Kathmandu University school of Management

Balkumari Lalitpur

Individual Assignment:1 and 2

Submitted to:
Mr. Nitesh Kumar Shah
Faculty of introduction to Philosophy and Theology

Submitted by:
Renuka Bhatt (217020)
Section: A

Date of submission: 19th july, 2023

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Q1. Write short notes on 6 hindu/indian philosophies.

Hindu/Indian philosophies encompass a vast array of philosophical traditions that have

developed in the Indian subcontinent over thousands of years. These philosophies delve into
profound questions regarding the fundamental nature of reality, human existence, ethics, and the
ultimate purpose of life. While deeply rooted in the religious, cultural, and spiritual traditions of
Hinduism, they have also exerted influence on other philosophical systems and schools of
thought in India.

At their core, these philosophies explore various common themes and principles. One such
principle is the concept of karma, which embodies the notion that our actions have consequences,
and we experience the effects of our actions in this life or future lives. Samsara, another
important concept, refers to the cycle of birth and death, suggesting that individuals undergo
multiple lifetimes before attaining liberation. Dharma, on the other hand, encompasses moral and
ethical duties that individuals must fulfill to live a righteous life. Finally, the pursuit of liberation,
known as moksha, is a central aspiration in these philosophies, representing the ultimate goal of
breaking free from the cycle of rebirth and attaining union with the divine or supreme reality.

Therefore, it consists of six orthodox schools of thoughts (Sad-darshanas). Sad-darshanas

generally deal with:
– Existence and nature of Brahman
– Nature of the Jeeva or the individual soul
– Creation of the Jagath or the world
– Moksha or the liberation

Sad-darshanas or the six systems of Orthodox Indian philosophy have been listed below:

1. Nyaya Darshana: Nyaya is a logical and analytical school of Indian philosophy

profound by Gautama. In literary terms it means ‘Rule’, ‘Method’ or ‘Judgment’. It
focuses on valid reasoning and logical argumentation to establish true knowledge
(pramana). This individual accepts four out of the six pramanas (reliable means of
gaining knowledge) recognized in Indian philosophy. The four pramanas they
acknowledge as reliable sources of knowledge are:

● Pratyaksha (Perception): This refers to direct sensory perception, where knowledge is

gained through our five senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell). When we observe
something directly, such as feeling the warmth of sunlight, we gain knowledge through
the process of pratyaksha.
● Anumana (Inference): Inference is the process of arriving at knowledge or conclusions
based on reasoning. It involves drawing logical conclusions based on observation,
experience, or prior knowledge. For example, if we see dark clouds, we can infer that it
might rain because we have observed this correlation in the past.
● Upamana (Comparison and Analogy): Upamana is a means of knowledge that involves
drawing similarities or making comparisons between two objects or ideas. Through this
process, we can understand something new by relating it to something familiar. For
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instance, if someone wants to explain the taste of a new fruit, they might compare it to a
well-known fruit like an apple or orange.
● Sabda (Word/Testimony): Sabda refers to knowledge gained through the word or
testimony of reliable experts, whether past or present. It recognizes the importance of
learning from those who have specialized knowledge or expertise in a particular field. For
example, when we read a book written by an expert or listen to a lecture by a respected
scholar, we gain knowledge based on their reliable testimony.

By employing these cognitive processes, individuals can gather information, analyze it,
and form justified beliefs about the world.

Similarly, Naiyyayika (who follows or is an expert in the Nyaya-philosophy) scholars

approached philosophy as a form of direct realism, stating that anything that really exists
is in principle humanly knowable. Therefore, the statement implies that Naiyyayika
scholars subscribed to direct realism, asserting that the external world is perceived as it is,
without distortion or the need for mental constructions. They also believed that humans
have the capacity to acquire knowledge about the true nature of reality through valid
means of knowledge.

2. Vaishesika Darshana: It was Founded by Kaṇāda Kashyapa around the 2nd century
BCE. Vaisheshika is a philosophy that focuses on metaphysics and the nature of reality.
In this philosophy, it is believed that all objects within the universe are made up of five
fundamental elements: earth, water, air, fire, and ether (space). These elements form the
building blocks of all physical entities and are essential for their existence and
composition.

According to this perspective, the entire physical universe can be broken down and
reduced to its smallest indivisible units called Paramaṇu (atoms or particles). These
Paramaṇu combine and interact to form various substances and objects that we perceive
in our everyday lives. The experiences we have, whether through our senses or internally,
are believed to arise from the interplay and arrangement of these fundamental elements. It
is not only the substances themselves but also their qualities, activities, common
characteristics, individual characteristics, and the inherent nature of objects that
contribute to our experiences and perceptions.

By understanding these concepts and the interplay of substance, quality, activity,

commonness, particularity, and inherence, this philosophy aims to provide an analytical
framework for comprehending the nature of objects and experiences within the physical
universe. It suggests that the diverse phenomena we encounter can be explained and
understood by examining the composition, arrangement, and interactions of the
fundamental elements and their associated attributes.

3. Samkhya Darshana: Samkhya is a dualistic philosophy that seeks to understand the

nature of existence and the universe. It was founded by Kapala muni, son of Maharishi
Kardama. It emphasizes the distinction between matter (Prakriti) and consciousness
(Purusha). Prakriti is the material principle of the cosmos and comprises three gunas, or
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“qualities.” These are sattva, rajas, and tamas. Sattva is illuminating, buoyant and a
source of pleasure; rajas is actuating, propelling and a source of pain; tamas is still,
enveloping and a source of indifference.

The material world is seen as the domain of change, diversity, and bondage, whereas the
conscious self is regarded as pure, unchanging, and free. The ultimate goal of Samkhya
philosophy is to attain liberation by realizing the difference between Prakriti and Purusha
and detaching the Purusha from its identification with Prakriti.

Similarly, Samkhya is a Heterodox philosophy as it does not directly assert the existence
of the god. Instead, it focuses on understanding the nature of existence and the universe
through a dualistic framework. This philosophy also accepts three of six Pramanas
(proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge which are Pratyaksha
(perception), Anumana (inference) and Sabda (word/testimony of reliable sources).

4. Yoga Darshana: Yoga is a holistic philosophy that encompasses physical, mental, and
spiritual aspects. It originated from the ancient text known as the Yoga Sutras, compiled
by Sage Patanjali. This philosophy believes that the universe is the result of the
interaction of nature (prakriti) and the self (purusha).

According to Yoga Darshana, the philosophy of yoga, the ultimate goal of human life is
to achieve union ("yoga") with the Ultimate Reality and attain a state of enlightenment
called samadhi. Here the term Yoga means the union of individual consciousness
(Atman) with the universal consciousness or the Ultimate Reality (Brahman). It is the
realization of the inherent connection between the individual self and the cosmic self.
Yoga aims to dissolve the illusions of separateness and merge the limited self with the
infinite consciousness.

Likewise, Yoga Darshana introduces Ashtanga Yoga, also known as the Eight Limbs of
Yoga, which serves as a practical roadmap for attaining union with the Ultimate Reality.
These eight limbs encompass various aspects of ethical living, self-discipline, physical
postures, breath control, sensory withdrawal, concentration, meditation, and ultimately,
the state of profound absorption and bliss called samadhi. The Eight limbs of Yoga are:

● Yamas: Yamas are ethical principles that govern our behavior towards ourselves and
others. They include practicing non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, moderation, and
non-greed.
● Niyamas: Niyamas are personal observances that cultivate self-discipline and inner
purity. They involve cleanliness, contentment, self-discipline, self-study, and surrendering
to a higher power.
● Asanas: Asanas refer to physical postures that enhance strength, flexibility, and balance.
These postures not only benefit the body but also prepare the mind for meditation.
● Pranayama: Pranayama involves breath control techniques that regulate and expand the
life force energy within the body known as prana. Through pranayama, one gains mastery
over the breath, leading to a state of calmness and focused awareness.
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● Pratyahara: Pratyahara is the practice of withdrawing the senses from external

distractions and turning inward. It allows the mind to detach from sensory experiences,
facilitating introspection and focus.
● Dharana: Dharana entails concentration, the ability to sustain the mind's focus on a single
point or object. By practicing dharana, one develops mental steadiness and reduces
mental fluctuations.
● Dhyana: Dhyana refers to meditation, a state of sustained awareness and focus without a
specific object. During meditation, one observes the mind, thoughts, and emotions while
maintaining equanimity.
● Samadhi: Samadhi is the ultimate goal of yoga. It is a state of profound absorption where
the practitioner transcends the individual self and merges with the object of meditation or
the Ultimate Reality. In this state, the distinction between the observer and the observed
dissolves, leading to pure awareness and bliss.

The Eight Limbs of Yoga provide a comprehensive framework for individuals to progress
on the path of yoga and achieve union with the Ultimate Reality. By embracing ethical
principles, practicing self-discipline, engaging in physical postures, mastering breath
control, withdrawing the senses, cultivating concentration, and embracing meditation,
practitioners can ultimately reach the state of samadhi, experiencing profound unity,
awareness, and bliss.

In the yogic philosophy, it is believed that the mind is the primary cause of suffering and
bondage. Mental obstacles hinder the realization of the true nature of the self and prevent
liberation. So the objective of yoga is to still disturbances of the mind so the self can be
liberated.

5. Purva-Mimamsa: It was propounded by Rishi Jaimini. ‘Mimamsa’ means a ‘revered

thought’, the word originates from the root ‘Man’ which refers to ‘thinking’ or
‘investigating’. Therefore the word Mimamsa suggests “probing and acquiring
knowledge” or “critical review and investigation of the Vedas”. Mimamsa is a school of
philosophy primarily concerned with the interpretation of Vedic scriptures, particularly
the ritualistic portions known as the Karma Kanda. It seeks to understand the nature of
dharma (righteousness) and the correct performance of rituals.

The Vedas, which are ancient scriptures of Hinduism, are composed of four parts: the
Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads. Each of these parts serves
a specific purpose and contributes to the overall understanding and practice of Mimamsa
Philosophy.

● Samhitas: The Samhitas are the oldest and foundational section of the Vedas. They
contain hymns, prayers, and mantras dedicated to various deities.
● Brahmanas: The Brahmanas are prose texts that elaborate on the rituals described in the
Samhitas. They offer detailed instructions, explanations, and interpretations of the rituals,
including their symbolic meanings.
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● Aranyakas: The Aranyakas, serve as a bridge between the ritualistic Brahmanas and the
philosophical Upanishads. Aranyakas delve deeper into the symbolism and mysticism of
the rituals, providing insights into meditation, symbolism, and spiritual practices.
● Upanishads: The Upanishads are philosophical and mystical texts that represent the
culmination of Vedic thought. They are considered the essence of the Vedas and are often
referred to as the Vedanta, meaning the end or conclusion of the Vedas. Upanishads
explore profound metaphysical and spiritual concepts, such as the nature of reality, the
self (Atman), and the ultimate reality (Brahman).

The Samhitas and Brahmanas emphasize rituals, ceremonies, and sacrificial practices.
They are collectively known as the Karma-Kanda portion. In contrast, the later parts, the
Aranyakas and Upanishads, focus more on spiritual knowledge and philosophical inquiry,
forming the Jnana-Kanda portion. Similarly, the Vedas recognize three pramanas, or valid
sources of knowledge: perception (pratyaksha), inference (anumana), and testimony
(sabda). These pramanas are employed to acquire knowledge and validate philosophical
and religious claims made within the Vedic texts.

6. Vedanta Darshana: Vedanta is one of the most influential philosophies in Hinduism. It

is based on the teachings of the Upanishads, which are considered the culmination of
Vedic knowledge. The Vedanta school concerns the end (anta) of the Vedas. Whereas the
principal concern of the earlier portion of the Vedas is action and dharma, the principal
concern of the latter portion of the Vedas is knowledge and mokṣa.

Vedanta holds a prominent position among the diverse philosophical systems in India. It
is highly regarded for its profound insights into the nature of reality, consciousness, and
the self. Vedanta delves into deep metaphysical and ontological questions, offering
comprehensive explanations of existence, knowledge, and liberation. Due to its rich
philosophical content and spiritual implications, Vedanta is considered one of the most
significant and influential philosophical traditions in India.

Furthermore, Vedanta is also categorized as one of the orthodox (astika) philosophical

systems in Hinduism, as it upholds the authority of the Vedas. Orthodoxy refers to the
acceptance of the Vedas as sacred scriptures and the adherence to their teachings. In
comparison to some other philosophical systems in Hinduism, Vedanta is considered
relatively recent. While its philosophical roots can be traced back to the Upanishads, the
systematic development and articulation of Vedanta as a distinct school of thought
occurred in later centuries.

Vedanta acknowledges three principal means of knowledge, known as pramanas. These

are:
● Perception (Pratyaksha): Direct sensory perception is considered a valid means of
acquiring knowledge.
● Inference (Anumana): Logical reasoning based on observation and evidence is employed
to arrive at valid conclusions.
● Word/Testimony (Sabda): Knowledge obtained through authoritative testimony, such as
sacred scriptures or reliable sources, is accepted as valid.
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In conclusion, Each philosophy gives us special ideas about how we understand reality,
consciousness, knowledge, and finding freedom. Therefore, exploring these philosophies helps
individuals appreciate the deep wisdom in Hinduism and the diverse range of ideas.

Q2. Write a short note on four schools of Buddhism.

The four schools of Buddhism, namely the Great Exposition School (Vaibhashika), the Sutra
School (Sautantrika), the Mind-Only School (Cittamatra), and the Middle Way School
(Madhyamika), represent distinct philosophical viewpoints within the Buddhist tradition. These
schools offer diverse interpretations on the nature of reality, the existence of external objects, the
concept of emptiness, and the role of consciousness.

The four schools of Buddhism are:

1. Vaibhashika: The Great Exposition School, also known as Vaibhashika, is one of the
oldest schools of Buddhism. Vaibhashika scholars believe that everything we experience
exists on its own and has an independent existence. They argue that external objects, like
tables or trees, are real and exist outside of our minds. They also believe that time is real,
and that past and future moments have some kind of existence.

According to Vaibhashika, the ultimate reality is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
These atoms are constantly changing and are impermanent. They exist for only a very
brief moment before transforming into something else. In other words, nothing in this
world stays the same forever. To summarize, the Vaibhashika school emphasizes careful
analysis and precision in understanding reality. They believe that external objects are real
and exist independently. They also assert the reality of time and believe that the ultimate
reality is composed of impermanent atoms.

2. Sautantrika:The Sutra School, also called Sautrantika, developed as a response to the

Great Exposition School. It gets its name from relying on the teachings found in the
sutras, which are the recorded discourses of the Buddha. The Sautrantikas place a strong
emphasis on using reasoning and logical analysis to understand how things really are.
They disagree with the Great Exposition School's idea that external objects have an
inherent existence or independent reality. Instead, the Sautrantikas suggest that objects
are mental constructions formed by our minds.

According to the Sutra School, only the present moment truly exists, while the past and
future are more like ideas or concepts we create in our minds. They believe that our
experience of time is subjective and not something objective that exists on its own. The
Sautrantikas highlight the importance of being mindful and aware of the present moment
as a way to understand reality more clearly. They also emphasize the practice of insight
meditation, which helps cultivate a deep understanding of the nature of reality through
direct experience.
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3. Cittamatra: The Mind-Only School, also known as Cittamatra or Yogachara, is a branch

of Buddhism that focuses on understanding consciousness and the mind. According to
this school, everything we experience is dependent on the mind. They believe that
external objects, like the things we see and touch, don't have a separate existence outside
of our minds. Instead, they are like projections or creations of our minds.

In other words, Cittamatra teaches that there is no objective reality that exists
independently of our perceptions. Reality is not something fixed or external; it is
experienced through our thoughts, feelings, and senses. It's like watching a movie, where
the images and sounds we perceive are created by the mind, and we experience them as
real. Cittamatra emphasizes the practice of meditation as a way to understand the nature
of consciousness. Through meditation, practitioners learn to observe their thoughts,
feelings, and perceptions without getting caught up in them. This helps cultivate insight
into the workings of the mind and how it shapes our experience of reality.

4. Madhyamika: The Middle Way School, also known as Madhyamika, was founded by
the philosopher Nagarjuna. This school explores the nature of reality and a concept called
emptiness. Madhyamika teaches that everything we perceive lacks inherent existence and
doesn't have an intrinsic nature. It rejects extreme views of saying things either absolutely
exist or absolutely don't exist. Instead, it emphasizes finding a balanced middle path
between these two extremes.

The Middle Way School criticizes all concepts and viewpoints, including its own
teachings, as ultimately being empty. This means that they see concepts as not
representing an ultimate truth or reality. The goal of Madhyamika is to realize the
non-dual nature of reality, which means understanding that things are interconnected and
not separate. This realization is achieved through directly experiencing emptiness, which
is the idea that nothing has a fixed, independent essence. Madhyamika teaches that
everything we see and experience is not as solid or fixed as it seems. It challenges
extreme beliefs of existence or non-existence and promotes finding a balanced
perspective. The school also says that even its own teachings are not the absolute truth.

Conclusively, these schools of Buddhism offer different perspectives on the nature of reality,
highlighting the importance of understanding the mind, the concept of emptiness, and the role of
perception in our experience. Ultimately, the schools share the common goal of liberating beings
from suffering and attaining enlightenment through wisdom and compassionate action.
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References:

Hindu Philosophy
Hindu Philosophy | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (utm.edu)
Indian Philosophy - General - The Basics of Philosophy (philosophybasics.com)