.

Introduction
Why do individuals commit crimes? At the same time, why is crime present in our
society? The criminal justice system is very concerned with these questions, and
criminologists are attempting to answer them. In actuality, the question of why crime is
committed is very difficult to answer. However, for centuries, people have been
searching for answers (Jacoby, 2004). It is important to recognize that there are many
different explanations as to why individuals commit crime (Conklin, 2007). One of the
main explanations is based on psychological theories, which focus on the association
among intelligence, personality, learning, and criminal behavior. Thus, in any discussion
concerning crime causation, one must contemplate psychological theories.

When examining psychological theories of crime, one must be cognizant of the three
major theories. The first is psychodynamic theory, which is centered on the notion that
an individual’s early childhood experience influences his or her likelihood for committing
future crimes. The second is behavioral theory. Behavioral theorists have expanded the
work of Gabriel Tarde through behavior modeling and social learning. The third is
cognitive theory, the major premise of which suggests that an individual’s perception
and how it is manifested (Jacoby, 2004) affect his or her potential to commit crime. In
other words, behavioral theory focuses on how an individual’s perception of the world
influences his or her behavior.

Also germane to psychological theories are personality and intelligence. Combined,

these five theories or characteristics (i.e., psychodynamic, cognitive, behavioral,
personality, and intelligence) offer appealing insights into why an individual may commit
a crime (Schmalleger, 2008). However, one should not assume this there is only one
reason why a person commits crime. Researchers looking for a single explanation
should be cautious, because there is no panacea for the problem of crime.

2. Early Research
Charles Goring (1870–1919) discovered a relationship between crime and flawed
intelligence. Goring examined more than 3,000 convicts in England. It is important to
note that Goring found no physical differences between noncriminals and criminals;
however, he did find that criminals are more likely to be insane, to be unintelligent, and
to exhibit poor social behavior. A second pioneer is Gabriel Tarde (1843–1904), who
maintained that individuals learn from each other and ultimately imitate one another.
Interestingly, Tarde thought that out of 100 individuals, only 1 was creative or inventive
and the remainder were prone to imitation (Jacoby, 2004).

3. Psychodynamic Theory
Proponents of psychodynamic theory suggest that an individual’s personality is
controlled by unconscious mental processes that are grounded in early childhood. This
theory was originated by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), the founder of psychoanalysis.
Imperative to this theory are the three elements or structures that make up the human
personality: (1) the id, (2), the ego, and (3) the superego. One can think of the id is as
the primitive part of a person’s mental makeup that is present at birth. Freud (1933)
believed the id represents the unconscious biological drives for food, sex, and other
necessities over the life span. Most important is the idea that the id is concerned with
instant pleasure or gratification while disregarding concern for others. This is known as
the pleasure principle, and it is often paramount when discussing criminal behavior. All
too often, one sees news stories and studies about criminal offenders who have no
concern for anyone but themselves. Is it possiblethat these male and female offenders
are driven by instant gratification? The second element of the human personality is the
ego, which is thought to develop early in a person’s life. For example, when children
learn that their wishes cannot be gratified instantaneously, they often throw a tantrum.
Freud (1933) suggested that the ego compensates for the demands of the id by guiding
an individual’s actions or behaviors to keep him or her within the boundaries of society.
The ego is guided by the reality principle. The third element of personality, the
superego, develops as a person incorporates the moral standards and values of the
community; parents; and significant others, such as friends and clergy members. The
focus of the superego is morality. The superego serves to pass judgment on the
behavior and actions of individuals (Freud, 1933). The ego mediates between the id’s
desire for instant gratification and the strict morality of the superego. One can assume
that young adults as well as adults understand right from wrong. However, when a
crime is committed, advocates of psychodynamic theory would suggest that an
individual committed a crime because he or she has an underdeveloped superego.

In sum, psychodynamic theory suggests that criminal offenders are frustrated

and aggravated. They are constantly drawn to past events that occurred in their
early childhood. Because of a negligent, unhappy, or miserable childhood, which
is most often characterized by a lack of love and/or nurturing, a criminal offender
has a weak (or absent) ego. Most important, research suggests that having a
weak ego is linked with poor or absence of social etiquette, immaturity, and
dependence on others. Research further suggests that individuals with weak
egos may be more likely to engage in drug abuse.

6. Behavioral Theory
The second major psychological theory is behaviorism. This theory maintains that
human behavior is developed through learning experiences. The hallmark of behavioral
theory is the notion that people alter or change their behavior according to the reactions
this behavior elicits in other people (Bandura, 1978). In an ideal situation, behavior is
supported by rewards and extinguished by negative reactions or punishments.
Behaviorists view crimes as learned responses to life’s situations. Social learning
theory, which is a branch of behavior theory, is the most relevant to criminology. The
most prominent social learning theorist is Albert Bandura (1978). Bandura maintains
that individuals are not born with an innate ability to act violently. He suggested that, in
contrast, violence and aggression are learned through a process of behavior modeling
(Bandura, 1977). In other words, children learn violence through the observation of
others. Aggressive acts are modeled after three primary sources: (1) family interaction,
(2) environmental experiences, and (3) the mass media. Research on family interaction
demonstrates that children who are aggressive are more likely to have been brought up
by parents or caretakers who are aggressive (Jacoby, 2004).

The second source of behavioral problems, environmental experiences, suggests that

individuals who reside in areas that are crime prone are more likely to display
aggressive behavior than those who reside in low-crime areas (Shelden, 2006). One
could argue that high-crime areas are without norms, rules, and customs (Bohm, 2001).
Furthermore, there is an absence of conventional behavior. Manifestations of
unconventional behavior include the inability to gain employment; drug or alcohol
abuse; and failure to obey the local, state, and federal laws. Most important, individuals
who adhere to conventional behavior are invested in society and committed to a goal or
belief system. They are involved in schools or extracurricular activities, such as football,
baseball, or Girl Scouts, and often they have an attachment to family (Kraska, 2004).

The third source of behavioral problems are the mass media. It is difficult to discern the
ultimate role of the media in regard to crime. Scholars have suggested that films, video
games, and television shows that depict violence are harmful to children. Ultimately,
social learning theories beckon us to accept the fact that the mass media are
responsible for a great deal of the violence in our society. They hypothesize that
children who play violent video games and later inflict physical or psychological damage
to someone at school did so because of the influence of the video game. Important to
note that in the above-mentioned media outlets (e.g., video games), violence is often
acceptable and even celebrated. Moreover, there are no consequences for the actions
of the major players. Professional athletes provide an interesting example of
misbehavior without significant consequences. Over the last 50 years, there have been
many documented cases of professional athletes who engaged in inappropriate
behavior on and off the field. These cases have important implications for the children
who observe this behavior. Thus, when a 10-year-old amateur athlete imitates behavior
that he has learned by observing professional sports figures, whom does society blame
or punish? Substantiating the relationship between the media and violence is the fact
that many studies suggest that media violence enables or allows aggressive children or
adolescents to justify or rationalize their behavior. Furthermore, consistent media
violence desensitizes children and adolescents. A person could argue that viewing
10,000 homicides on television over a 10-year period prevents (i.e., desensitizes) an
individual from adjusting to the appropriate psychological response. Thus, when the
local news reports about a homicide, does the child or adolescent respond with sorrow
or indifference (Jacoby, 2004)? When searching for stimuli that foster violent acts, social
learning theorists suggest that an individual is likely to inflict harm when he or she is
subject to a violent assault, verbal heckling or insults, disparagement, and the inability
to achieve his or her goals and aspirations (Siegal, 2009).
7. Cognitive Theory
A third major psychological theory is cognitive theory. In recent years, significant gains
have been made in explaining criminal behavior within the cognitive theory framework.
Here, psychologists focus on the mental processes of individuals. More important,
cognitive theorists attempt to understand how criminal offenders perceive and mentally
represent the world around them (Knepper, 2001). Germane to cognitive theory is how
individuals solve problems. Two prominent pioneering 19th-century psychologists are
Wilhelm Wundt and William James. Two subdisciplines of cognitive theory are worthy of
discussion. The first subdiscipline is the moral development branch, the focus of which
is understanding how people morally represent and reason about the world. The second
subdiscipline is information processing. Here, researchers focus on the way people
acquire, retain, and retrieve information (Siegal, 2009). Ultimately, scholars are
concerned with the process of those three stages (i.e., acquisition, retention, and
retrieval). One theory within the cognitive framework focuses on moral and intellectual
development. Jean Piaget (1896–1980) hypothesized that the individual reasoning
process is developed in an orderly fashion. Thus, from birth onward an individual will
continue to develop. Another pioneer of cognitive theory is Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–
1987), who applied the concept of moral development to criminological theory. Kohlberg
(1984) believed that individuals pass through stages of moral development. Most
important to his theory is the notion that there are levels, stages, and social orientation.
The three levels are Level I, preconventional; Level II, conventional; and Level III,
postconventional. With respect to the different stages, Stages 1 and 2 fall under Level I.
Stages 3 and 4 fall under Level II, and Stages 5 and 6 fall under Level III.

Stage 1 is concerned about obedience and punishment. This level is most often found
at the grade levels of kindergarten through fifth grade. During this stage, individuals
conduct themselves in a manner that is consistent with socially acceptable norms
(Kohlberg, 1984). This conforming behavior is attributed to authority figures such as
parents, teachers, or the school principal. Ultimately, this obedience is compelled by the
threat or application of punishment. Stage 2 is characterized by individualism,
instrumentalism, and exchange. Ultimately, the characterization suggests that
individuals seek to fulfill their own interests and recognize that others should do the
same. This stage maintains that the right behavior means acting in one’s own best
interests (Kohlberg, 1984).

The conventional level of moral reasoning is often found in young adults or adults. It is
believed that individuals who reason in a conventional way are more likely to judge the
morality of actions by comparing those actions to societal viewpoints and expectations
(Kohlberg, 1984). The third and fourth stages fall under this level of development. In
Stage 3, the individual recognizes that he or she is now a member of society. Coinciding
with this is the understanding of the roles that one plays. An important concept within
this stage is the idea that individuals are interested in whether or not other people
approve or disapprove of them (Kohlberg, 1984). For example, if you are an attorney,
what role does society expect you to play? Tangentially, what role does the clergy hold
in society? It is important to note that perception is germane to this stage as well.
Ultimately, the literature suggests this is where a “good” boy and girl attempts to
ascertain his or her standing or role within society. With respect to stage four, the
premise is based on law and order. In this stage, individuals recognize the importance
of laws, rules, and customs. This is important because in order to properly function in
society, one must obey and recognize the social pillars of society. Ultimately, individuals
must recognize the significance of right and wrong. Obviously, a society without laws
and punishments leads to chaos. In contrast, if an individual who breaks the law is
punished, others would recognize that and exhibit obedience. Kohlberg (1984)
suggested that the majority of individuals in our society remain at this stage, in which
morality is driven by outside forces.

Stages 5 and 6 exist at the postconventional level. Stage 5 is referred to as the social
contract. Here, individuals are concerned with the moral worth of societal rules and
values, but only insofar as they are related to or consistent with the basic values of
liberty, the welfare of humanity, and human rights. Fundamental terms associated with
this stage are majority decision and compromise. Stage 6 is often termed principled
conscience. This stage is characterized by universal principles of justice and respect for
human autonomy. Most important to criminal justice and criminology is the notion that
laws are valid only if they are based on or grounded in justice. It is important to
recognize that justice is subjective. Thus, Kohlberg argued that the quest for justice
would ultimately call for disobeying unjust laws. He suggested that individuals could
progress through the six stages in a chronological fashion. Important for criminology is
that Kohlberg suggested that criminals are significantly lower in their moral judgment
development.

The next subdiscipline is the information-processing branch. This area is predicated on

the notion that people use information to understand their environment. When an
individual makes a decision, he or she engages in a sequence of cognitive thought
processes. To illustrate, individuals experience an event and encode or store the
relevant information so it can be retrieved and interpreted at a later date (Conklin,
2007). Second, these individuals search for the appropriate response, and then they
determine the appropriate action. Last, they must act on their decision. There are some
vital findings regarding this process. First, individuals who use information properly are
more likely to avoid delinquent or criminal behavior (Shelden, 2006). Second, those who
are conditioned to make reasoned judgments when faced with emotional events are
more likely to avoid antisocial behavioral decisions (Siegal, 2008). Interestingly, an
explanation for flawed reasoning is that the individual may be relying on a faulty
cognitive process; specifically, he or she may be following a mental script that was
learned in childhood (Jacoby, 2004).A second reason that may account for flawed
reasoning is prolonged exposure to violence. A third possibility of faulty reasoning is
oversensitivity or rejection by parents or peers. Contemplating the consequences of
long-lasting rejection or dismissal is likely to produce damage to an individual’s self-
esteem. Research has demonstrated that individuals who use violence as a coping
mechanism are substantially more likely to exhibit other problems, such as alcohol and
drug dependency (Piquero & Mazarolle, 2001).
  Thinking patterns in criminals may be faulty in that criminals may be
more inclined to focus on fear, the need for power, and a lack of trust in
others.
 Cognitive distortions explore how criminals are self-
centred, minimise their crimes, blame issues on others, and have
issues with hostile-attribution bias.
 Kohlberg's moral reasoning highlights how people work through
stages of moral development throughout their lives. There are six
stages, and psychological theories suggest criminals do not advance
through these stages as effectively as other people.

examples
Faulty thinking patterns: Those with a predisposition to committing crimes
may not trust others easily and seek to manipulate people to get what they
want
Cognitive distortions: A criminal may blame their offending behaviours on
their upbringing, or if they steal from a friend, they may minimise the impact
this behaviour has on others.
Kohlberg's moral reasoning: A criminal does not progress to the upper stages
(such as the fourth stage) of moral reasoning like other members of society.
They may understand a crime can be punished but not understand the moral
implications and the universal principles of right and wrong outside of blatant
scenarios.