actions but also mental processes since the mind is considered a
type of substance. Unlike quality, which is the static aspect of things, action represents their
dynamic nature and is seen as the independent cause of their coming together or falling apart.
Action can only exist in conjunction with a supporting substance, and it is distinct from both
substance and quality. Substances such as earth, water, fire, air, and mind serve as the basis for
action, while intangible substances like space, time, direction, and soul, being all-pervading, do
not undergo changes in position and thus do not exhibit action. There are five types of action:
upward, downward, inward, outward, and linear. While the actions of tangible substances can be
perceived by the senses, not all actions of intangible substances can be directly observed; for
instance, the movement of the Earth can only be inferred rather than perceived.

The Concept of Generality - Samanya

In Vaisesika philosophy, the category of generality, known as samanya, refers to an
abstract characteristic that is singular, eternal, and pervasive across multiple entities. For
example, the concept of leadership exists as a universal characteristic that can be found in many
individuals. This generality is considered eternal, existing prior to the emergence of any specific
leader and continuing to exist even in the absence of leaders. Entities within a particular class,
such as humans, cows, puppies, or horses, share common names due to the common nature they
possess. Samanya represents the essence of this common characteristic, uniting different entities
into a single class. Vaisesika recognizes three levels of generality: the highest level being
existence itself (satta), encompassing all universals; the lowest level representing specific
characteristics with limited referents; and the intermediate level encompassing concepts like
substantiality. Overall, samanya captures the abstract and universal aspects that unify entities
within various classes of reality.

The Concept of Uniqueness - Visesa

In Vaisesika philosophy, the category of uniqueness, known as visesa, refers to the
characteristic that distinguishes a thing from all other things. It is an abstract quality that is
eternal, similar to imperceptible substances like space, time, direction, soul, and mind. Every
object in the world, whether it exists or not, possesses uniqueness. Generality (samanya) and
uniqueness (visesa) are considered opposite concepts, representing the universal and specific
aspects of entities, respectively.

The Concept of Nonexistence - Abhava

In Vaisesika philosophy, the category of nonexistence is known as abhava - a category of
reality. Unlike the other positive categories, nonexistence is a negative concept. However,
according to Vaisesika, nonexistence exists in its own right. It is perceived and understood just
like the existence of objects. There are two types of nonexistence: absence of something in
something else (samsargabhava) and mutual nonexistence (anyonyabhava). The absence of
something in something else includes antecedent nonexistence, which refers to the nonexistence
of a thing prior to its creation, and the nonexistence of a thing after its destruction. Absolute
nonexistence, on the other hand, is timeless and does not have a specific beginning or end.
Mutual nonexistence refers to the difference between two things, where the presence of one
implies the nonexistence of the other. For instance, a pen and a book mutually exclude each
other's presence.

The Concept of the Creation and Annihilation of the World

According to Vaisesika philosophy, the universe is composed of eternal atoms, and while
the atomic theory aligns with the idea of a materialistic philosophy in modern science, Vaisesika
acknowledges moral and spiritual laws governing the union and separation of atoms. The
functioning of atoms is not solely mechanical but guided by the will of the Supreme Being, who
directs their operation based on individual beings' past impressions. The universe is viewed as
having both eternal and noneternal aspects. The eternal constituents include the four kinds of
atoms and five substances, which are unchangeable and indestructible. The noneternal part
undergoes creation and destruction within specific time and space. Creation begins with the
union of two atoms into a dyad, which can be divided again. Triads, composed of three dyads,
are the smallest perceptible objects from which larger compounds develop. The entire universe is
a systematic arrangement of physical things and living beings, governed not only by physical
laws but also by the moral law of karma. Individual beings are guided by the universal law
(adrsta) in their actions and experiences. The process of creation and annihilation is influenced
by the Supreme Being's will. At the end of life, dissolution and annihilation occur, and
compound things break down into simpler components. The eternal substances remain along
with their meritorious and non-meritorious impressions. Vaisesika emphasizes the concept of
individual karma and the path to liberation, which aligns with Nyaya philosophy.

Sankhya Darshana
The Sankhya philosophy, founded by Kapila Muni, son of Maharishi Kardama, is a
dualistic system that focuses on the concepts of prakriti (matter) and purusha (consciousness). It
posits two fundamental realities in the universe. Unlike other philosophies, Sankhya does not
explicitly assert the existence of God, making it a heterodox philosophy. It regards the Vedas as
reliable sources of knowledge and accepts three of the six Pramanas (proofs) as the only reliable
means of acquiring knowledge. These three Pramanas are Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumaṇa
(inference), and Sabda (word/testimony of reliable sources). Sankhya philosophy delves into the
nature of existence, consciousness, and the interplay between matter and consciousness to
understand the nature of reality.

Sankhya philosophy, often considered the oldest of all philosophical schools, is a

nontheistic dualistic system. While there are different Kapilas associated with Sankhya, the
nontheistic Sankhya system does not include the concept of God. The Sankhya-sutra is
traditionally attributed to Kapila, but the earliest available Sankhya text is the Sankhya-karika by
Isvarakrishna. Various commentaries have been written on Sankhya, including those by
Gaudapada, Vacaspati Misra, Vijnanabhiksu, and Mathara. Sankhya philosophy focuses on
topics such as the theory of causation, the concepts of prakrti (the unconscious principle) and
purusa (the conscious principle), the evolution of the world, the concept of liberation, and the
theory of knowledge. One notable aspect of Sankhya is its consolidation of the constituents of
reality from Nyaya and Vaisesika philosophies into two fundamental principles: purusa and
prakrti. As a nontheistic philosophy, Nirisvara Sankhya excludes the concept of God and remains
a dualistic philosophy.
The Sankhya Theory of Cause and Effect
In Sankhya philosophy, the concept of cause and effect holds great significance. Sankhya
adheres to the satkaryavada view, which states that the effect exists within its cause prior to its
manifestation. This view is contrasted with asatkaryavada, which posits that the effect does not
exist in its cause prior to manifestation. Sankhya philosophy specifically follows the
parinamavada interpretation of satkaryavada, asserting that there is a real transformation of the
cause into the effect. To support this perspective, Sankhya philosophers present five key
arguments. These arguments emphasize that the effect must already exist in some form within its
cause, highlighting the inseparable relationship between cause and effect. Through these
arguments, Sankhya philosophy establishes the theory of parinamvada as a fundamental
principle, shaping its understanding of the universe and other philosophical concepts.

The theory of parinamvada in Sankhya philosophy elucidates the process of

manifestation and annihilation. It is likened to a tortoise extending its limbs from its shell, where
the limbs were previously hidden from view. Sankhya philosophers assert that existence cannot
be converted into nonexistence, nor can something that already exists be completely destroyed.
The theory of manifestation is regarded as the cornerstone of Sankhya philosophy, serving as the
basis upon which its various other theories are built. By recognizing the existence of an
unmanifested form of the effect within its cause, Sankhya philosophy provides a comprehensive
framework to understand the relationship between cause and effect, the nature of the universe,
and the fundamental principles underlying the cosmos.

Prakrti - The Unconscious Principle

According to Sankhya philosophy, the underlying cause and source of the entire world,
including the physical realm and mental faculties, is prakrti, which is referred to as the
unconscious principle. While other philosophical schools attribute the material causes of the
world to atoms of earth, water, fire, and air, Sankhya recognizes that these material atoms cannot
account for the subtler aspects of nature, such as the mind, intellect, and ego. Sankhya
philosophy asserts that the cause of the world must be more subtle than its effects and pervade
them. Prakrti, as the ultimate cause, is considered uncaused, eternal, and all-pervading. It
encompasses the characteristics of external objects, as well as the senses, mind, and intellect.
Sankhya philosophy presents five arguments to establish the existence of prakrti as the ultimate
cause. These arguments emphasize that prakrti is unlimited, possesses the characteristics of
pleasure, pain, and indifference, contains the potential to produce and transform, serves as the
primal cause of the creative and dissolutive processes, and represents the first cause that breaks
the cycle of infinite regression. Prakrti, as the primordial nature, holds a central position in
Sankhya philosophy, explaining the fundamental source and nature of the manifested world.

Purusa - Consciousness
In Sankhya philosophy, purusa is the conscious self that exists separate from the body,
senses, mind, and intellect. It is pure consciousness itself, unchanging and eternal. Sankhya
provides compelling arguments for the existence of purusa, emphasizing that objects in the world
are meant to be utilized by someone other than themselves and that the conscious enjoyer of
these objects is purusa. Prakrti, the unconscious principle and material cause of the world, cannot
be the enjoyer as it lacks consciousness. The external objects, being unconscious, require
guidance from an intelligent principle, which is purusa. Furthermore, the experiences derived
from prakrti have meaning only when experienced by a conscious force, and the innate human
desire for liberation implies the existence of a conscious self striving for freedom. Thus, purusa
represents consciousness and serves as the distinct and eternal self, separate from the changing
and transient aspects of the material world.

Proof of the Existence of Many Selves

Sankhya philosophy presents evidence for the existence of many individual selves or
conscious principles. If there were only one self associated with all bodies, the birth or death of
one person would affect all individuals, but this is not observed. Each person's actions,
experiences, and life events are independent of others. Additionally, the distinct nature of human
beings, animals, and plants suggests the presence of different selves. If all beings shared the
same self, there would be no distinction between these diverse forms of life. Therefore, it is
logical to conclude that there are multiple eternal and intelligent selves. Sankhya recognizes two
fundamental realities: prakrti, the all-pervading unconscious material cause of the universe, and
purusa, the many conscious and unchanging entities. The interaction between these two
principles drives the process of evolution.

The Process of the Evolution of the Universe

According to Sankhya philosophy, the evolution of the universe is driven by the
interaction of purusa (consciousness) and prakrti (material cause). This interaction is not a
physical union but a cooperative relationship where prakrti is influenced by the presence of
purusa. Purusa, being inactive, requires the assistance of prakrti to manifest and differentiate
itself from the material world. On the other hand, prakrti seeks to be known and appreciated, and
it finds fulfillment in the presence of purusa. Through their collaboration, a disturbance occurs
within the equilibrium of the gunas (modes of nature), initiating the process of manifestation.
This process unfolds in stages, beginning with the infusion of purusa into prakrti, symbolizing
the fertilization of the mother principle by the father principle. Thus, Sankhya philosophy
presents the evolution of the universe as a dynamic interplay between consciousness and the
material cause, serving the purpose of self-realization and liberation.

The Concept of Liberation

According to Sankhya philosophy, the concept of liberation is central to the
understanding of one's true nature and freedom from the cycle of pain and misery in the world.
The self, purusa, is distinct from the body, mind, and intellect, which belong to prakrti, the
material cause of the universe. By recognizing the self as pure consciousness beyond the
evolutes of prakrti, one can realize liberation. The interaction between purusa and prakrti serves
the purpose of self-realization, where prakrti manifests herself to help purusa understand his true
nature. Through discriminative knowledge and the practice of non-identification with the
material aspects, one can realize the freedom and distinctness of the self. This leads to liberation,
which can be attained either during one's lifetime (jivana mukti) or after death (videha mukti)
when all karmic impressions are exhausted. Liberation is not a state of bondage but a recognition
of the eternal and all-pervading nature of purusa and prakrti.

The Concept of God

The concept of God in Sankhya philosophy has evolved and been a subject of debate. The
early nontheistic Sankhya did not explicitly acknowledge God, focusing instead on the
interaction between purusa and prakrti. However, later proponents of Sankhya found it
challenging to explain creation and the relationship between purusas and prakrti without
including a Supreme Being. Theistic arguments raised questions about the inspiration for
prakrti's manifestation and the involvement of all purusas. As a result, some Sankhya
philosophers accepted the existence of God to address these concerns. Nevertheless, Sankhya
philosophy continues to emphasize the significance of purusa's role in self-realization and
liberation, with the focus on discerning the true nature of consciousness beyond the material
world.

Yoga Darshana
Yoga, derived from the Sanskrit root "yuj," meaning "to unite," offers a path of self-
discipline and self-realization by connecting individual consciousness with the Supreme
Consciousness. Within the vast spectrum of yoga practices, prominent schools include bhakti-
yoga (the path of devotion), jnana-yoga (the path of knowledge), karma-yoga (the path of selfless
action), and kundalini-yoga (the path of awakening the dormant spiritual energy). One notable
yoga system is Patanjala-yoga, also known as astanga-yoga, which comprises eight
interconnected limbs. Aligned with sankhya philosophy, astanga-yoga serves as the practical
application of sankhya for achieving liberation. Sage Patanjali systematized this yoga system, as
outlined in his work known as Patanjala-yoga-sutra. Various commentaries, including Vyasa's
ancient and profound exposition, enhance the understanding of this yoga path. It delves into the
nature of the mind, its modifications, obstacles to spiritual growth, afflictions, and presents a
methodology to attain the ultimate goal of life, kaivalya, or the state of absolute liberation.

The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, an ancient text on meditation and self-realization, provide
profound insights into the nature of existence and the path to liberation. According to the Yoga
Sutras, the universe is the result of the interaction between prakriti (nature) and purusha (the
self). The ultimate goal of life is to attain union with the Ultimate Reality, a state of
enlightenment known as samadhi. The practice of yoga is aimed at stilling the disturbances of the
mind, allowing the self to be liberated. Mental obstacles, such as attachment, aversion, and
ignorance, create veils that hinder the realization of one's true nature. Through the systematic
practice of yoga, including ethical principles, physical postures, breath control, concentration,
and meditation, individuals can quiet the mind and remove these obstacles, thereby attaining
liberation and experiencing the boundless peace and unity of consciousness.

The Yogic View of Mind

Patanjali's yoga philosophy emphasizes the control and discipline of the mental body as a
means to achieve liberation and self-realization. The mind, considered the finest instrument for
attaining goals, serves as the link between consciousness and the physical body. By stilling the
waves of thought patterns that arise on the surface of the mind and calming the deeper,
unrhythmic waves rooted in memories, one can uncover the true nature of the mind and tap into
its hidden potentials. The mind is composed of the qualities of sattva, rajas, and tamas, and the
interplay of these qualities gives rise to the fluctuating thought patterns. By practicing mental
discipline and reducing disturbances caused by the gunas, one can progressively unveil the inner
state of the mind and move towards self-realization and the highest goal of yoga—kaivalya, or
absoluteness.
Five Stages of Mind
 The mind is described in five stages, each reflecting its degree of transparency. In the
disturbed stage (ksipta), the mind is hyperactive and lacks discrimination, constantly shifting
focus without finding stability. In the stupefied stage (mudha), dominated by inertia and lethargy,
the mind becomes dull and loses its capacity for proper thinking. The restless stage (viksipta) is
characterized by the mind's tendency to wander and lack consistency. These initial stages hinder
growth and bring about negative emotions and suffering. However, the one-pointed stage
(ekagra), dominated by the light aspect of prakrti (sattva), brings tranquility and reveals the true
nature of things. It promotes concentration and is a desirable state for meditation. Finally, the
well-controlled stage (niruddha) is marked by pure sattvic energy and complete stillness,
enabling consciousness to reflect its purity and explore one's true nature. Only the last two stages
are conducive to meditation, where the mind becomes a mirror for pure consciousness to realize
its true self.

The Eightfold Path of Yoga

The eight components (asta-anga) of this yoga system are restraints (yamas), observances
(niyamas), posture (asana), breath control (pranayama), sense withdrawal (pratyahara),
concentration (dharana), meditation (dhyana), and spiritual absorption (samadhi).

Pranayama - Control of the Vital Force

Pranayama, a step in the practice of yoga, focuses on the control and regulation of the
vital force, known as prana. Prana is the life force that animates and sustains all physical and
mental processes in the body. It is the underlying principle that connects body and mind, and its
gross manifestation is seen through the breath. Pranayama involves the continuous regulation of
the breath to strengthen the nervous system and harmonize mental activities. The science of
prana recognizes that prana is the creator and sustainer of all substances and functions in the
universe. It flows through the subtle airs within the body and connects humans with the cosmic
controllers. Prana is further divided into ten types of subtle airs, with the first five being of
particular importance in yoga practice. Prana, the vital force of inspiration, is responsible for
various bodily functions, sensory perceptions, mental activities, emotions, and higher abilities.
The flow of prana is influenced by solar and lunar energy, creating specific conditions and
changes in mood and behavior. The practice of pranayama aims to balance and regulate prana,
leading to enhanced vitality, mental clarity, and overall well-being.

Dhyana - Mediation
Dhyana, or meditation, is a step in the practice of yoga. It is an advanced state of
concentration where the mind becomes fully one-pointed and flows without interruption towards
a single object of focus. Through the process of withdrawing the senses and achieving one-
pointedness, the meditator can approach the Supersoul, or the higher consciousness. The
progression of meditation can be likened to a river that originates from small streams, gathers
momentum, and flows smoothly through various terrains until it merges with the sea. Similarly,
the meditator begins by withdrawing the senses and achieving concentration, leading to a
continuous flow of focused awareness that is undisturbed by emotions, thoughts, and anxieties.
In this meditative state, supernatural powers, known as siddhis, may be experienced. Finally, the
mind reaches the state of samadhi, where it connects with the consciousness of the Supreme
Soul.
Samadhi - Spiritual Absorption
Samadhi is a state of spiritual absorption in which all questions are answered, and one is
established in their true nature. It transcends the restless nature of the mind and goes beyond the
realm of language and conceptual thinking. In samadhi, the individual soul merges with the
Supreme Soul, experiencing eternal bliss and happiness while retaining its individuality. There
are two stages of samadhi: sabija and nirbija. In sabija samadhi, the sense of individuality and
latent desires and attachments still remain. In nirbija samadhi, however, the individual
consciousness is completely united with the Supreme Soul. This can be achieved through pure
devotion to God, leading to entry into the eternal spiritual realm, or through identifying oneself
as one with the Supreme Soul, resulting in merging into the body of the Lord. The followers of
the Patanjali yoga system generally aspire for the latter kind of union.

The Concept of God

Patanjali's yoga philosophy acknowledges the existence of God (isvara). God is described
as the perfect supreme being, eternal, omnipresent, and possessing unlimited power and
knowledge. Unlike individuals who are affected by ignorance, egoism, desires, aversions, and
fear of death, God remains unaffected by these afflictions. God is free from karma, the actions
and their results, as well as any latent impressions. According to Patanjali, individuals share the
same essence as God, but due to the limitations imposed by afflictions and karma, they separate
themselves from God-consciousness and become entangled in the material world. However, this
separation is based on ignorance and creates the illusion of duality. Through the dissolution of
ignorance and the attainment of knowledge, duality is transcended, and full union with the
perfect single Being, God, is achieved. Just as the ocean remains unchanged despite rivers
flowing into it, the perfect single Being, God, remains unchanging and eternally perfect.

Purva-Mimamsa
Purva Mimamsa, founded by Rishi Jaimini through the Mimamsa Sutra or the Purva
Mimamsa Sutras in the period of 300-200 BCE, is a philosophical system of inquiry. The term
"Mimamsa" is derived from the root "Man," which means "thinking" or "investigating." It
signifies a revered thought or critical review and investigation of the Vedas, the ancient Hindu
scriptures. The word "Mimamsa" suggests the act of probing and acquiring knowledge or
engaging in a critical examination of the Vedas. The Vedas are composed of four parts: the
Samhitas (hymns), the Brahmanas (ritual texts), the Aranyakas (forest treatises), and the
Upanishads (philosophical texts). The initial two parts of the Vedas, namely the Samhitas and
Brahmanas, primarily focus on rituals and form the Karma-Kanda section, while the latter two
parts, the Aranyakas and Upanishads, constitute the Jnana-Kanda section concerned with
knowledge. Purva Mimamsa is based on the earlier parts of the Vedas and does not directly
assert the existence of God, making it a heterodox philosophy. It relies on three pramanas or
valid means of knowledge: perception, inference, and testimony.

Karma-mimamsa may be understood as a stepping stone to vedanta. It examines the

teachings of the Veda in the light of karma-kanda rituals, whereas vedanta examines the same
teachings in the light of transcendental knowledge. The karma-mimamsa system is called purva-
mimamsa, which means the earlier study of the Veda, and vedanta is called uttara-mimamsa,
which means the later study of the Veda. Karma-mimamsa is to be taken up by
householders, and vedanta is reserved for wise men who have graduated from household life and
taken up the renounced order (sannyasa).

The karma-mimamsa philosophy aims to provide a practical methodology for utilizing

the Vedic religion (dharma) to satisfy material desires for wealth (artha) and sensual pleasure
(kama). It offers a materialistic explanation of Vedic rituals, interpreting the invocation of
various gods and goddesses in a human-centered rather than a God-centered manner. The focus
is on combining self-discipline from the yoga system with the ritualistic aspects of the Vedas.
The goal is to guide selfish and skeptical individuals towards dutiful adherence to Vedic
injunctions, preparing them for further advancement in the vedanta system. Karma-mimamsa
presents the Vedic religion as a science of mechanistic principles rather than a faith centered on
divine worship. It justifies Vedic dharma to materialists as being useful in satisfying worldly
desires in this life and the next when properly performed. The practice of karma-yoga, or selfless
adherence to duty, is considered essential. The Mimamsa-sutra of Jaimini serves as the
foundational text for this school of thought, with commentaries and independent works by
scholars like Sabara Swami, Kumarila Bhatta, and Prabhakara further developing its teachings.

The Concept of Duty

The concept of duty is essential for maintaining order and harmony in society. It is the
responsibility incumbent upon every individual and has a divine origin. Duty ensures the
continuity and well-being of families, societies, nations, and the entire universe. Neglecting duty
in favor of selfish desires leads to societal problems and eventual destruction. The term dharma
encompasses various meanings such as virtue, duty, morality, righteousness, and religion, but no
single word captures its complete essence. According to the karma-mimamsa system, dharma is
the intrinsic nature of cosmic life and maintaining harmony with it. Disturbing the lives of other
beings is considered adharma, while performing one's duty establishes peace and harmony.
Duties are prescribed in the Vedic scriptures and must be carried out according to one's
scripturally authorized role in life. There is a hierarchy of duties, and discernment is necessary to
determine the appropriate duty in different circumstances. For example, a mother's highest duty
is to care for her child, a teacher's duty is to teach, a student's duty is to study, and a doctor's duty
is to care for patients. According to karma-mimamsa, Vedic rituals are the highest duties of a
brahmana. The efficacy of these rituals depends on the qualifications of the performer and
adherence to the precise methodologies outlined by ancient sages. Entrance into the practice of
these rituals requires the sanction of higher authorities.

Ritual Duty and Philosophy

The concept of duty in the karma-mimamsa philosophy emphasizes the importance of
fulfilling one's responsibilities and obligations. It highlights the idea that understanding and
embracing one's duties is essential for comprehending and exercising one's rights. Neglecting
duty in favor of personal desires and interests can lead to societal problems and destruction.
Dharma, often translated as virtue, duty, righteousness, or religion, encompasses the intrinsic
nature of cosmic life and promotes harmony and peace when followed. Recognizing the
hierarchy of duties and adhering to one's prescribed roles allows individuals to fulfill their
primary obligations. The performance of Vedic rituals is considered the highest duty of a
brahmana, with the rituals themselves serving as a science of mechanistic principles aimed at
maintaining order and benefiting humanity. The philosophy of karma-mimamsa underscores the
significance of rituals and duties, connecting them to the broader cosmic framework and guiding
individuals toward selfless adherence to their responsibilities.

The Science of Mantra

The science of mantra is a fundamental aspect of the karma-mimamsa philosophy.
Mantras are considered to be more significant than deities themselves, as they are rooted in the
science of sound and its vibrational patterns. Sound, known as vak, encompasses both thought
and expression, and the power of speech (vak shakti) serves as a law of communication. Karma-
mimamsa explores the different levels of sound, from its subtle origins to its gross manifestation.
It recognizes the inseparable relationship between sound (sabda) and the object it represents
(artha), forming a self-existent reality. The philosophy distinguishes between external sound with
meaning and sound without meaning, acknowledging the transient nature of external sound but
affirming the eternity of sound itself. The highest states of sound, such as para vak and pasyanti
vak, are transcendental and hold immense significance. Mantras, specific sound vibrations
discovered by sages in deep meditation, are considered bridges that lead individuals to the
Absolute Truth. The proper pronunciation and repetition of mantras, accompanied by prescribed
rituals, awaken their dormant potential and allow individuals to experience the bliss and
happiness contained within them.

The Karma-mimamsa Concept of Gods and Goddesses

According to the karma-mimamsa philosophy, the deities or gods are personified forms
of principles that correspond to the vibrating sound patterns of Vedic mantras. The philosophy
sees the universe as governed by an all-pervading consciousness that manifests itself in different
stages, each represented by a deity and its associated mantra. This concept does not promote
polytheism but rather recognizes an underlying unity. The deities are considered thought-forms
representing cosmic powers, and the mantras are the subtle forms of these deities. The process of
manifestation begins with the emergence of subtle forms that gradually manifest into more
delineated and grosser forms. The deities are not perceived as physically embodied beings, as
they can be present in multiple rituals simultaneously. Rather, they are seen as primal forms and
sound-bodies endowed with perfect bliss and happiness beyond mundane experiences. Deities
and mantras are considered to be interrelated, with a deity being a gross physical form of a
mantra, and a mantra being a subtle form of a deity. Through the proper utilization of mantras in
rituals, the associated deity is believed to be present and capable of fulfilling desired objectives.
The karma-mimamsa system does not rely on the grace of God but emphasizes the proper
execution of rituals to harness the cosmic powers. The purpose of rituals, according to karma-
mimamsa, is to tap into one's inner potential, unite it with the cosmic force, and express gratitude
to the cosmic forces that sustain life.

The Physical is Divine

Karma-mimamsa incorporates a pantheistic view of divinity, perceiving the presence of
the divine in all aspects of the physical world. Through specific rituals and practices, the
philosophy aims to remind individuals of this inherent divinity. Everyday objects such as water,
fruit, incense, grass, stones, and fire are utilized in rituals, symbolically linking the mundane
with the divine. The gathering, handling, and use of these objects are guided by prescribed
procedures and accompanied by mantras that revere and glorify the divinity within them. By
recognizing the divinity present even in the most ordinary objects, karma-mimamsa encourages
individuals to develop a pantheistic conception of God. This perspective helps prevent negative
attitudes and emotions such as hatred, jealousy, anger, and greed from overpowering the mind. It
enables individuals to cultivate a sense of unity and interconnectedness with the cosmos, leading
to a deeper understanding of the impersonal nature of divinity expressed in Vedic teachings.
Ultimately, the philosophy emphasizes the realization that the entire universe is an expression of
the divine, and that individuals themselves are inseparable from that divine reality.

The Concept of Soul

In the context of karma-mimamsa, the concept of the soul is viewed as an eternal and
infinite substance with consciousness. The philosophy acknowledges that the soul has the
inherent capacity to enjoy material existence. It emphasizes the practical approach of karma-
yoga, the path of action, which teaches that individuals are the masters of their own destiny and
that they will reap the fruits of their actions. According to karma-mimamsa, the soul's perfection
is achieved through the proper execution of rituals and adherence to the karma-kanda process,
which enables the realization of all enjoyable aspects within the universe. The philosophy
emphasizes the idea that the soul is meant to experience and enjoy the material world, and by
following the prescribed rituals and actions, individuals can attain fulfillment and spiritual
advancement within the realm of matter.

Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta Darshana

Uttara Mimamsa, also known as Vedanta Darshana, is a profound and influential
philosophical system in Indian philosophy. It encompasses the Upanishads, which are considered
the concluding portion of the Vedas, along with commentaries and interpretations associated
with them. Vedanta explores fundamental questions about reality, the self, and the ultimate truth.
It recognizes three principal means of knowledge: perception, inference, and word. Vedanta
delves into metaphysical inquiries, examining concepts such as Brahman (the ultimate reality),
Atman (the individual self), and the path to spiritual liberation. It encompasses various sub-
schools, each offering unique perspectives on the nature of existence and the relationship
between the individual and the divine.

Vedanta, known as the conclusion of the Vedic revelation, holds great significance in
Indian philosophy. The Upanishads, the subject of Vedanta, are considered the culmination of
Vedic scholarship and are also known as Vedanta due to their profound teachings. The
Upanishads are difficult to understand and require the guidance of a spiritual master. To
systematize the Upanishadic teachings, the sage Vyasadeva compiled the Vedanta-sutra or
Brahma-sutra, consisting of four chapters. These sutras are concise and necessitate further
explanation. Five main schools of Vedanta, known as sampradayas, have been established, each
with its own commentary on the sutras. Shankara's school is impersonalistic, viewing the
Supreme Being as formless and without attributes. The schools of Ramanuja, Madhva,
Nimbarka, and Vishnusvami present God in personal terms, describing transcendental
personalism and establishing the reality of relationships between God, the soul, and matter. The
Gaudiya Sampradaya, a branch of Madhva's school, introduced the siddhanta of acintya-
bedhabheda-tattva, which emphasizes the simultaneous inconceivable oneness and difference.
This siddhanta gained popularity through the works of A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada,
reaching people from around the world.
The nature of God in Vedanta philosophy
In Vedanta philosophy, the nature of God is understood as a positive object of inquiry.
Unlike the mayavadi conception of an impersonal absolute, Vedantists assert that God can be
known through proper use of the senses and mind. God is defined as the source of creation,
maintenance, and dissolution of the universe, and is understood to possess qualities. The
Vedanta-sutra reveals that the universe and God are both real, with God being the source of the
universe. The scriptures describe God's form as one of infinite and all-pervasive sublime
consciousness, characterized by eternity, knowledge, endlessness, beauty, bliss, and perfection.
While materialistic thinkers may perceive a contradiction between pervasiveness and form, the
spiritual substance of God's form resolves this apparent contradiction. God is known from
different perspectives based on the level of realization: as Brahman in theoretical speculation, as
Paramatma as perceived through yoga, and as Bhagavan in the perspective of pure devotion. The
nature of God as anandamaya, or full of abundant bliss, emphasizes the divine sweetness that the
soul attains upon realizing God.

Relation of God to the world

In Vedanta philosophy, the relationship of God to the world is multifaceted and explained
differently by various schools of thought. God is regarded as the operative, material, formal, and
final cause of the cosmos. While mayavadi philosophy considers the world to be ultimately a
dream, other schools emphasize God's role as the intelligent creator and the source of both
material nature and individual souls. Some schools see the world as God's body, while others
assert that matter is separate from God but eternally dependent upon Him. The concept of God's
inconceivable powers is introduced to explain how God can be both the cause of the world and
distinct from it. The material world, which is considered an illusion, is seen as an expression of
God's illusory energy (maya), while God Himself is beyond the temporary manifestations of the
material realm. Overall, Vedanta philosophy explores the intricate and profound relationship
between God and the world, highlighting both unity and distinction.

Relation of God to the individual soul

Indian philosophy offers different perspectives on the relationship between God and the
individual soul. Materialistic philosophies, such as Carvaka and Buddhism, deny the existence of
the soul or view it as synonymous with the body. In contrast, the Vedanta philosophy asserts that
the individual self is non-material and eternal. Vedanta presents two main views: the mayavadi
view that there is only one soul, the Supreme Soul (God), and the personalist view that individual
souls are distinct from God. Personalist schools explain that although God and the souls share
spiritual qualities, a difference remains between them in terms of magnitude and infinitesimal
nature. The Caitanya school reconciles these perspectives by presenting the concept of
inconceivable powers, illustrating that God and the souls simultaneously share qualities of
oneness and difference. The soul's ultimate purpose is to serve God, either directly in a
transcendental personal relationship or indirectly under the illusion of material attachments. By
choosing to love and serve God, the soul can attain liberation (mukti) from the cycle of birth and
death. Liberation can be experienced during one's lifetime (jivanmukti) and continues after death
(videhamukti), where liberated souls engage in eternal devotional service in the spiritual realm.
The Vedanta-sutra asserts that liberation is final and there is no return to the material world, as
declared in the Vedas.
The spiritual form of God
Vedanta-sutra affirms that the form of God is unmanifest, as stated in scripture. However,
intense worship and devotion allow for a direct vision of God's form. Mayavadi philosophers
claim that the form of God is a material symbol imagined by the devotee, but this is contradicted
by the scriptures that declare the form of the Supreme to be the essence of His Self. The
personalist schools of Vedanta identify the personal form of God as the transcendental form of
Vishnu or Krishna, and the divine realm of Vaikuntha is considered the city within Brahman.
The Srimad-Bhagavatam, written by Vyasa, further confirms Krishna as the source of
everything. The design of the universe is seen as originating from the limbs of the Lord, and
meditation upon the form of the Lord is encouraged even after liberation, as the beauty and
attractiveness of God's form compels adoration. Just as a person cured of jaundice continues to
enjoy the sweetness of sugar, liberated souls are irresistibly drawn to worship the form of the
Lord due to its captivating nature.

The systems of nyaya, sankhya, yoga, and others appear to take the Veda as authoritative, and
each school claims to be the most significant expression of what may be gained from the Veda.
The second and third chapters of Vedanta-sutra go into great detail about the flaws and faults of
these competing systems.