The Second Feminist Wave: “The Personal Is Political”

Second-wave feminism is a period of feminist activity that first began in the early 1960s

in the United States, and eventually spread throughout the Western world and beyond.

In the United States the movement lasted through the early 1980s It later became a

worldwide movement that was strong in Europe and parts of Asia, such as Turkey and

Israel, where it began in the 1980s, and it began at other times in other countries.

Introduction and Definition

The term second-wave feminism refers mostly to the radical feminism of the women’s

liberation movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s. We start our presentation of

second-wave feminism with the first harbinger of feminism and the most publicized

event in the United States: the protests associated with the Miss America Pageants in

1968 and 1969. Inspired by the tactics of the more activist parts of liberal feminism,

radical second-wave feminists also used performance (e.g., underground or Guerilla

Theater) to shed light on what was now termed “women’s oppression.”

Development of Second Wave of Feminism:

In 1963 Betty Friedan wrote a book “The Feminine Mystique”, known for her

contribution in the beginning of second wave of feminism.

Coining of term Second Wave of Feminism;

In 1968 Martha Lear wrote an article “The Second Feminist Wave” in NY Times

magazine. She termed era of feminist struggle until that time as “First Wave of

Feminism” and from there onwards was named as “Second Wave of Feminism”.

Claims

• Predominately white middle class American based, educated women, eventually

moves into academy (National women's studies association)

• Organization of women's liberation groups in major US cities.

• Activist activities: consciousness raising (CR) groups and speak outs occur in

major cities across US.

• Women step into make dominated political arenas.

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• ERA moves to congress (loss by three votes)

• Successful passing of title IV. (Equal funding of girls and boys activities in

educational settings that are federally funded).

• Women health issues are recognized. : Or bodies, ourselves, 1971.

• Legal and social recognition of domestic violence, sexual harassment, sexual

assault, child sexual abuse, women in the workplace, women in the military,

women reproductive rights, rape, pornography, homophobia.

Activism during Second Wave

The Redstockings, the New York Radical Feminists, and other significant feminist

groups joined the 1969 protest to show how women in pageant competitions were

paraded like cattle, highlighting the underlying assumption that the way women look is

more important than what they do, what they think, or even whether they think at all .

Marching down the Atlantic City boardwalk and close to the event itself, feminists

staged several types of theatrical activism: crowning a sheep Miss America and

throwing “oppressive” gender artifacts, such as bras, girdles, false eyelashes, high

heels, and makeup, into a trash can in front of reporters.

Carrying posters reading, “Cattle Parades Are Degrading to Human Beings,” “Boring

Job: Woman Wanted,” and “Low Pay: Woman Wanted,” feminists made their message

loud and clear: Women were victims of a patriarchal, commercialized, oppressive

beauty culture (Freeman, 1975). It was a perfectly staged media event. A small group of

women bought tickets to the pageant show and smuggled in a banner that read

“WOMEN’S LIBERATION,” while shouting “Freedom for Women” and “No More Miss

America,” hereby exposing the public to an early second-wave feminist agenda.

Simone de Beauvoir and The Second Sex

The French author and philosopher Simone de Beauvoir wrote novels; monographs on

philosophy, politics, and social issues; essays; biographies; and an autobiography. She
is now best known for her metaphysical novels, including She Came to Stay and The

Mandarins, and for her treatise The Second Sex, a detailed analysis of women's

oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism. Written in 1949, its

English translation was published in 1953. It sets out a feminist existentialism which

prescribes a moral revolution.

As an existentialist, she accepted Jean-Paul Sartre's precept existence precedes

essence; hence "one is not born a woman, but becomes one." Her analysis focuses on

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the social construction of Woman as the other. This de Beauvoir identifies as

fundamental to women's oppression. She argues women have historically been

considered deviant and abnormal and contends that even Mary Wollstonecraft

considered men to be the ideal toward which women should aspire. De Beauvoir argues

that for feminism to move forward, this attitude must be set aside.

The Feminine Mystique

Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963) criticized the idea that women could only

find fulfillment through childrearing and homemaking. According to Friedan's obituary in

the “The New York Times”, The Feminine Mystique “ignited the contemporary women's

movement in 1963 and as a result permanently transformed the social fabric of the

United States and countries around the world” and “is widely regarded as one of the

most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.

Organizations

• National Conference of New Politics (NCNP)

• Chicago Women Liberation Union

Legal Victories

• The book published by Betty Friedan proved effective and in 1963 John F.

Kennedy formulated presidential commission on the status of women.

• Equal Pay Act 1963.

• Civil Rights Act 1964.

• Women Education Equity Act 1972.

• Equal Credit Opportunity Act 1974.

• Pregnancy Discrimination Act 1978.

Major Achievements & Milestones

This movement remained very successful and achieved most of its goals. It

changed social attitude towards gender roles, repelling oppressive laws based on sex.

Women were seen in entirely new fields and professions

• Military Academy

• US Armed Forces

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• NASA

• Supreme Court

• Education, Colleges, Universities etc.

Campaign for Equal Rights Amendment was successfully taken up and propagated

by the activists during second wave feminism. But the failure was seen when activists

couldn’t get the Equal Rights Amendment passed.

Criticism

As a consequence, difference feminism gradually grew into what is now often referred

to as “identity politics.” Identity second-wave feminism was marked by a growing

criticism from Black, working-class, and lesbian feminists, outlined by, among others,

bell hooks in Ain’t I A Woman? Black Woman and Feminism (1981) and Trinh T. Minh-

ha in Woman, Native, Other: Writing

Postcoloniality and Feminism (1989)

In the context of the complex power relations of a postcolonial but still imperial and

capitalist world, they questioned what they saw as a predominantly White, middle-class,

and heterosexual feminist agenda and raised the issue of a differentiated-identity

politics, based on the contingent and diversified but no less decisive intersections of

gender, class, race/ethnicity, and sexuality.

Conclusion

Second-wave feminism is not one, but many. As expressed by feminist communication

scholar Julia Wood (1994), the question may not be whether you are a feminist, but

which kind of feminist you are. This question is multiplied by the emergence of third-

wave feminism. But before we turn to emergent feminisms, let us conclude that second-

wave feminisms have been highly theoretical and consequently have had strong

affiliations with the academy. Starting in the 1970s, second-wave feminisms have

generated an explosion of research and teaching on women’s issues, which has now

grown into a diverse disciplinary field of women’s, gender, or feminist studies.

Women in the Second Wave of Feminism

National Organization for Women founders meeting at a conference in Washington DC, 1966,
via Harvard Radcliffe Institute
 

The second-wave feminism movement involved many women activists who also participated in
other social movements, such as the Civil Rights Movement, counterculture movement, and the
gay liberation movement. The National Organization for Women (NOW) was formed in 1966
and became one of the largest feminist organizations from the second wave. The NOW was
founded by some of the most influential women’s rights advocates in history, and the
organization has remained active with over 500,000 members. Betty Friedan was elected to be
the first president of the organization.

The National Black Feminist Organization (NBFO) was founded in 1973 by Black feminists,

including Florynce Kennedy and Margaret Sloan-Hunter. The organization was established not
only to advocate for women’s rights but also for the rights of African Americans who were often
overlooked by other feminist organizations at the time. Some members of the NBFO decided to
break off into their own organization, known as the Combahee River Collective. It consisted of
Black feminists who fought against class oppression and racism and advocated for gay rights and
women’s rights.
 

Women’s liberation march in Washington DC advocating for equality by Warren K. Leffler,

1970, via the Library of Congress, Washington DC
 

Many feminist activists fought their way through industries that consisted mostly of men. Gloria
Steinem was a feminist, spokeswoman, and journalist who documented the women’s rights
movement and published stories on social issues. She started her career as a journalist in New
York but struggled in her male-dominated workplace. Steinem wanted to cover social and
political stories but was assigned stories for the “women’s lifestyle” section.

Steinem became known after going undercover as a Playboy Bunny in Hugh Hefner’s mansion
in 1963. She wrote an exposé titled “I Was a Playboy Bunny.” The assignment uncovered the
mistreatment of the Playboy Bunny waitresses, including sexism and low pay. Steinem helped in
the founding of New York magazine in 1968 and Ms. magazine in 1971.

Other prominent figures of the second-wave feminism movement included Congresswoman

Shirley Chisholm. She was the first African American woman elected to Congress. Chisholm
and Steinem were both co-founders of the National Women’s Political Caucus (NWPC), which
was created to help women become more involved in the public and political sector. The work
of second-wave feminists led to great accomplishments in extending women’s rights even
further.

Accomplishments of Second-Wave Feminism

Women’s rights advocates at the Women’s Liberation Parade in New York, 1971, via National
Organization for Women
 

Some of the accomplishments gained during second-wave feminism built a foundation for future
rights for women and others. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to prohibit
discrimination based upon race, color, national origin, sex, or religion. This was a big victory for
the Civil Rights Movement and the second wave of feminism. The Equal Rights Amendment
was reintroduced every Congressional session after it had failed to pass Congress in 1923. The
amendment passed in the US House of Representatives and Senate in 1972 but didn’t meet the
minimum ratification requirement of 38 states; it fell short by just three states.
 

Perhaps one of the biggest accomplishments during the second wave was women’s reproductive
health rights. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first oral contraception
in 1960. It was given the nickname “the Pill” and initially faced much backlash, causing
restrictions to be put in place. For example, the Griswold v. Connecticut Supreme Court decision
ruled that married couples were legally allowed to use contraceptives based on the right to
privacy. This was brought before the Supreme Court due to a Connecticut law that had banned
contraceptives for married couples. Eight years later, Roe v. Wade ensured that women had the
right to an abortion before a fetus was considered viable, regardless of state law.

Other second-wave feminism goals for women included education and taking on leadership
positions in employment in various job industries. In 1984, the Supreme Court ruled in Hishon v.
King & Spaulding that gender-based discrimination against lawyers in relation to promotions to
partnership positions in law firms was prohibited. This decision confirmed that Title VII of the
Civil Rights Act of 1964 protected individuals’ rights against discrimination in employment.

The Impact of Second-Wave Feminism

Women’s Strike for Peace and Equality organized by the National Organization of Women by
Eugene Gordon, 1970, via New York Historical Society
 

Second-wave feminism made leaps and bounds throughout the few

decades that the movement lasted. The second wave began to fade
out in the 1980s. The increase in activism from the 1950s through the
‘70s further supported advancements in civil, social, and political
rights. Many of the accomplishments throughout the second wave
contributed to future Supreme Court rulings and laws that benefited
not only women but other individuals as well.

The third wave of feminism appeared in the 1990s to tackle issues

that second-wave feminism had failed to fully address. These were
mostly related to inclusivity in the feminist movement. While the
second wave focused on a much broader range of issues than the first
wave, it didn’t embrace all identities, whether it be gender, race, or
class. Nevertheless, second-wave feminists inspired women to speak
out against inequalities and expanded upon women’s rights more than
ever before.