ABSTRACT

Electromagnetic waves are formed when an electric field comes in contact with a magnetic field.
They are hence known as ‘electromagnetic’ waves. The electric field and magnetic field of an
electromagnetic wave are perpendicular (at right angles) to each other. They are also perpendicular to
the direction of the EM wave. EM waves travel with a constant velocity of 3.00 x 108 ms-1 in
vacuum. The various types of electromagnetic waves include Gamma radiation, X-ray radiation,
Ultraviolet radiation, Visible light, Infrared radiation, Microwave radiation and Radio waves.
Electromagnetic waves are widely applied in various industries.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are created as a result of vibrations between
an electric field and a magnetic field. In other words, EM waves are composed of oscillating
magnetic and electric fields. Electromagnetic waves are formed when an electric field comes in
contact with a magnetic field. They are hence known as ‘electromagnetic’ waves. The electric field
and magnetic field of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular (at right angles) to each other. They
are also perpendicular to the direction of the EM wave. EM waves travel with a constant velocity of
3.00 x 108 ms-1 in vacuum. They are deflected neither by the electric field, nor by the magnetic
field. However, they are capable of showing interference or diffraction. An electromagnetic wave can
travel through anything - be it air, a solid material or vacuum. It does not need a medium to
propagate or travel from one place to another. Mechanical waves (like sound waves or water waves),
on the other hand, need a medium to travel. EM waves are 'transverse' waves. This means that they
are measured by their amplitude (height) and wavelength (distance between the highest/lowest points
of two consecutive waves). The highest point of a wave is known as 'crest', whereas the lowest point
is known as 'trough'. Electromagnetic waves can be split into a range of frequencies. This is known
as the electromagnetic spectrum. Examples of EM waves are radio waves, microwaves, infrared
waves, X-rays, gamma rays, etc (Attwood, 2019).

The electromagnetic spectrum covers electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from
below one hertz to above 1025 hertz, corresponding to wavelengths from thousands of kilometers
down to a fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus. This frequency range is divided into separate
bands, and the electromagnetic waves within each frequency band are called by different names;
beginning at the low frequency (long wavelength) end of the spectrum these are: radio waves,
microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays at the high-frequency (short
wavelength) end. The electromagnetic waves in each of these bands have different characteristics,
such as how they are produced, how they interact with matter, and their practical applications. There
is no known limit for long and short wavelengths. Extreme ultraviolet, soft X-rays, hard X-rays and
gamma rays are classified as ionizing radiation because their photons have enough energy to ionize
atoms, causing chemical reactions. Exposure to ionizing radiation can be a health hazard, causing
radiation sickness, DNA damage and cancer. Radiation of visible light and longer wavelengths are
classified as nonionizing radiation because they have insufficient energy to cause these effects
(Seybod & John, 2015).

Throughout most of the electromagnetic spectrum, spectroscopy can be used to separate waves of
different frequencies, producing a spectrum of the constituent frequencies. Spectroscopy is used to
study the interactions of electromagnetic waves with matter.

2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The types of electromagnetic waves are broadly classified into the following classes (regions,
bands or types):

i. Gamma radiation
 ii. X-ray radiation
iii. Ultraviolet radiation
iv. Visible light
v. Infrared radiation
vi. Microwave radiation
vii. Radio waves

2.1 GAMMA RADIATION

Gamma radiation is high energy radiation. It is known as electronic magnetic radiation that
carries a lot of energy. It is highly penetrating that is emitted by certain radionuclides nucleus
followed by radioactive decay. Gamma rays are discovered by Henri Becquerel, a French physicist,
and the term was coined by Ernest Rutherford (Anderson, 2015).

The gamma rays are emitted from a nucleus or from the annihilation of positron with
electrons. The most intense sources of gamma rays are radioactive sources. The photons resulting
from de-excitation of nuclei have energies ranging from less than 1 to about 20 MeV.

The photons resulting from annihilations event can have much larger energy: the neutral pion
(π0), for example, produce two photons of about 70 MeV.

Gamma rays are ionizing electromagnetic radiation, obtained by the decay of an atomic nucleus.
Gamma rays are more penetrating, in matter, and can damage living cells to a great extent. Gamma
rays are used in medicine (radiotherapy), industry (sterilization and disinfection) and the nuclear
industry. Shielding against gamma rays is essential because they can cause diseases to skin or blood,
eye disorders and cancers.

The interaction of gamma rays with matter may be divided into three main categories
depending on the energy of the photon. These three mechanisms are the photoelectric effect,
Compton scattering and pair production. All results in the energy of the photon being transferred to
electrons which subsequently lose energy by further interactions (Chupp et.al, 2013).

2.1.1 Mechanism of production of Gamma Radiation

Gamma rays produce in the decay of the radioactive nucleus of atoms and the decomposition
of subatomic particles. These radiations generate by energetic and hottest objects like stars, neutrons,
regions circa, pulsar, supernova explosions, and black holes.

The gamma rays on earth are produced by emissions caused due to lightning, nuclear
explosion, and radioactive decay. Nuclear reactions like fission, fusion, gamma decay and alpha
decay also emit gamma rays. The frequency of gamma radiation ranges from 3X 10 18 Hz to 5X10
22 Hz.
2.1.2 Application of Gamma Radiation

Gamma rays provide information about some of the most energetic phenomena in the
universe; however, they are largely absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. Instruments aboard high-
altitude balloons and satellites missions, such as the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, provide our
only view of the universe in gamma rays.

Gamma-induced molecular changes can also be used to alter the properties of semi-precious
stones, and is often used to change white topaz into blue topaz. Non-contact industrial sensors
commonly use sources of gamma radiation in refining, mining, chemicals, food, soaps and
detergents, and pulp and paper industries, for the measurement of levels, density, and thicknesses.
Gamma-ray sensors are also used for measuring the fluid levels in water and oil industries. Typically,
these use Co-60 or Cs-137 isotopes as the radiation source (Brenner, 2010).

In the US, gamma ray detectors are beginning to be used as part of the Container Security
Initiative (CSI). These machines are advertised to be able to scan 30 containers per hour.

Gamma radiation is often used to kill living organisms, in a process called irradiation.
Applications of this include the sterilization of medical equipment (as an alternative to autoclaves or
chemical means), the removal of decay-causing bacteria from many foods and the prevention of the
sprouting of fruit and vegetables to maintain freshness and flavor.

Despite their cancer-causing properties, gamma rays are also used to treat some types of
cancer, since the rays also kill cancer cells. In the procedure called gamma-knife surgery, multiple
concentrated beams of gamma rays are directed to the growth in order to kill the cancerous cells. The
beams are aimed from different angles to concentrate the radiation on the growth while minimizing
damage to surrounding tissues.

Gamma rays are also used for diagnostic purposes in nuclear medicine in imaging techniques.
A number of different gamma-emitting radioisotopes are used. For example, in a PET scan a
radiolabeled sugar called fluorodeoxyglucose emits positrons that are annihilated by electrons,
producing pairs of gamma rays that highlight cancer as the cancer often has a higher metabolic rate
than the surrounding tissues. The most common gamma emitter used in medical applications is the
nuclear isomer technetium-99m which emits gamma rays in the same energy range as diagnostic X-
rays. When this radionuclide tracer is administered to a patient, a gamma camera can be used to form
an image of the radioisotope's distribution by detecting the gamma radiation emitted (see also
SPECT). Depending on which molecule has been labeled with the tracer, such techniques can be
employed to diagnose a wide range of conditions (for example, the spread of cancer to the bones via
bone scan) (Anderson, 2015).

2.2 X-RAY RADIATION

An X-ray, or, much less commonly, X-radiation, is a penetrating form of high-energy

electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 10 picometers to 10
nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to
3×1019 Hz) and energies in the range 145 eV to 124 keV. X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those
of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. In many languages, X-radiation is
referred to as Röntgen radiation, after the German scientist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, who
discovered it on November 8, 1895. He named it X-radiation to signify an unknown type of radiation.
Spellings of X-ray(s) in English include the variants x-ray(s), xray(s), and X ray(s). The most
familiar use of X-rays is checking for fractures (broken bones), but X-rays are also used in other
ways. For example, chest X-rays can spot pneumonia. Mammograms use X-rays to look for breast
cancer (Domínguez & Alberto, 2015).

2.2.1 Properties

X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds. This makes
it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over
a short period of time causes radiation sickness, while lower doses can give an increased risk of
radiation-induced cancer. In medical imaging, this increased cancer risk is generally greatly
outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in
cancer treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material
characterization using X-ray spectroscopy.

Hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much absorbed or scattered.
For this reason, X-rays are widely used to image the inside of visually opaque objects. The most
often seen applications are in medical radiography and airport security scanners, but similar
techniques are also important in industry (e.g., industrial radiography and industrial CT scanning)
and research (e.g., small animal CT). The penetration depth varies with several orders of magnitude
over the X-ray spectrum. This allows the photon energy to be adjusted for the application so as to
give sufficient transmission through the object and at the same time provide good contrast in the
image.

X-rays have much shorter wavelengths than visible light, which makes it possible to probe
structures much smaller than can be seen using a normal microscope. This property is used in X-ray
microscopy to acquire high-resolution images, and also in X-ray crystallography to determine the
positions of atoms in crystals.

2.2.2 Applications

The uses of x rays in the fields of medicine and dentistry have been extremely important. X-
ray photographs utilize the fact that portions of the body such as bones and teeth with higher density
are less transparent to x rays than other parts of the human body. X rays are widely used for
diagnostic purposes in these fields. Examples might include the observation of the broken bones and
torn ligaments of football players, the detection of breast cancer in women, or the discovery of
cavities and impacted wisdom teeth.

Since x rays can be produced with energies sufficient to ionize the atoms making up human
tissue, it is not surprising that x rays can be used to kill these cells. This is just what is done in some
types of cancer therapy in which the radiation is directed against the malignancy in the hope of
destroying it while doing minimal damage to nearby normal tissue. Unfortunately, too much
exposure of normal tissue to x rays can cause the development of cancer, a fact that was learned too
late for many of the early workers in this field. For this reason, great care is taken by physicians and
dentists when taking x rays of any type to be sure that the exposure to the rest of the body is kept at
an absolute minimum.

A relatively new technique for using x rays in the field of medicine is called computerized
axial tomography, producing what are called CAT scans. These scans produce a cross-sectional
picture of a part of the body which is much sharper than a normal x ray. This is because a normal x
ray, taken through the body, often shows organs and body parts superimposed on one another. To
produce a CAT scan, a narrow beam of x rays is sent through the region of interest from many
different angles and a computer is used to reconstruct the cross-sectional picture of that region.

Moseley found that various natural elements can be identified by measuring the energy of
their characteristic x rays. This fact makes a useful form of elemental analysis possible. If x rays of
sufficient energy impact a sample of unknown composition, electrons will be knocked out of the
atoms of the various elements in the sample and characteristic x rays will be given off by these
atoms. Measurement of the energy of these x rays permits a determination of the elements present in
the sample. This technique is known as x-ray fluorescence analysis. It is often used by chemists to
perform a nondestructive elemental analysis and by law enforcement agencies when it is necessary to
know what elements are present in a sample of hair or blood or some other material being used as
evidence in a criminal investigation.

X rays are used in business and industry in many other ways. For example, x-ray pictures of
whole engines or engine parts can be taken to look for defects in a nondestructive manner. Similarly,
sections of pipe lines for oil or natural gas can be examined for cracks or defective welds. Airlines
also use x-ray detectors to check the baggage of passengers for guns or other illegal objects.

In recent years an interesting new source of x rays has been developed called synchrotron
radiation. Many particle accelerators accelerate charged particles such as electrons or protons by
giving them repeated small increases in energy as they move in a circular path in the accelerator. A
circular ring of magnets keeps the particles in this circular path. Any object moving in a circular path
experiences an acceleration toward the center of the circle, so the charged particles moving in these
paths must radiate and therefore lose energy. Many years ago, the builders of accelerators for
research in nuclear physics considered this energy loss a nuisance, but gradually scientists realized
that accelerators could be built to take advantage of the fact that this radiation could be made very
intense. Electrons turn out to be the best particle for use in these machines, called electron
synchrotrons, and now accelerators are built for the sole purpose of producing this radiation which
can be adjusted to produce radiation anywhere from the visible region up to the x ray region. This
synchrotron radiation, from which very intense beams at nearly one wavelength can be produced, is
extremely useful in learning about the arrangement of atoms in various compounds of interest to
biologists, chemists, and physicists (Attwood, 2019).
 One of the more important commercial applications of synchrotron radiation is in the field of
x-ray lithography, used in the electronics industry in the manufacture of high density integrated
circuits. The integrated circuit chips are made by etching successive layers of electric circuitry into a
wafer of semiconducting material such as silicon. The details of the circuitry are defined by coating
the wafer with a light sensitive substance called a photoresist and shining light on the coated surface
through a stencil like mask. The pattern of the electric circuits is cut into the mask and the exposed
photoresist can easily be washed away leaving the circuit outlines in the remaining photoresist. The
size of the circuit elements is limited by the wavelength of the light-the shorter the wavelength the
smaller the circuit elements. If x rays are used instead of light, the circuits on the wafer can be made
much smaller and many more elements can be put on a wafer of a given size, permitting the
manufacture of smaller electronic devices such as computers.

2.3 ULTRAVIOLET RAYS

Ultraviolet (UV) is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength from 10 nm (with a

corresponding frequency around 30 PHz) to 400 nm (750 THz), shorter than that of visible light, but
longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in sunlight, and constitutes about 10% of the total
electromagnetic radiation output from the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs, Cherenkov
radiation, and specialized lights, such as mercury-vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights.
Although long-wavelength ultraviolet is not considered an ionizing radiation because its photons lack
the energy to ionize atoms, it can cause chemical reactions and causes many substances to glow or
fluoresce. Many practical applications, including chemical and biological effects, derive from the
way that UV radiation can interact with organic molecules. These interactions can involve absorption
or adjusting energy states in molecules, but do not necessarily involve heating. Short-wave ultraviolet
light damages DNA and sterilizes surfaces with which it comes into contact. For humans, suntan and
sunburn are familiar effects of exposure of the skin to UV light, along with an increased risk of skin
cancer. The amount of UV light produced by the Sun means that the Earth would not be able to
sustain life on dry land if most of that light were not filtered out by the atmosphere. More energetic,
shorter-wavelength "extreme" UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it
reaches the ground. However, ultraviolet light (specifically, UVB) is also responsible for the
formation of vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans. The UV spectrum, thus, has
effects both beneficial and harmful to life (Chupp et.al, 2013).

The lower wavelength limit of human vision is conventionally taken as 400 nm, so ultraviolet
rays are invisible to humans, although people can sometimes perceive light at shorter wavelengths
than this. Insects, birds, and some mammals can see near-UV (NUV) (i.e., slightly shorter
wavelengths than what humans can see).

2.3.1 Applications

Because of its ability to cause chemical reactions and excite fluorescence in materials, ultraviolet
radiation has a number of applications. The some uses of some specific wavelength bands in the UV
spectrum are listed below:
  13.5 nm: Extreme ultraviolet lithography
 30–200 nm: Photoionization, ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy, standard integrated
circuit manufacture by photolithography
 230–365 nm: UV-ID, label tracking, barcodes
 230–400 nm: Optical sensors, various instrumentation
 240–280 nm: Disinfection, decontamination of surfaces and water (DNA absorption has a
peak at 260 nm), germicidal lamps[39]
 200–400 nm: Forensic analysis, drug detection
 270–360 nm: Protein analysis, DNA sequencing, drug discovery
 280–400 nm: Medical imaging of cells
 300–320 nm: Light therapy in medicine
 300–365 nm: Curing of polymers and printer inks
 350–370 nm: Bug zappers (flies are most attracted to light at 365 nm)

2.3.1.1 Photography

Photographic film responds to ultraviolet radiation but the glass lenses of cameras usually
block radiation shorter than 350 nm. Slightly yellow UV-blocking filters are often used for outdoor
photography to prevent unwanted bluing and overexposure by UV rays. For photography in the near
UV, special filters may be used. Photography with wavelengths shorter than 350 nm requires special
quartz lenses which do not absorb the radiation. Digital cameras sensors may have internal filters that
block UV to improve color rendition accuracy. Sometimes these internal filters can be removed, or
they may be absent, and an external visible-light filter prepares the camera for near-UV photography.
A few cameras are designed for use in the UV. Photography by reflected ultraviolet radiation is
useful for medical, scientific, and forensic investigations, in applications as widespread as detecting
bruising of skin, alterations of documents, or restoration work on paintings. Photography of the
fluorescence produced by ultraviolet illumination uses visible wavelengths of light.

In ultraviolet astronomy, measurements are used to discern the chemical composition of the
interstellar medium, and the temperature and composition of stars. Because the ozone layer blocks
many UV frequencies from reaching telescopes on the surface of the Earth, most UV observations
are made from space (Falahati, 2018).

2.3.1.2 Electrical and electronics industry

Corona discharge on electrical apparatus can be detected by its ultraviolet emissions. Corona
causes degradation of electrical insulation and emission of ozone and nitrogen oxide. EPROMs
(Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) are erased by exposure to UV radiation. These
modules have a transparent (quartz) window on the top of the chip that allows the UV radiation in.

2.3.1.3 Fluorescent dye uses

Colorless fluorescent dyes that emit blue light under UV are added as optical brighteners to
paper and fabrics. The blue light emitted by these agents counteracts yellow tints that may be present
and causes the colors and whites to appear whiter or more brightly colored.
 UV fluorescent dyes that glow in the primary colors are used in paints, papers, and textiles
either to enhance color under daylight illumination or to provide special effects when lit with UV
lamps. Blacklight paints that contain dyes that glow under UV are used in a number of art and
aesthetic applications. Amusement parks often use UV lighting to fluoresce ride artwork and
backdrops. This often has the side effect of causing rider's white clothing to glow light-purple.

To help prevent counterfeiting of currency, or forgery of important documents such as

driver's licenses and passports, the paper may include a UV watermark or fluorescent multicolor
fibers that are visible under ultraviolet light. Postage stamps are tagged with a phosphor that glows
under UV rays to permit automatic detection of the stamp and facing of the letter. UV fluorescent
dyes are used in many applications (for example, biochemistry and forensics). Some brands of
pepper spray will leave an invisible chemical (UV dye) that is not easily washed off on a pepper-
sprayed attacker, which would help police identify the attacker later.

In some types of nondestructive testing UV stimulates fluorescent dyes to highlight defects in

a broad range of materials. These dyes may be carried into surface-breaking defects by capillary
action (liquid penetrant inspection) or they may be bound to ferrite particles caught in magnetic
leakage fields in ferrous materials (magnetic particle inspection) (Gonoskov et. Al, 2017).

2.3.1.4 Analytic uses

 Forensics:

UV is an investigative tool at the crime scene helpful in locating and identifying bodily fluids
such as semen, blood, and saliva. For example, ejaculated fluids or saliva can be detected by high-
power UV sources, irrespective of the structure or colour of the surface the fluid is deposited upon.
UV–vis microspectroscopy is also used to analyze trace evidence, such as textile fibers and paint
chips, as well as questioned documents.

Other applications include the authentication of various collectibles and art, and detecting
counterfeit currency. Even materials not specially marked with UV sensitive dyes may have
distinctive fluorescence under UV exposure or may fluoresce differently under short-wave versus
long-wave ultraviolet.

 Enhancing contrast of ink:

Using multi-spectral imaging it is possible to read illegible papyrus, such as the burned papyri of
the Villa of the Papyri or of Oxyrhynchus, or the Archimedes palimpsest. The technique involves
taking pictures of the illegible document using different filters in the infrared or ultraviolet range,
finely tuned to capture certain wavelengths of light. Thus, the optimum spectral portion can be found
for distinguishing ink from paper on the papyrus surface. Simple NUV sources can be used to
highlight faded iron-based ink on vellum.

 Sanitary compliance:
 A person wearing full protective gear, glowing in ultraviolet light After a training exercise
involving fake body fluids, a healthcare worker's personal protective equipment is checked with
ultraviolet light to find invisible drops of fluids. These fluids could contain deadly viruses or other
contamination.

Ultraviolet light helps detect organic material deposits that remain on surfaces where periodic
cleaning and sanitizing may have failed. It is used in the hotel industry, manufacturing, and other
industries where levels of cleanliness or contamination are inspected (Chupp et.al, 2013).

Perennial news features for many television news organizations involve an investigative reporter
using a similar device to reveal unsanitary conditions in hotels, public toilets, hand rails, and such.

 Chemistry:

UV/Vis spectroscopy is widely used as a technique in chemistry to analyze chemical structure, the
most notable one being conjugated systems. UV radiation is often used to excite a given sample
where the fluorescent emission is measured with a spectrofluorometer. In biological research, UV
radiation is used for quantification of nucleic acids or proteins. In environmental chemistry, UV
radiation could also be used to detect Contaminants of emerging concern in water samples.

In pollution control applications, ultraviolet analyzers are used to detect emissions of

nitrogen oxides, sulfur compounds, mercury, and ammonia, for example in the flue gas of fossil-fired
power plants. Ultraviolet radiation can detect thin sheens of spilled oil on water, either by the high
reflectivity of oil films at UV wavelengths, fluorescence of compounds in oil, or by absorbing of UV
created by Raman scattering in water.

A collection of mineral samples fluorescing brilliantly at various wavelengths as seen while

being irradiated by UV light.

Ultraviolet lamps are also used as part of the analysis of some minerals and gems (Shore &
Bruce, 2020).

2.3.1.5 Material science uses

 Fire detection:

In general, ultraviolet detectors use either a solid-state device, such as one based on silicon
carbide or aluminium nitride, or a gas-filled tube as the sensing element. UV detectors that are
sensitive to UV in any part of the spectrum respond to irradiation by sunlight and artificial light. A
burning hydrogen flame, for instance, radiates strongly in the 185- to 260-nanometer range and only
very weakly in the IR region, whereas a coal fire emits very weakly in the UV band yet very strongly
at IR wavelengths; thus, a fire detector that operates using both UV and IR detectors is more reliable
than one with a UV detector alone. Virtually all fires emit some radiation in the UVC band, whereas
the Sun's radiation at this band is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. The result is that the UV
detector is "solar blind", meaning it will not cause an alarm in response to radiation from the Sun, so
it can easily be used both indoors and outdoors.
  Photolithography:

Ultraviolet radiation is used for very fine resolution photolithography, a procedure wherein a
chemical called a photoresist is exposed to UV radiation that has passed through a mask. The
exposure causes chemical reactions to occur in the photoresist. After removal of unwanted
photoresist, a pattern determined by the mask remains on the sample. Steps may then be taken to
"etch" away, deposit on or otherwise modify areas of the sample where no photoresist remains.
Photolithography is used in the manufacture of semiconductors, integrated circuit components, and
printed circuit boards. Photolithography processes used to fabricate electronic integrated circuits
presently use 193 nm UV and are experimentally using 13.5 nm UV for extreme ultraviolet
lithography.

 Polymers:

Electronic components that require clear transparency for light to exit or enter (photovoltaic
panels and sensors) can be potted using acrylic resins that are cured using UV energy. The
advantages are low VOC emissions and rapid curing.

Certain inks, coatings, and adhesives are formulated with photoinitiators and resins. When exposed
to UV light, polymerization occurs, and so the adhesives harden or cure, usually within a few
seconds. Applications include glass and plastic bonding, optical fiber coatings, the coating of
flooring, UV coating and paper finishes in offset printing, dental fillings, and decorative fingernail
"gels".

UV sources for UV curing applications include UV lamps, UV LEDs, and excimer flash
lamps. Fast processes such as flexo or offset printing require high-intensity light focused via
reflectors onto a moving substrate and medium so high-pressure Hg (mercury) or Fe (iron, doped)-
based bulbs are used, energized with electric arcs or microwaves. Lower-power fluorescent lamps
and LEDs can be used for static applications. Small high-pressure lamps can have light focused and
transmitted to the work area via liquid-filled or fiber-optic light guides.

The impact of UV on polymers is used for modification of the (roughness and

hydrophobicity) of polymer surfaces. For example, a poly(methyl methacrylate) surface can be
smoothed by vacuum ultraviolet

UV radiation is useful in preparing low-surface-energy polymers for adhesives. Polymers

exposed to UV will oxidize, thus raising the surface energy of the polymer. Once the surface energy
of the polymer has been raised, the bond between the adhesive and the polymer is stronger (Seybod
& John, 2015).

2.3.1.6 BIOLOGY-RELATED USES

 Air purification

Using a catalytic chemical reaction from titanium dioxide and UVC exposure, oxidation of
organic matter converts pathogens, pollens, and mold spores into harmless inert byproducts.
However, the reaction of titanium dioxide and UVC is not a straight path. Several hundreds of
reactions occur prior to the inert byproducts stage and can hinder the resulting reaction creating
formaldehyde, aldehyde, and other VOC's en route to a final stage. Thus, the use of titanium dioxide
and UVC requires very specific parameters for a successful outcome. The cleansing mechanism of
UV is a photochemical process. Contaminants in the indoor environment are almost entirely organic
carbon-based compounds, which break down when exposed to high-intensity UV at 240 to 280 nm.
Short-wave ultraviolet radiation can destroy DNA in living microorganisms. UVC's effectiveness is
directly related to intensity and exposure time.

 Sterilization and disinfection:

Ultraviolet lamps are used to sterilize workspaces and tools used in biology laboratories and
medical facilities. Commercially available low-pressure mercury-vapor lamps emit about 86% of
their radiation at 254 nanometers (nm), with 265 nm being the peak germicidal effectiveness curve.
UV at these germicidal wavelengths damage a microorganism's DNA/RNA so that it cannot
reproduce, making it harmless, (even though the organism may not be killed).[106] Since
microorganisms can be shielded from ultraviolet rays in small cracks and other shaded areas, these
lamps are used only as a supplement to other sterilization techniques.

Disinfection using UV radiation is commonly used in wastewater treatment applications and is

finding an increased usage in municipal drinking water treatment. Many bottlers of spring water use
UV disinfection equipment to sterilize their water. Solar water disinfection has been researched for
cheaply treating contaminated water using natural sunlight. The UV-A irradiation and increased
water temperature kill organisms in the water.

Ultraviolet radiation is used in several food processes to kill unwanted microorganisms. UV can
be used to pasteurize fruit juices by flowing the juice over a high-intensity ultraviolet source. The
effectiveness of such a process depends on the UV absorbance of the juice.

Pulsed light (PL) is a technique of killing microorganisms on surfaces using pulses of an intense
broad spectrum, rich in UV-C between 200 and 280 nm. Pulsed light works with xenon flash lamps
that can produce flashes several times per second. Disinfection robots use pulsed UV (Shore &
Bruce, 2020).

 Therapy:

Ultraviolet radiation is helpful in the treatment of skin conditions such as psoriasis and vitiligo.
Exposure to UVA, while the skin is hyper-photosensitive, by taking psoralens is an effective
treatment for psoriasis. Due to the potential of psoralens to cause damage to the liver, PUVA therapy
may be used only a limited number of times over a patient's lifetime.

UVB phototherapy does not require additional medications or topical preparations for the
therapeutic benefit; only the exposure is needed. However, phototherapy can be effective when used
in conjunction with certain topical treatments such as anthralin, coal tar, and vitamin A and D
derivatives, or systemic treatments such as methotrexate and Soriatane.
2.4 VISIBLE LIGHT

It is the part of the spectrum that is detected by the human eye. It runs from about 4×10 14Hz
to about 7×1014 Hz or a wavelength range of about 700- 400 nm. Visible light emitted or reflected
from objects around us provides us information about the world. Our eyes are sensitive to this range
of wavelengths. Different animals are sensitive to different range of wavelengths. For example,
snakes can detect infrared waves, and the visible range of many insects extends well into the
utraviolet.

Like all types of electromagnetic radiation, visible light propagates by massless elementary
particles called photons that represents the quanta of electromagnetic field, and can be analyzed as
both waves and particles. The study of light, known as optics, is an important research area in
modern physics.

The main source of natural light on Earth is the Sun. Historically, another important source of
light for humans has been fire, from ancient campfires to modern kerosene lamps. With the
development of electric lights and power systems, electric lighting has effectively replaced firelight
(Domínguez & Alberto, 2015).

2.4.1 Applications

i. For sight: We use it to see. This is the main and most important use of visible light in the
modern world. There are lights like an electric bulb, fireworks and other sources of light rays,
with their shiny rays, we can see things and make a dark room visible.
ii. To make lasers for use in a surgery room: Laser light is a collection of light or concrete of
light that is then pronounced as a beam. The laser lights are used in surgery rooms as the rays
make it clear for a surgeon to see and carry out his activities. There is also a surgery called
the laser surgery and that is used to cut tissues.
iii. For making Television: The waves of light that make the television that we use to have fun
and watch videos is made up of visible light. Without visible light, there is no way we would
be able to focus our eyes on the TV and watch movies and other entertainment.
iv. MRI scanners: The MRI scanner in hospitals is made up of visible light. It is also made up of
other rays like the radio waves, but it can be switched to visible light for various functions.
With this, we can see that visible light is good stuff, which is not harmful but has come to
serve humanity.

2.5 INFRARED RADIATION

Infrared (IR), sometimes called infrared light, is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with
wavelengths longer than those of visible light and shorter than radio waves. It is therefore invisible to
the human eye. IR is generally understood to encompass wavelengths from around 1 millimeter (300
GHz) to the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum, around 700 nanometers (430 THz). Longer IR
wavelengths (30 μm-100 μm) are sometimes included as part of the terahertz radiation range. Almost
all black-body radiation from objects near room temperature is at infrared wavelengths. As a form of
electromagnetic radiation, IR propagates energy and momentum, exerts radiation pressure, and has
properties corresponding to both those of a wave and of a particle, the photon.

It was long known that fires emit invisible heat; in 1681 the pioneering experimenter Edme
Mariotte showed that glass, though transparent to sunlight, obstructed radiant heat. In 1800 the
astronomer Sir William Herschel discovered that infrared radiation is a type of invisible radiation in
the spectrum lower in energy than red light, by means of its effect on a thermometer. Slightly more
than half of the energy from the Sun was eventually found, through Herschel's studies, to arrive on
Earth in the form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has an
important effect on Earth's climate (Falahati, 2018).

2.5.1 APPLICATIONS

Night vision

Active-infrared night vision: the camera illuminates the scene at infrared wavelengths
invisible to the human eye. Despite a dark back-lit scene, active-infrared night vision delivers
identifying details, as seen on the display monitor.

Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night
vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into
electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into
visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion
by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.

Thermography

Infrared radiation can be used to remotely determine the temperature of objects (if the
emissivity is known). This is termed thermography, or in the case of very hot objects in the NIR or
visible it is termed pyrometry. Thermography (thermal imaging) is mainly used in military and
industrial applications but the technology is reaching the public market in the form of infrared
cameras on cars due to greatly reduced production costs.

Hyperspectral imaging

A hyperspectral image is a "picture" containing continuous spectrum through a wide spectral

range at each pixel. Hyperspectral imaging is gaining importance in the field of applied spectroscopy
particularly with NIR, SWIR, MWIR, and LWIR spectral regions. Typical applications include
biological, mineralogical, defence, and industrial measurements.

Thermal infrared hyperspectral imaging can be similarly performed using a thermographic

camera, with the fundamental difference that each pixel contains a full LWIR spectrum.
Consequently, chemical identification of the object can be performed without a need for an external
light source such as the Sun or the Moon. Such cameras are typically applied for geological
measurements, outdoor surveillance and UAV applications.
Tracking

Infrared tracking, also known as infrared homing, refers to a passive missile guidance system,
which uses the emission from a target of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared part of the
spectrum to track it. Missiles that use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat-seekers" since
infrared (IR) is just below the visible spectrum of light in frequency and is radiated strongly by hot
bodies. Many objects such as people, vehicle engines, and aircraft generate and retain heat, and as
such, are especially visible in the infrared wavelengths of light compared to objects in the
background.

Heating

Infrared radiation can be used as a deliberate heating source. For example, it is used in
infrared saunas to heat the occupants. It may also be used in other heating applications, such as to
remove ice from the wings of aircraft (de-icing). Infrared radiation is used in cooking, known as
broiling or grilling. One energy advantage is that the IR energy heats only opaque objects, such as
food, rather than the air around them.

Cooling

A variety of technologies or proposed technologies take advantage of infrared emissions to

cool buildings or other systems. The LWIR (8–15 μm) region is especially useful since some
radiation at these wavelengths can escape into space through the atmosphere's infrared window. This
is how passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) surfaces are able to achieve sub-ambient cooling
temperatures under direct solar intensity, enhancing terrestrial heat flow to outer space with zero
energy consumption or pollution. PDRC surfaces minimize shortwave solar reflectance to lessen heat
gain while maintaining strong longwave infrared (LWIR) thermal radiation heat transfer.

Meteorology

Weather satellites equipped with scanning radiometers produce thermal or infrared images,
which can then enable a trained analyst to determine cloud heights and types, to calculate land and
surface water temperatures, and to locate ocean surface features. The scanning is typically in the
range 10.3–12.5 μm (IR4 and IR5 channels).

Clouds with high and cold tops, such as cyclones or cumulonimbus clouds, are often displayed as red
or black, lower warmer clouds such as stratus or stratocumulus are displayed as blue or grey, with
intermediate clouds shaded accordingly. Hot land surfaces are shown as dark-grey or black. One
disadvantage of infrared imagery is that low cloud such as stratus or fog can have a temperature
similar to the surrounding land or sea surface and does not show up. However, using the difference in
brightness of the IR4 channel (10.3–11.5 μm) and the near-infrared channel (1.58–1.64 μm), low
cloud can be distinguished, producing a fog satellite picture. The main advantage of infrared is that
images can be produced at night, allowing a continuous sequence of weather to be studied.
Climatology

In the field of climatology, atmospheric infrared radiation is monitored to detect trends in the
energy exchange between the earth and the atmosphere. These trends provide information on long-
term changes in Earth's climate. It is one of the primary parameters studied in research into global
warming, together with solar radiation.

Astronomy

Astronomers observe objects in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum using
optical components, including mirrors, lenses and solid state digital detectors. For this reason it is
classified as part of optical astronomy. To form an image, the components of an infrared telescope
need to be carefully shielded from heat sources, and the detectors are chilled using liquid helium.

The sensitivity of Earth-based infrared telescopes is significantly limited by water vapor in

the atmosphere, which absorbs a portion of the infrared radiation arriving from space outside of
selected atmospheric windows. This limitation can be partially alleviated by placing the telescope
observatory at a high altitude, or by carrying the telescope aloft with a balloon or an aircraft. Space
telescopes do not suffer from this handicap, and so outer space is considered the ideal location for
infrared astronomy.

The infrared portion of the spectrum has several useful benefits for astronomers. Cold, dark
molecular clouds of gas and dust in our galaxy will glow with radiated heat as they are irradiated by
imbedded stars. Infrared can also be used to detect protostars before they begin to emit visible light.
Stars emit a smaller portion of their energy in the infrared spectrum, so nearby cool objects such as
planets can be more readily detected. (In the visible light spectrum, the glare from the star will drown
out the reflected light from a planet.) Infrared light is also useful for observing the cores of active
galaxies, which are often cloaked in gas and dust. Distant galaxies with a high redshift will have the
peak portion of their spectrum shifted toward longer wavelengths, so they are more readily observed
in the infrared (Falahati, 2018).

Infrared cleaning

Infrared cleaning is a technique used by some motion picture film scanners, film scanners
and flatbed scanners to reduce or remove the effect of dust and scratches upon the finished scan. It
works by collecting an additional infrared channel from the scan at the same position and resolution
as the three visible color channels (red, green, and blue). The infrared channel, in combination with
the other channels, is used to detect the location of scratches and dust. Once located, those defects
can be corrected by scaling or replaced by inpainting (Rothkamm & Lobrich, 2013).

Art conservation and analysis

Infrared reflectography can be applied to paintings to reveal underlying layers in a non-

destructive manner, in particular the artist's underdrawing or outline drawn as a guide. Art
conservators use the technique to examine how the visible layers of paint differ from the
underdrawing or layers in between (such alterations are called pentimenti when made by the original
artist). This is very useful information in deciding whether a painting is the prime version by the
original artist or a copy, and whether it has been altered by over-enthusiastic restoration work. In
general, the more pentimenti, the more likely a painting is to be the prime version. It also gives useful
insights into working practices. Reflectography often reveals the artist's use of carbon black, which
shows up well in reflectograms, as long as it has not also been used in the ground underlying the
whole painting.

Recent progress in the design of infrared-sensitive cameras makes it possible to discover and
depict not only underpaintings and pentimenti, but entire paintings that were later overpainted by the
artist. Notable examples are Picasso's Woman Ironing and Blue Room, where in both cases a portrait
of a man has been made visible under the painting as it is known today (Rothkamm & Lobrich,
2013).

2.6 MICROWAVE RADIATION

Microwave is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from about one
meter to one millimeter corresponding to frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz respectively.
Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves; the above broad definition
includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter wave) bands. A more common definition in radio-frequency
engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz (wavelengths between 0.3 m and 3 mm). In all
cases, microwaves include the entire SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum.
Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations: S,
C, X, Ku, K, or Ka band, or by similar NATO or EU designations.

2.6.1 APPLICATIONS

Microwave technology is extensively used for point-to-point telecommunications (i.e. non-

broadcast uses). Microwaves are especially suitable for this use since they are more easily focused
into narrower beams than radio waves, allowing frequency reuse; their comparatively higher
frequencies allow broad bandwidth and high data transmission rates, and antenna sizes are smaller
than at lower frequencies because antenna size is inversely proportional to the transmitted frequency.
Microwaves are used in spacecraft communication, and much of the world's data, TV, and telephone
communications are transmitted long distances by microwaves between ground stations and
communications satellites. Microwaves are also employed in microwave ovens and in radar
technology.

Communication

Before the advent of fiber-optic transmission, most long-distance telephone calls were carried
via networks of microwave radio relay links run by carriers such as AT&T Long Lines. Starting in
the early 1950s, frequency-division multiplexing was used to send up to 5,400 telephone channels on
each microwave radio channel, with as many as ten radio channels combined into one antenna for the
hop to the next site, up to 70 km away.

Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11 specifications used for Wi-
Fi, also use microwaves in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, although 802.11a uses ISM band and U-NII
frequencies in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless Internet Access
services have been used for almost a decade in many countries in the 3.5–4.0 GHz range. The FCC
recently carved out spectrum for carriers that wish to offer services in this range in the U.S. — with
emphasis on 3.65 GHz. Dozens of service providers across the country are securing or have already
received licenses from the FCC to operate in this band. The WIMAX service offerings that can be
carried on the 3.65 GHz band will give business customers another option for connectivity.

Metropolitan area network (MAN) protocols, such as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability

for Microwave Access) are based on standards such as IEEE 802.16, designed to operate between 2
and 11 GHz. Commercial implementations are in the 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz and 5.8 GHz
ranges (Smith et. Al, 2012).

Radar

Radar is a radiolocation technique in which a beam of radio waves emitted by a transmitter

bounces off an object and returns to a receiver, allowing the location, range, speed, and other
characteristics of the object to be determined. The short wavelength of microwaves causes large
reflections from objects the size of motor vehicles, ships and aircraft. Also, at these wavelengths, the
high gain antennas such as parabolic antennas which are required to produce the narrow beam widths
needed to accurately locate objects are conveniently small, allowing them to be rapidly turned to scan
for objects. Therefore, microwave frequencies are the main frequencies used in radar. Microwave
radar is widely used for applications such as air traffic control, weather forecasting, navigation of
ships, and speed limit enforcement. Long-distance radars use the lower microwave frequencies since
at the upper end of the band atmospheric absorption limits the range, but millimeter waves are used
for short-range radar such as collision avoidance systems (Rothkamm & Lobrich, 2013).

Heating and power application

A microwave oven passes microwave radiation at a frequency near 2.45 GHz (12 cm)
through food, causing dielectric heating primarily by absorption of the energy in water. Microwave
ovens became common kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late 1970s, following the
development of less expensive cavity magnetrons. Water in the liquid state possesses many
molecular interactions that broaden the absorption peak. In the vapor phase, isolated water molecules
absorb at around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of the microwave oven. Microwaves can be
used to transmit power over long distances, and post-World War 2 research was done to examine
possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970s and early 1980s to research the possibilities of using solar
power satellite (SPS) systems with large solar arrays that would beam power down to the Earth's
surface via microwaves.
2.7 RADIO WAVES

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with the longest wavelengths in the
electromagnetic spectrum, typically with frequencies of 300 gigahertz (GHz) and below. At 300
GHz, the corresponding wavelength is 1 mm (shorter than a grain of rice); at 30 Hz the
corresponding wavelength is 10,000 kilometers (6,200 miles) (longer than the radius of the Earth).
Like all electromagnetic waves, radio waves in a vacuum travel at the speed of light, and in the
Earth's atmosphere at a close, but slightly lower speed. Radio waves are generated by charged
particles undergoing acceleration, such as time-varying electric currents.

Radio waves are generated artificially by an electronic device called a transmitter, which is
connected to an antenna which radiates the waves. They are received by another antenna connected
to a radio receiver, which processes the received signal. Radio waves are very widely used in modern
technology for fixed and mobile radio communication, broadcasting, radar and radio navigation
systems, communications satellites, wireless computer networks and many other applications.
Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's
atmosphere; long waves can diffract around obstacles like mountains and follow the contour of the
earth (ground waves), shorter waves can reflect off the ionosphere and return to earth beyond the
horizon (skywaves), while much shorter wavelengths bend or diffract very little and travel on a line
of sight, so their propagation distances are limited to the visual horizon (Brenner, 2010).

2.7.1 APPLICATION

Radio waves uses are explained in correspondence than other electromagnetic waves
primarily in light of their attractive proliferation properties, coming from their enormous radio waves
wavelength. Radio waves wavelength can go through the atmosphere, foliage, and most structure
materials, and by diffraction can twist around blocks, and not at all like other electromagnetic waves,
they will, in general, be dissipated instead of consumed by objects bigger than their frequency of
radio waves. Radio waves use are found in standard communicate radio and TV, shortwave radio,
route and airport regulation, cell communication, and even remote-controlled toys (Rothkamm &
Lobrich, 2013).

3.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are created as a result of
vibrations between an electric field and a magnetic field. In other words, EM waves are composed of
oscillating magnetic and electric fields. They travel through a vacuum and can transmit energy.

Each type of electromagnetic wave is used for a different purpose, radio waves are used for
communications, microwaves can be used to heat and cook your food, infrared waves are what
comes out of remote controls, x-rays are Electromagnetic waves that can be used in aptly named x-
ray machines to see inside your body and diagnose various diseases, ultraviolet rays are used in
energy efficient lamps and sun tanning, gamma rays are used in medical imaging and treatments,
visible lights are used in fibre optic communications. All these rays travel at the speed of light.
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