SCHAUM’S OUTLINE = Bipalte) SMe tir) to]:]8 47) SERIES ELECTRIC CIRCUITS by JOSEPH A. EDMINISTER including 350 solved problems Anvanoo sNinsiiang wavwos @ YUISINIWG] « SLINDAID DJIMLIAIWwz NEW YORK _DIVISION OF PHYsics & PRESTON Botvrecang non SCHAUM’S OUTLINE OF THEORY AND PROBLEMS or ELECTRIC CIRCUITS by JOSEPH A. EDMINISTER, M.S.E. Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering The University of Akron SCHAUM PUBLISHING CO. 257 Park Avenue South, New York 10010Copymcnr © 1965, By Tue SCHAUM PUBLISHING COMPANY All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof may not be reproduced in ‘any form without written permission from the publishers, PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICAPreface ‘This book is designed for use as a supplement to all current standard texts or as a textbook for a first course in circuit analysis. Emphasis is placed on the basic laws, theorems and techniques which are common to the various approaches found in other texts. The subject matter is divided into chapters covering duly-recognized areas of ‘theory and study. Each chapter begins with statements of pertinent definitions, principles and theorems together with illustrative and other descriptive material. This is followed by graded sets of solved and supplementary problems. The solved problems serve to illustrate and amplify the theory, present methods of analysis, pro- vide practical examples, and bring into sharp focus those fine points which enable the student to apply the basic principles correctly and confidently. The large number of supplementary problems serve as a complete review of the material of each chapter. Topies covered include fundamental circuit responses, analysis of waveforms, the complex number system, phasor notation, series and parallel circuits, power and power factor correction, and resonance phenomena. Considerable use of matrices and de- terminants is made in the treatment of mesh current and node voltage methods of analysis. Matrix methods are also employed in the development of wye-delta transfor- mations and network theorems such as superposition and reciprocity. Mutually coupled circuits are very carefully explained. Polyphase circuits of all types are covered, with ‘emphasis on the one-line equivalent circuit which has important applications. The trigonometric and exponential Fourier series are treated simultaneously, and the coeffi- cients of one are frequently converted to coefficients of the other to show their rela- tionship. Direct and alternating current transients are treated using classical differential equations so that this topic can precede the phasor notation of Chapter 5, and this is recommended for those whose proficiency in mathematics will permit this arrangement. The Laplace transform method is introduced and applied to many of the same problems treated in Chapter 16 by differential equations. This permits a con- venient comparison of the two methods and emphasizes the strong points of the Laplace method. I wish to avail myself of this opportunity to express my gratitude to the staff of the ‘Schaum Publishing Company, especially to Mr. Nicola Miracapillo, for their valuable suggestions and helpful cooperation. Thanks and more are due my wife, Nina, for her unfailing assistance and encouragement in this endeavor. JosEPH A. EDMINISTER ‘The University of Akron August 21, 1965CONTENTS Pane Chapter J DEFINITIONS AND CIRCUIT PARAMETERS 1 Mechanieal units, Coulomb's law. Potential difference. Current. | Power. Energy. Resistor, inductor, capacitor. Resistance. Inductance. Capacitance. Kirehhofs laws. chapter. 2 | AVERAGE AND EFFECTIVE VALUES 16 Waveforms. Average value. Root mean square or effective value, RMS value for several sine and cosine terms, Form factor. chapter’ 3 SINUSOIDAL CURRENT AND VOLTAGE : bay Introduction. Sinusoidal currents. Sinusoidal voltages. Impedance. Phase angle. Series and parallel circuits. chapter. 4 COMPLEX NUMBERS 35 Real numbers. Imaginary numbers. Complex numbers. Other forms of com plex numbers. Conjugate of a complex number. Sum and difference of complex numbers. Multiplication of complex numbers. Division of complex humbers. Roots of complex numbers. Logarithm of a complex number. Use fof ‘side rule with complex numbers. Operations with the extended sine tangent scale. Chapter. 5 COMPLEX IMPEDANCE AND PHASOR NOTATION. .... 43 Introduction. Complex impedance. Phasor notation Chapter 6 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS 54 Introduction. Series ci Parallel circuits, “Two-branch parallel circuit, ‘Admittance. ZY conversion. chapter. 7 POWER, AND POWER FACTOR CORRECTION... 68 Introduction. Power in the sinusoidal steady state. Average power. Apparent power. Reactive power. Power triangle. Complex power. Power factor correction. Chapter. 8 | SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE . 81 Introduction. Series resonance. Parallel resonance, pure RLC circuit. Parallel resonance, two-branch circuit. Quality factor. Locus diagrams. Current locus diagrams. Chapter. 9 MESH CURRENT NETWORK ANALYSIS 9 Introduction. Mesh currents. Choice of mesh currents, Number of mesh currents required. Mesh equations by inspection. Matrices. Addition matrices. Multiplication of matrices. Inversion. Determinant of a squai matrix. Minors and cofactors, Value of a determinant. Properties of de- tarminants, Solution of linear equations by determinants. Cramer's rule. Matrix methods and circuit analysis. Driving point impedance. Transfer impedance.Chapter 10 CONTENTS NODE VOLTAGE NETWORK ANALYSIS 5 Introduction. Node voltages. Number of node voltage equations. Nodal ‘equations by inspection. Driving point admittance. Transfer admittance. Page 124 Chapter u THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS ..............- Introduction. ‘Thevenin’s theorem. Norton's theorem. Thevenin and Norton ‘equivalent eireuits. 139 ‘Chapter pr NETWORK THEOREMS Introduction. Y-a transformation. Superposition theorem. Reciprocity theorem. Compensation theorem. Maximum power transfer theorems. 155 Chapter 13 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE ee Introduction, Self-induetance. Mutual inductance. Coupling coefficient. Analysis of coupled eireuits. Natural current, Dot rule for coupled coils Conductively coupled equivalent circuits Ww Chapter 14 POLYPHASE SYSTEMS . Introduction. Two-phase system. Three-phage system. Threephase system voltages, Balanced three-phase Toads. One-line equivalent circuit for balanced Toads. Unbalanced delta-connected load, Unbalanced four-wire, wye-connected load. Unbalanced three-wire, wye-connected load. Displacement neutral method, unbalanced three-wire wye load. Power in balaneed three-phase loa: Wattmeters and four-wire wye loads. Two-wattmeter method. Two-wattmeter ‘method applied to balanced loads. 195 (Chapter 15 FOURIER METHOD OF WAVEFORM ANALYSIS... Introduction. Trigonometrie Fourier series, Exponential Fourier series. Waveform symmetry. Line spectrum. Waveform synthesis. Effective value and power. Applications in eireuit analysis. 218 Chapter 16 CIRCUIT TRANSIENTS: Introduction. Direct eurrent transients. RL transient. RC tr transient charge basis. RLC transient. Alternating current transients. Sinusoidal transient, RC sinusoidal transient, RLC sinusoidal tran ‘Twormesh transients chapter 17 TRANSIENTS BY THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD... 265 Introduction. ‘The Laplace transform. Applications to circuit analysis, Ex pansion methods. Tnitial value theorem. Final value theorem, s domain cireuits, 286 INDEXChapter 1 Definitions and Circuit Parameters MECHANICAL UNITS ‘The rationalized MKS system of units is used in electrical engineering. In this system the fundamental mechanical units are the meter (m) of length, the kilogram (kg) of mass, and the second (sec) of time. The corresponding derived force unit, the newton (nt), is that unbalanced force which will produce an acceleration of 1 m/sec? in a mass of 1 kg. Force (newtons) = mass (kilograms) x acceleration (m/sec*) It follows that the mks unit of work and energy is the newton-meter, called the joule, and the unit of power is the joule/see or watt. (1newton-meter = 1 joule, 1 joule/sec = 1 watt) COULOMB'S LAW ‘The force F between two point charges q and 9° varies directly as the magnitude of each charge and inversely as the square of the distance r between them. = ee r= where k is a (dimensional) proportionality constant which depends on the units used for charge, distance and force. F is given in newtons if q and q’ are in coulombs, r in meters, as k = 9x 10°nt-m*/cou - mis a 12 eoul?/nt-m?, If we now define k aaa then F = 7— ie where «, = = 85 x 10-* coul’/nt-m*. When the surrounding medium is not a vacuum, forces caused by charges induced in the medium reduce the resultant force between free charges immersed in the medium. ‘The net force is now given by F = 4%. For air « is only slightly larger than «, and for most purposes is taken equal to «,. For other materials « is given by c= Ky where K is a dimensionless constant called the dielectric constant or specific inductive capacity of the material between the charges, «= Ke, is called the permittivity of the material, and «, the permittivity of free space. For a vacuum, K=1 and «= «, ‘The unit of charge, the coulomb, may be defined as the quantity of charge which, when placed 1 meter from an equal and similar charge in vacuum, repels it with a force of 9x 10° newtons. Convenient submultiples of the coulomb are 1 ne = 1 mierocoulomb = 10-* coulomb 1 jue = 1 mieromicrocoulomb = 10-! coulomb ‘The charge carried by an electron (~e) or by a proton (+e) is e = 1.602 x 10-* coulomb. 12 DEFINITIONS AND CIRCUIT PARAMETERS [omap. 1 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE » ‘The potential difference v between two points is measured by the work required to transfer unit charge from one point to the other. The volt is the potential difference (p.d.) between two points when 1 joule of work is required to transfer 1 coulomb of charge from one point to the other: 1 volt = 1 joule/eoulomb. If two points of an external circuit have a potential difference v, then a charge g in passing between the two circuit points does an amount of work qv as it moves from the higher to the lower potential point. ‘An agent such as a battery or generator has an electromotive force (emf) if it does work on the charge moving through it, the charge receiving electrical energy as it moves from the lower to the higher potential side. Emf is measured by the p.d. between the terminals when the generator is not delivering current. CURRENT i ‘A material containing free electrons capable of moving from one atom to the next is ‘a conductor. The application of a potential difference causes these electrons to move. ‘An electric current exists in a conductor whenever charge q is being transferred from one point to another in that conductor. If charge is transferred at the uniform rate of 1 coulomb/see, then the constant current existing in the conductor is 1 ampere: 1 ampere = Leoulomb/sec. In general, the instantaneous current i in a conduetor is dq (coulombs) #(emperee) aE (geconds) ‘The positive current direction is, by con- vention, opposite to the direction in which the electrons move. See Fig. 1-1. POWER p Electrical power p is the product of impressed voltage v and resulting current ¢. (watts) = v (volts) x é(amperes) Positive current, by definition, is in the direction of the arrow the voltage source; it leaves the source by the + terminal as shown in Fig. 1-2. When p has a positive value the source transfers energy to the circuit. If power p is a periodic function of time t with period 7, then the A Average power P = 7 if pat Fig 12 ENERGY w Since power p is the time rate of energy transfer, = dw = p= and We Spat where W is the energy transferred during the time interval.CHAP. 1) DEFINITIONS AND CIRCUIT PARAMETERS 8 RESISTOR, INDUCTOR, CAPACITOR When electrical energy is supplied to a circuit element, it will respond in one or more of the following three ways. If the energy is consumed, then the circuit element is a pure resistor. If the energy is stored in a magnetic field, the element is a pure inductor. And if the energy is stored in an electric field, the element is a pure capacitor. A practical cireuit device exhibits more than one of the above and perhaps all three at the same time, ‘but one may be predominant. A coil may be designed to have a high inductance, but the wire with which it is wound has some resistance; hence the coil has both properties. RESISTANCE R The potential difference v(t) across the terminals of a pure resistor is directly proportional to the current i(f) in it. The yg constant of proportionality 2 is called the resistance of the re- sistor and is expressed in volts/ampere or ohms. v(t) = Ri(t) and itt) = gC) No restriction is placed on v(t) and i(t); they may be con- stant with respect to time, as in D.C. circuits, or they may be Fig13 sine or cosine funetions, ete. Lower case letters (v,i,p) indicate general functions of time. Capital letters (V,1, P) denote constant quantities, and peak or maximum values carry a subscript (Vw, 1m, Px). INDUCTANCE L ‘When the current in a circuit is changing, the magnetic flux linking the same circuit changes. This change in flux causes an emf v to be induced in the circuit. The induced emf v is propor- tional to the time rate of change of current if the permeability is constant. The constant of proportionality is called the self- inductance or inductance of the cireuit. vw) = LG and (t) = 1S vdt Fig. 14 When v is in volts and di/dt in amperes/sec, L is in volt-sec/ampere or henries. The self-inductance of a circuit is 1 henry (1h) if an emf of 1 volt is induced in it when the current changes at the rate of 1 ampere/sec. CAPACITANCE C ‘The potential difference v between the terminals of a capaci- tor is proportional to the charge q on it. The constant of propor- tionality C is called the capacitance of the capacitor. a : a) = Col, 4 = B= 08, vy = Bf iat ‘When g is in coulombs and v in volts, C is in coulombs/volt Fig.15 or farads. A capacitor has capacitance 1 farad (1) if it requires 1 coulomb of charge per volt of potential difference between its conductors. Convenient submultiples of the farad are @ sf = Lmicrofarad = 10-*f and 1 psf = 1micromicrofarad = 10-"£4 DEFINITIONS AND CIRCUIT PARAMETERS (CHAP.1 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS 1. The sum of the currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction. If the currents toward a junction are considered positive and those away from the same junction negative, then this law states that the algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at a common junction is zero. 2B currents entering = 3 currents iti = tit Us — oy = Rit Laila or tii or 4% = Ri— Lididt) Fig. 1-6 Fig. 1-7 = potential drops 2. The sum of the rises of potential around any closed circuit equals the sum of the drops of potential in that circuit. In other words, the algebraic sum of the potential differences around a closed circuit is zero. With more than one source when the direc- tions do not agree, the voltage of the source is taken as pi in the direction of the assumed current. Circuit Response of Single Elements Votteze Carrnt scien scroun cloment in element on w= Induetance L mo = 6 eae Units in the MKS System Tae Quanto hie Tenth a Ge | coslomb Ma - Kilogram kg | Potentst «Vw | wot Time second ate |Current, =, | ampere amp Fore Ff | newton nt | Resistance ohm Enerey Wi | joule Inductance hey Power Pip _| watt ow | Camactance tanaCHAP. 1) DEFINITIONS AND CIRCUIT PARAMETERS 5 Solved Problems In the circuit shown in Fig. 1-8 the applied constant voltage is V = 45 volts. Find the current, the voltage drop across each resistor, and the power in each resistor. ‘The sum of the voltage rises equals the sum of the voltage drops around any closed loop; thus 2a V = 1410 +1, 45 = 181, 3amp ‘The voltage drop across the 2 ohm resistor is Vs = IRs (2) = G volts. Similarly, Ve = 8(6) = 18 volts, and Vr 21 volta, ‘The power in the 2 chm resistor is Ps = Val = 6(8) 18 watts or Ps = PR, = 3'(2) = 18 watts. Similarly, Pe = ‘Vel = 54 watts, and P; = Vil = 63 watts. Fes 12. A current Ir divides between two parallel branches having resistances R: and Rs respectively as shown in Fig. 1-9. Develop formulas for the currents J; and Js in the parallel branches. hom ‘The voltage drop in each branch is the same, ie. V = a LR, = Rs Then = hth = 4" 13. Three resistors Ri, Rs, Rs are in parallel as shown in : Fig. 1-10. Derive a formula for the equivalent resist- Ww ance R, of the network. Assume a voltage A to B of v(t), and let the currents in By, Ra, Ry be u(0),ia(D, afd) respectively. The current in Ry a ts Mistbele ia eet oh Phen we) RAR. Abe Ry |B Bio" asc and a 0 = 10 +409 +50 or EO so Jn or Seis or « ewobranch paral drei = th oe a oe RO RTE 14, The two constant voltage sources V4 and Vs act in the same circuit as shown in Fig. 1-11. What power does each deliver? ‘The sum of the potential rises is equal to the sum of the ve Ve potential drops around a closed circuit; hence 20-50 = 1) +102), 10 amp Power delivered by V, = VJ = 20(—10) = —200 watts. Power delivered by V, = Vy = 60(10) = 500 watts,15. 16. La. DEFINITIONS AND CIRCUIT PARAMETERS [cHAP.1 In the circuit shown in Fig. 1-12(a), the voltage function is x(t) = 150 sinot. Find the current i(t), the instan- taneous power p(t), and the average power P. 1 1s ty = Ze = Whainat = 6ainat amperes 0 HO = MOU) = (80InLN wnt) = 800 snot watts P= LG" soosinres dar) = M2 ("ya ~ cos 00 aor 900, hs |" Pelee ganaae| = ato wats a ‘The current) is son tobe relate othe voltage wy the constant R. ‘The instantaneous Power plot could have been obtained by @ point by point product of the » and i plots shown in Fig. 1-12(0) below. Note that v and i are both positive or both negative at any instant; the produet must therefore always be positive. This agrees with the statement that whenever current flows through a resistor, electrical energy is delivered by the source. ° cL, then L/R~0 and $0, ie, the result obtained with pure resistance. If ul > R, then wL/R >= and $> 1/2, ie, the result obtained with pure inductance, Ina series combination of R and L, the current will lag the voltage by some angle from 0° to 90° depending on the relative magnitudes of Rand aL. Now (sce Fig. 3-7(6)) tang 32. The given circuit shown in Fig. 3-8 below passes a current i= 2sin500¢. Calculate the total applied voltage v,. Fig. 3-8 % VRFE (GDF Ia sin (ut + tan“'aL/R) = 28.28 sin (600¢ + 45°) where R= 10, al = 500,02) = 10, tan”*aL/R = 45°, Im Since here R= ab, the current lags the voltage by 45°. In a series circuit of R = 20 ohms and L = .06 henrys the current lags the voltage by 80°. Determine «. tang = oL/R, tan80° = 568 = o(.06)/20, w 893 rad/aee 34. A series RL circuit has L = .02henrys and an impedance of 17.85 ohms. With a sinusoidal voltage applied, the current lags the voltage by 68.4°. Calculate » and R. tang = oL/R, tan634° = 2=02/R, R= Ole 1185 = VF LF = VOI (ORF © = 800 rad/sec and Oe28 SINUSOIDAL CURRENT AND VOLTAGE (CHAP. 8 3.5. A series circuit consisting of R ohms and C farads as shown in Fig. 3-9 below passes a current i = Im cost. Express the total applied voltage v, as a single cosine function. 1/06 Fig. 39 Ue = Met Me = la cosut + (Mum Expressing v, by a aingle cosine term with amplitude A and phase angle ¢, o vp = Acoslut+9) = Aconutcosy — A sinutsing ® In (1) and (2) equate coeficients of cot ut and then of sin wt to obtain RI, = A cos, (I/eC)In = —A sing cos 6 = A= VR FOTO VRFF GTO? ve = Aconlatty) = VRFFUTOOF Ia cos (ot ~ tan! CR) which indicates that the current leads the voltage, (Since ¢ is in the fourth quadrant.) ‘The magnitude of the impedance is VET G/eCP. If R> 1/06, then 1/sCR>0 and 4-0, ie the result obtained with pure resistance, If WoC > R, then 1/oCR >= and 9-1/2, Le, the result obtained with pure capacitance In a series combination of R and C, the current will lead the voltage by some angle from 0° to 90° depending on the relative magnitudes of R and 1/4C. ing is negative and cos is positive, 34, The series circuit shown in Fig. 3-10 below passes a current i= 2.cos5000¢. Find the total applied voltage v,- mal tp = VEFF UTC Ia con (ut tan"/eCR) = 224 c08 (50004 — 68.4°) where R= 6, uC = 1/(6000 x 20x10) = 10, tan~*1/eCR = tan*10/6 = 684°, 1. ‘The current leads the voltage by the phase angle 63.4°. ‘The absolute value of the impedance is 11.18 ohms. Fig. 3.10CHAP. 3] SINUSOIDAL CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 29 A series cireuit consisting of R, L and C passes a current | ve | ve i = Insinet. Determine the voltage across each element. Refer to Fig. 3-12. ze |b KH = Ri = Riasinet I rin a ‘ n= EX dasine) = abla cout Fig 31 te = GS tasinat ae = Jp tal-conat) ar vy and i vy, and i ve and i (in phase with v5) (lags 2, by 90°) (leads ve by 90°) Fig. 312 Referring to Problem 3.7, express the total voltage v, across the three circuit elements as a single sine function. ve = mete toe = Rinsinat + (eL—1/aC ln cost ® Expressing v; as a single sine function with amplitude A and phase angle ¢, (ot +9) ut cong + A coput sing © In (1) and (2) equate coefficients of sin ut and then of cos at to obtain Rn = Acosg, — Info — uC) = Asing = VEEL = TOF I, Now tang = #2 =1MsC and Me = Asin(ot+9) = VROF(L—WeOF Ia sin fot + tan” (ol — 1/60)/R] where VIFF (L=Io0} is the absolute value of the impedance, and tan!(eL—WeCVR is the phase angle. If aL >1/0C, the phase angle ¢ is positive; the current lage the voltage and the circuit has ‘an overall effect which is inductive, If 1/0C > ob, the phase angle ¢ is negative; the current leads the voltage and the circuit has ‘an overall effect which is capacitive, If wl = 1/40, the phase angle ¢ is zero; the current and voltage are said to be in phase and the impedance has the value R. ‘This condition is called series resonance. Show that wZ and 1/6C are given in ohms when « is in rad/sec, L in henrys, and C in farads. Fd. pentyn = 1..Yoltsce _ volt - ot = ee be = Se’ amp = amp = oO Ce ee 3G ~ rad" Zared = °°" Smpsce = amp = Om Note that the radian measure of an angle is « pure (dimensionless) number.30 SINUSOIDAL CURRENT AND VOLTAGE [OHAP. 3 3.10. In a series circuit consisting of R = 15 ohms, L = .08henrys and C = 30 micro- farads, the applied voltage has a frequency of 500 rad/sec. Dees the current lead or lag the applied voltage and by what angle? eb = 500,08) = 40 ohms, eb Val _ tan thee ‘The capacitive reactance 1/sC is greater than the inductive reactance wL. The current leads ‘the applied voltage by 60.65° and the circuit, has an overall effect which is capacitive. The magnitude of the impedance is VR¥+ (ol —i/aC = 20.6 ohms SAL. The potential difference applied to the parallel combination of R and L shown in Fig. 8-18 is v = Vn coset. Find the current in each branch and express the total current i, as a single cosine function ' A ie 9 Be Gk = feb foe = Urea + ant Then t= VOURFF GUALY Vn cos (ut ~ tan" R/aL), ‘The current lags the applied voltage by an angle # = tan“* R/al. If R > ab, then 9» 90° and i, = (Va/eb) cos (at ~90°). With this relatively’ high resistance the current drawn by the resistive 4] : | a 7 R ie branch is quite low. Hence i, is essentially given by i,, Le. the {inductive eurrent controls in fixing total current. If aL > R, then $-+0° and i, = (Va/R) cost. In this ease the inductive branch has a high reactance and hence draws » small current compared to that taken by the resistive branch. Here the resistive current controls in setting total current, 3.12. The voltage applied to the parallel combination of R and C shown in Fig. 8-14 is v = Vmsinet. Find the current in each branch and express the total current i, as = te = Ee oe a single sine function. — | Then = VOR FOF Vu sin (wt + tan! OR) a | he caret load the altgs by the angle # = tan | Ee co If B > 1/0, then $->90° and i, = ig = wCVa sin (ot +90°), the capacitive branch controls in setting the total current. If WoC > B, then $0° and i, ~ ig = (Va/R) sinut, ie the — resistive branch controls in setting the total current, cf v. Fe sinut + wCVm cosut 8.13, ‘The potential difference applied to the parallel combination of R, L and C shown in Fig. 8-15 is 0 = Vu sinot. Find the current in each branch and express the total current i, as a single sine function. b= atte = td fons oft Ye net — Yeeanat + wovecmet tt) ee se, : : ge L *|obee eresig 6, a8 «sng soe fonction wth ame puede aad ae anal aera Paley eee ® Fig. 3.15CHAP. 3] SINUSOIDAL CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 81 34. 3.5. 3.16. In (2) and (2) equate coefficients of sinut and then of cos ut to get VIR = Acs, — WC~ Wal V, = Asing Then tang = C= Mel, cog y = uo A = VORFF CCH TALF Ve, and oa VOIRF + (C= Tek * VGTRF¥ (eC —TTGEF Vin (ut + tan (eC — 1/oL)R] Evidently the sign of the phase angle depends on the relative values of wC and Lal. ‘The induetive branch draws a current which lags the applied voltage by 90°. The capacitive branch draws a current which leads the applied voltage by 90°. In combination these two currents could, with equal magnitude /e branch current is the greater, then the ‘total ‘current lags the applied voltage; if the capacitive branch current is the greater, then the ‘total current leads the applied voltage. ‘Two pure circuit elements in a series connection have the following current and applied voltage: v = 160sin(500¢ + 10°) volts, i = 18.42 sin(500t — 58.4°) amperes: Find the elements comprising the circuit. By inspection, the current lags the voltage by 534° 410° = 69.49; hence the circuit must contain Band L. tan 63.4 Valle = VRFF(ELR, — 150/18.42 Rl = 02 henzys. The eireuit contains 2a eL/R, ob = 2 VET ORF, RF resistor of 59 and an inductor of 02h. 5 ohms and L A series cireuit containing two pure elements has the following current and applied voltage: v = 200sin(2000¢ + 50°) volts, i = 4 cos (2000t + 18.2°) Find the elements comprising the cireuit. Since cosz = sin(e+90°), we may write ¢ = 4 sin(2000¢-4 109.2%). Hence the current leads the voltage by 103.2°—50° = 68.2° and the cireuit must contain R and C. tan 532° = 183 = 1/sCR, eC = 183k Volta = VF CTO, 2004 = VF OBR, OR 1/(1.88aR) = 1.95 x 10°* farada = 12.5 sf. 0 ohms In the series circuit shown in Fig. 3-16 the voltage and current are given by v = 868.6 cos 000¢ ~ 10°) volts, Se i = 125 c08(8000t — 55°) amperes and the inductance is .01 henrys. Find R and C. Tecan ng rata ty 5-10? tae °C gn the inductive reactance oL is greater than the capac reactance UuC. tand45 = 1 = (L—UeCVR, — (oL~ 100) = B ae Vala = VIFF (L=WeCR, — 388.5/125 = VOR R= 20 ohma and from (sb — 1/60) = R we find © = 983 x 10°" farads = 33.8 nt32, SINUSOIDAL CURRENT AND VOLTAGE [cHAP. 3 3.17. In the parallel circuit, as shown in Fig. 3-17 below, the voltage function is v 100 sin (1000¢ + 50°). Express the total current as a single sine function. b= ati = TES ow = 20 sin (1000+ 60°) — 6 cos 1000¢ + 60°) 4A sin 10008 +60°) cos + A cos 10008+ 80°) sin Asing. Then tang = -5/20, ¢ = 1405%; and from which 20 = Acosg and —5 A = 20/(cos ¢) = 208. ‘Thus ig = 20,6 sin (1000+ 50° —14.05°) = 20.6 sin (L000¢ + 85.95°) ‘The current lags the applied voltage by 14.05°. «| - «| i fa Ol Be gm ke Fig. 8.7 Fig. 3.18 3.18. The applied voltage in the given circuit shown in Fig. 3-18 is v = 50 sin (5000¢ + 45: Find all branch currents and the total current. : a4 es b= wate = Eth f ous of 25 sin (6000 + 45°) — 6.25 cos (6000t + 45°) + 5 cos (50001 + 45°) 265 sin (6000¢ + 45°) — 1.25 cos (5000¢ + 45°) = 28 sin (6000 +18.4°), using the methods of this chapter. ‘The current lags the applied voltage by 45°—18.4° = 26.6°, Note that the total current has a maximum value of 28 amperes. This is less than either the maximum inductive or capacitive branch currents which are 6.25 and § amperes respectively. The explanation is obvious from the plots of these three branch currents to the same scale, 8.19. The series combination of R, L and C shown in Fig. 3-19 passes a current i = 8 cos (5000¢— 60°). Find the voltage across each element and the total voltage. = ments te ttn = Binal fia — 6 cos (6000" ~ 60°) — 24 sin (60004 — 60°) + 20 sin (50004 ~ 60°) = 6 cos (6000t— 60°) + 6 sin (6000¢ ~ 60°) 8.49 cos (6000¢— 105°), using the methods of this chapter. a ‘The current leads the total voltage by 105° — 60° = 45°. Note that the maximum applied voltage is 8.49 volts. ‘The voltage aout cross the individual circuit elements is greater than this for the in- active and capacitive elements. A carefully scaled plot will demon- strate what is taking place. Fig. 3419CHAP. 3] SINUSOIDAL CURRENT AND VOLTAGE 33. 320, sai, 322, 320, asi. 332, 333. Supplementary Problems ‘A pure inductance of L=.01h passes a current i = 5 cos 2000t. What is the voltage across the lement? Anz. 100 cos (2000¢ + 90°) ‘A pure capacitance of C= S0sf passes a current i = 12 sin 2000t. Find the voltage across the flement. Ans, 200 ain (2000 90°), In a series circuit of R= 5 ohms and L = .06henry the voltage across the inductance is ‘uy, = 16 sin 200¢. Find the total voltage, the current, the angle by which i lags v, and the magnitude of the impedance. Ans. i = 1.25 sin 200t— 90°), vy = 16.25 sin (200t—22.65°), 67.35°, Va/I= 18 ohms In the same series circuit as Problem 3.22 the voltage across the resistance is vy = 15 sin 200¢. Find the total voltage, the current, the angle by which ‘lags v, and the magnitude of the impedance. ‘Ans. i= 3 sin200t, v, = 89 sin 200¢-+ 67.85°), 67.35°, Va/Im = 18 ohms A series cireuit of two pure elements has the following applied voltage and resulting current: Ye = 265 sin (8008+ 45°), ¢ = 8.6 sin (8008-+ 16°) Find the elements comprising the circuit. Ane. R= 26 chms, L = .08 henry A series circuit of two pure elements has the following applied voltage and resulting current: vp = 180 cos (200t—30°), i = 4.48 cos (200¢~ 56.6°) Find the elements comprising the circuit. Ans. R = 80 ohms, L = .075 henry ‘Two pure elements, R= 12 ohms and C= 31.9f, are connected in series with an applied voltage ‘v= 100 cos (2000 20°). ‘The same two elements are then connected in parallel with the same applied voltage. Find the total current for each connection. Ans. Series: i = 5 cos 2000¢+83:2°), parallel: § = 10.4 cos (2000t + 16.8°) ‘A resistor of R = 27.5 ohms and a capacitor of C = 6.7 sf are in serien The eapacitor voltage is ve = 50 cos 1600t. Find the total voltage v,, the angle by which the current leads the voltage, ‘and the impedance magnitude. Ans. v, = 146.8 cos (1500¢+ 70°), 20°, Va/Im = 29.3 ohms ‘ohms and an unknown capacitor are in series. ‘The voltage across the resistor 25 sin (2000¢ + 80°). If the current leads the applied voltage by 60° what is the unknown capacitance CP Ans. 7.7 af A series circuit of L = .05h and an unknown capacitance has the following applied voltage and end tee ‘v, = 100 sin 60008, ¢ = 2 sin (6000t + 90°) Find the eapacitance C. Ans. C= S67 yf ‘An REG series circuit has a current which lags the applied voltage by 80°, The voltage across the Inductance has a maximum value which is twice the maximum value of the voltage across the capacitor and v, = 10 sin 10002, If R = 20 chms, determine the values of I and C. Ana, L = 28. mb, C = 86.5 pf A series circuit consisting of R= 5 ohms, L = .02 henry and C = 80yf has a variable frequency ‘sinusoidal voltage applied. Find the values of w for which the current (a) will lead the voltage by 45°, (2) be in phase, (c) Ing by 45°. Ane, (a) 675, (0) 790, (c) 925 ‘A two branch parallel circuit with one branch of R = 60 ohms and « single unknown element in the other branch has the following applied voltage and total current: 1v = 100.con(1500¢+45°), é; = 12 sin (1500¢-+ 195°) Pind the unknown element. Ane. R 10 ohme Find the total current to the parallel circuit of L=.05h and ‘v= 100 sin 50008. Ams. fi, = .067 sin (5000 ~90°) 667 pf with an applied voltage34 SINUSOIDAL CURRENT AND VOLTAGE (CHAP. 3 334, A resistor of R= 10 ohms and an inductor of L = .005 henry are in parallel. The current in ‘the inductive branch is. i, = 5 ain 2000¢~ 45°). Find the total current and the angle between iy and the applied voltage. "Ans. i, = 7.07 sin (2000¢ + 0°), 45° (fy lags ») 335. A parallel circuit with one branch of R= 5 ohms and a single unknown element in the other branch hhas the following applied voltage and total current: v= 10 cos (60r+60°), f= 5.88 cos (50~8.29°) Find the unknown clement, Ans. L = .04 henry 336. Two pure clements, = 10 ohms and C = 100 f, in a parallel connection have an applied voltage ‘v = 150 eos (6000¢ 80°). Find the total current, Ana. i, = 76.5 cos (6000¢+48.7°) 331. A pure capacitor of C= 35 af is in parallel with another single circuit clement. If the applied voltage and resulting total current are v = 160 sin 9000 and i, = 16.5 sin (9000t+72.4°) respec- tively, find the other element. Ans. R = 80 ohms 338 An LC parallel circuit has an applied voltage v = 50.cos(9000¢+45°) and a total current 4% = 2 cos (8000t ~ 45°). It is also known that the current in the L branch is five times greater than the current in the C branch, Find Land C. Ana. L = 667mbh, C= 8.33 f 339, Three parallel branches, each containing one pure element, have an applied voltage v = 200 ain 1000¢. ‘The branches contain & = 200 ohms, L=.5h and C= 10,f respectively. Find the total current, the angle between i, and the applied voltage, and the magnitude of the impedance. Ana, i, = 1.14 ain (1000+67.4°), 674° (i; leads 2), Ve/In = 115 ohms 240, Find L in the parallel circuit shown in Fig. 8-20 below if the applied voltage and total current are = 100 sin500¢ and i= 25 sin500t respectively. Ane. L=.08h Fig. 3-20 Fig. 3.21 341, In the parallel cireuit shown in Fi Find the total current. Ans. & 8.21 above the applied voltage is v = 50 sin (2000 — 90%). 1.2 ain (2000¢ 116.6) 8.42, In the parallel cireuit shown in ccarrents iy ini. Ans. it 3-22 below the applied voltage is v = 100 sin 5000". Find the sin (6000¢ ~ 45°), in = 7.07 sin (6000t + 45°), i, = 10 sin 5000¢ Fig. 322 Fig. 2.23 343, In the parallel circuit shown in Fig. 823 the applied voltage is v = 100 cos (6000¢ + 45°). (@) Find the total current. (6) What two elements in a series connection would result in the same current and would therefore be equivalent to the parallel eireuit for the same frequency? Ana. (a) i = 18.5 cos (6000¢ + 684°), (b) series circuit of R = 4.96 ohms and C = 93 4fChapter 4 Complex Numbers REAL NUMBERS ‘The real number system consists of the rational and irrational numbers. The set of all real numbers may be placed in one-to-one correspondence with the set of all points on a straight line, called the real number line, such that each point represents a unique real number and each real number is represented by a unique point on the line, as shown in Fig. 4-1. The operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division can be per- formed with any of the numbers in this system. Square roots of positive real numbers may be represented on the real number line, but the square root of a negative number does not exist in the real number system, -wa va voor of IMAGINARY NUMBERS The square root of a negative real number is called a pure imaginary number, e.g. v=, V=2, V5, y=I6. If we designate j = V=I, then y=2 = v2, y=4 = 12, VB = iV6, ete. Also, it follows that HRI= (D-H = GP = All pure imaginary numbers can be represented by points on a straight line called the ‘imaginary number line, as shown in Fig. 4-2. P=, a2 a a Imaginary Number Line ‘The choice of the word imaginary is an unfortunate one since imaginary numbers exist ‘as surely as real numbers. The term merely signifies that such numbers cannot be repre- sented on the real number line but are located on a second number line, the imaginary num- ber line. COMPLEX NUMBERS A complex number x is a number of the form z+ Jy where x and y are real numbers and j= =I. Ina complex number z+ jy, the first term z is called the real part and the second term jy the imaginary part. When 2=0, the complex number is a pure imaginary and corresponds to a point on the j axis. Similarly, if y=0, the complex number is a real number and corresponds to a point on the real axis. ‘Thus complex numbers include all real numbers and all pure imaginary numbers. ‘Two complex numbers, a+b and ¢+jd, are equal if and only if a=e and b=d. 3536 COMPLEX NUMBERS (CHAP. 4 If, as in Fig. 4-8, the axis of reals is perpendicular to the axis of imaginaries (or j axis) at their common point 0, then each point in the resulting complex plane represents a unique complex number, and conversely. Six complex numbers (x:, ...,2) are plotted in Fig. 4-3. = 2-58 4 = it y= 8422 = 4-H = 348 Fig. 43 OTHER FORMS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS In Fig. 4-4, z= rcosd, y = rsind, and the com- plex number z is z= 2+ iy = reosd + jsind) where r = Vz?+¥ is called the modulus or absolute value of z, and the angle 9 = tan™*y/z is called the am- plitude or argument of 2. ae Euler's formula, e” = (cosd + jsind), permits complex. number another form of a complex number, called the exponential form (see Problem 4.1): «= reosé + jrsing = re# ‘The polar or Steinmetz form of a complex number 2 is widely used in circuit analysi and is written le where @ is usually in degrees. ‘These four ways in which any complex number may be written are summarized below. ‘The one employed will depend upon the operation which is to be performed. Rectangular form za etiy Polar or Steinmetz form 2 = 7/0. Exponential form z= ree ‘Trigonometric form 2 = r(cosa + j sind) CONJUGATE OF A COMPLEX NUMBER ‘The conjugate 2* of a complex number z= z+ jy is the complex number 2* = z— For example, two pairs of conjugate complex numbers are: (1) 3 ~ 72 and 8+ j2, (2) -5-+J4 and ~5—j4,CHAP. 4] COMPLEX NUMBERS 37 In the polar form, the conjugate of z= 1/6 is 2*=1/=0. and sin (-#) = r(cosd + j sin 6) is x* = r(cosd —j sin#). For example, the conjugate of z= 7/30° is zt = 7/-80°. ‘The conjugate z* of a complex number z is always the image of z with respect to the axis of reals, as indicated in Fig. 4-5. 4 = 84H, af = 3-H Thus, four ways of writing a complex vy = 5(148.1°, arts) number z and its conjugate are: Fig.4-5. Complex Numbers and Their Conjugates zante ot n= ret 2 = r(cosd + jsind) a-fyow re# at = r(cosd — j sind) SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF COMPLEX NUMBERS To add two complex numbers, add the real parts and the imaginary parts separately. ‘To subtract two complex numbers, subtract the real parts and the imaginary parts separately. From the practical standpoint, addition and subtraction of complex numbers can be performed conveniently only when both numbers are in the rectangular form. Example 1. Given 2 = 52 and 2 =-B—j8. Then atm = 6-3 + j-2-9 = 2-j10 mom = CBD + ICBHD = -8— 56 MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS ‘The product of two complex numbers when both are in the exponential form follows directly from the laws of exponents. mm = (rie)(neM) = rnelitm The polar or Steinmetz form product is evident from reference to the exponential form, nim = (ri[0i)(ra[O2) = rire[Os+ Os The rectangular form product can be found by treating the two complex numbers as binomials. nm = (ative tin) = sim + jews + ines + tum = (@sae— wm) + Here+ vr22) Example 2. If 8 and x= 26-!/8, then 22 = (Ge/8)(Ro-H/9) = 1Oete/8, Example 3. 2/802 and x= 5/=45°, then 24 = (2/80° )(6/=45° ) = 10/-15°. Example 4. 458 and my = 1-48, then ayy = (2+ 81-38) = 7-79. DIVISION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS For two complex numbers in the exponential form, the quotient follows directly from the laws of exponents. cs rie Tt Kany m > mem ~38 COMPLEX NUMBERS (cHaP. 4 Again, the polar or Steinmetz form of division is evident from reference to the ex- Ponential form. : milo Es olds Division of two complex numbers in the rectangular form is performed by multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator. zt (2 ) (exe t+ yarn) + yee — yas) aetive \a aT Baanple 6 tor and = 200, then BH & Example 6. Given 1, = 8/—80° and (60°; then 2 Example 7. Given 1 =i and = 1432; then 2 * % ROOTS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS Any complex number z= re may be written Similarly, z= r/9 may be written z = r/(9 +n360°). Thus ret = rou and Ye = Yretermn z= 7/0 = r[(0+360°) and Wa = WF /[(0+n360°V/k Now the & distinct kth roots of the complex number can be obtained by assigning to the values 0, 1,2,3,...,k—-1. Example 8 Hf x = 8/60°, then Ya = YB/(60° + n960°)/3 = 2/(20° +n120°). As n assumes the values 0,1 and 2, the three eube roots obtained are 2/20°, 2/140° and 2/260°, Example 9. Find tho five fifth roota of 1. Since 1= 10, then Vi = Yietws = 1o%ws, As n assumes the values 0,1,2,3 and 4, the five fifth roots obtained are 1/0° or 1, 1/12, 1/144°, 1/216° and 1/288° LOGARITHM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER ‘The natural logarithm of a complex number may be readily found when the number is expressed in exponential form. Inz = Inresersm Inr + mem = Ine + 9(9+2zn) ‘The result is not unique. ‘The principal value, when n=0, is most frequently used. im, then Ine In + je/6 = 1.009 + 5.528. Example 10, If 2= USE OF SLIDE RULE WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS Introduction In the phasor notation of Chapter 5, voltage, current and impedance are all complex numbers. The rectangular and polar forms of these quantities are used most frequently. ‘There is need for a rapid and dependable conversion from one form to the other, since the polar form leads to the most direct multiplication or division and the rectangular form is required for addition or subtraction.cHaP. COMPLEX NUMBERS 39 Any slide rule of the deci-trig type may be used for these conversions. Most rules have the tangent scale folded so that the tangents of angles greater than 45° appear on the inverted C scale. The instructions which follow apply to such a rule. For any slide rule not of this type, the reader should consult the instruction book accompanying the rule. Since the sole purpose of this discussion is to arrive at a rapid and dependable con- version in either direction, the trigonometric explanations are reduced to a minimum, POLAR TO RECTANGULAR FORM Example 11. Express 60/53.1° in rectangular form, 2 + iy. 1. Make a sketch, exaggerating the fact that the angle is greater than 45°. 2, Set the C scale index to 50 on the D scale. 3, Move the cursor to place the hairline at 53.1° on the sine and cosine readings of the S scale, Write down both numbers read from the D scale: 40 and 30. 4. Refer to the sketch, noting that the j part is larger than the real part and that Doth are postive. 5, 50/5312 = 30+ j40, i soysaae Example 12. Express 100/=120° in rectangular form, 2 + iv. 1, Make the sketch. ‘The reference angle is 60°, f 2, Set the C seale index to 100 on the D scale, 8, Move the cursor to place the hairline at 60° on the sine cosine scale. The two numbers read on the D scale are 88.6 and 50.0. 4. Refer to the sketch, noting that the j part is larger than the real part and that Doth are negative, s00/=120" 5, 100/-120° = —50.0 — 326.8. RECTANGULAR TO POLAR FORM Example 18 Express 4+ 8 i 1, Make a sketch, exaggerating the fact that the real part is larger than the i part. 2 2, Set the hairline to the emaller of the two numbers (8) on the D scale. Position the C scale index at the larger number (4) on the D scale. 4. On the tangent scale there are two angles at the hairline: 581° and $6.9°. Refer to the sketch and note that the smaller of the two applies in this problem. Place this angle in an angle bracket: 4458 = ....(369%. 5. With the hairline fixed, move the sliding part of the rule to bring 26.9° on the sine cosine scale under the hairline. ‘The 86.9° appears twice on this scale. To obtain the correct one, note that on the tangent scale the 86.9° was on the right wide of the markings. Therefore 38.9° on the right side of the sine cosine scale markings is used in this step. At the C scale index the value of r is read, 5. (Always uso the leftmost number. Note that this causes the index to move to the right.) 4478 = 6/368". Example 1, Express —10 + 20 in polar form, r/e. 1. Make « sketch. 2, Set the hairline to the emaller of the two numbers (10) on the D scale, UW 3 4 * 3. Position the C scale index at the larger number (20) on the D scale. |. ‘The sketch shows that the reference angle is greater than 45°. Read 63.4° on ‘the tangent scale. This is not # but a reference angle. Write it below the angle bracket for use Inter in the problem, and write ¢ = 180° ~63.4° = 116.6° inside the bracket: 10 + j20 168° . ie (68.4)