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MANUFACTURING & ENGINEERING MATERIALS

1 WELDING

1. INTRODUCTION

The joining processes are used to assemble different members to yield the desired complex

configuration. Such a complex geometry is either too difficult or impossible to obtain by using

only the manufacturing processes. The joining of different elements can be either temporary

or permanent in nature. Also, the mechanism of bonding may be either mechanical or atomic.

All joining processes involving atomic bonding are of a permanent nature.

2. WELDING

Welding is the process of joining together two pieces of metal so that bonding takes place at

their original boundary surfaces”. When two parts to be joined are melted together, heat or

pressure or both is applied and with or without added metal for formation of metallic bond.

Fig.1 Weld Bead Geometry

Weld Bead Geometry,

It consists of 3 parts ;

(1) Weld Bead (Penetration + Reinforcement)

(2) Heat affected zone

(3) unaffected zone

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2.1. CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES
There are many types of welding techniques used to join metals. The welding processes
differ in the manner in which temperature and pressure are combined and achieved.
2.1.1 BASED ON COMPOSITION
According to this scheme, all joining processes can be grouped into three different
categories namely
(I) AUTOGENOUS
In these types no filter material is added during joining. All types of solid phase welding
and resistance welding are the examples of this category.
(II) HOMOGENEOUS
In the homogeneous joining processes, the filler material used to provide the joint is the
same as the parent of material. Arc, gas, and thermit welding belong to this category.
(III) HETEROGENEOUS
In this type a filler material different from the parent material is used. Soldering and
brazing are two such joining processes. It may be noted that two materials which are
insoluble in each other, such as iron and silver, can be joined by a heterogeneous process.
This may be achieved by using a filler material (i.e. copper and tin) which is soluble in
both the parent materials (i.e., iron and silver).

2.1.2 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION

A general basic classification of the joining process is shown,

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3. PRINCIPLES OF SOLID PHASE WELDING

(i) A metallurgical bond is created with little or no melting of the base metals.

(ii) Two similar or dissimilar metals, the two metals must be brought into intimate contact

so that their cohesive atomic forces attract each other.

(iii) In the solid phase welding processes, the four important factors are,

(a) Surface deformation,

(b) Surface films,

(c) Recrystallization, and

(d) Diffusion.

(iv) A solid phase welding done at the room temperature does not allow recrystallization

and grain growth at the interface. This reduce the ductility of the joint to some extent.

(v) An increase in working temperature not only increases the ductility but also eliminates

some other defects.

(vi) The phenomenon of diffusion has an important bearing on the performance of a solid

phase weld.

4. PRINCIPLES OF FUSION (LIQUID STATE) WELDING

(i) Fusion-welding processes use heat to melt the base metals.

(ii) Fusion welding operations, a filler metal is added to the molten pool to facilitate the

process and provide bulk and strength to the welded joint.

(iii) A fusion-welding operation in which no filler metal is added is referred to as an

autogenous weld.

(iv) Metallurgically, there are three distinct zones in a welded part,

(a) The fusion

(b) The heat affected un-melted zone around the fusion zone

(c) The unaffected original part.

4.1. HEAT SOURCE

A heat source, suitable for welding, should release the heat in a sharply defined, isolated

zone. Moreover, the heat should be produced at a high temperature and high rate. The

most common sources of heat include

(i) The electric arc (as in various arc welding)

(ii) The chemical flame (as in gas welding)

(iii) An exothermic chemical reaction (as in thermit welding)

(iv) An electric resistance heating (as in electroslag and other resistance welding

process).

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5. ARC WELDING

(i) Electric arc welding is one of the fusion welding processes in which coalescence of the

metal is achieved by the heat from an electric arc between an electrode and workpiece.

(ii) Electric arc is generated when electrode is brought into contact with the work and is

then quickly separated by a short distance approximately 2 mm. The circuit operates

at low voltage and high current, so arc is established in the gap due to thermionic

emission from electrode (Cathode) to workpiece (Anode).

(iii) The arc is sustained due to continuous presence of a thermally ionized column of gas.

This arc produces at temperature of the order of 5500°C or higher.

Fig.3: Process of Electric Arc Welding

5.1. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT ELECTRODE POLARITIES

DCRP DCSP ACHF

1. Penetration

shallow Deep Intermediate

2/3rd at electrode, 1/3rd 1/3rd at electrode, 2/3

2. Heat generation 50% on both
at workpiece at workpiece

3. Metal deposition rate High Low Intermediate

4. Thickness of work to
Thin sheets Thick sheets Intermediate
be welded

5. Stable smaller arc Easier Easier Difficult

6. Arc blow Severe Severe Insignificant

Abbreviations:
(i) DCSP - Direct Current Straight Polarity
(ii) DCRP - Direct Current Reverse Polarity
(iii) ACHF - Alternating Current High Frequency

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5.2. V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF ARC WELDING

Fig.4: Welding Characteristics

Fig.5: V-I Diagram

V = V0 − VDrop

V 
= V0 −  0 
 IS 

5.3. Constant Current Transformer/Drooper:

As we observed that first movement is critical so a special find of transformer

known as constant current transformer of drooper are used for which variations of current are
small for large variation of voltages.

Fig.6: Constant Current Transformer/Dropper

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5.4. ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Are voltage V = a + b L → arc length characteristics
Where a, b are constants
L = Arc Length
From the above, if the arc length increases then the current carrying will decrease. So,
the arc resistance (Ra) will increase and the voltage also increases.

Fig.7: Arc Characteristics

For maximum power output
dP
= 0 → L = ...optimum arc length.
dL
V opt < Vo
I opt < IS
EXAMPLE 1
Assuming a straight-line V – I characteristics for a dc welding generator, short – circuit
current as 400 A and open circuit voltage as 80 V, determine the optimum voltage and
current setting for maximum arc power? Taking the arc characteristic as 20 + 40 L
Sol.
V0
Vp = V0 –  I = Va = 20 + 40 L
IS

80
= 80 –  I = 20 + 40 L
400
400
= {80 − 20 − 40 L}
80
400
= {60 − 40 L}
80
Power = P = VI
400
= (20 + 40L )  
{60 − 40L}
 80 

400
P= [1200 − 800L + 2400L − 1600L2 ]
80
400
P= [1200 + 1600L − 1600L2 ]
80

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dP
For optimum power =0
dL
1600 – 3200L = 0
L = 0.5 cm
V = 20 + 40L = 40 V
400
I= {60 − 40L} = 200 A
80
Example 2
In a DC arc welding operating, the length characteristic was obtained as V arc = 20 +5l
where the arc length l was varied between 5mm and 7 mm. Here V arc denotes the arc
voltage in Volts. The arc current was varied from 400A to 500A. Assuming linear power
source characteristic, find the open circuit voltage and the short circuit current for the
welding operation?
Sol.
Va = 20 + 5L, L = 5 to 7 mm,
1= 400 to 500A
at equilibrium condition Va = Vp
V0
20 + 5L = V0 − I
IS

L = 5, I = 500
V0
20 + 5L = 45 = V0 −  500
IS

L = 7.1 = 400
V0
20 + 5  7 = 55 = V0 −  400
Is

V0
10 = 100
Is

V0 10 1
= =
Is 100 10

V0
45 = V0 −  500
Is

1
V0 = 45 +  500 = 95V
10
V0 1 V
=  Is = 0
Is 10 I
10
= V0 × 10 = 95 × 10 = 950A
V0 = 95V
Is = 950A
5.5. DUTY CYCLE

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(i) It is the percentage of time during which arc is on without over heating of any
component in welding m/c whenever welding take place, the current passes through
components & produces heat, which may result in overheating and to avoid this we have
to stop the welding process.

(ii) Usually 60% duty cycle is the standard industrial rating.

Arc on Time (AOT)

Duty Cycle =
Total welding Time

Total welding time = Arc on time + Rest

Time For a welding transformer
I2d Dd = Ir2 Dr

Where
Id = Desired output current in Amp
Ir = Rated output current in Amp
Dd = Desired duty Cycle %
Dr = Rated duty Cycle%
Note: If arc length decreases current increases and vice versa. Arc length means gap
between tip of the electrode and work piece.
5.6. Heat flow characteristics in Arc Welding
In arc welding the heat input rate is given by
Q = KVI …(3)
Where
V = arc voltage,
I = arc current
K = fraction of total time during which arc is on

6. WELDING ACCESSORIES

6.1. NON-CONSUMABLE ELECTRODES

(i) They are made of tungsten or carbon. These do not melt in the process of welding
and so called non-consumable electrodes.
(ii) Generally non-consumable electrodes are used in MIG and TIG welding processes.
6.2. COATED CONSUMABLE ELECTRODES
These are the most popular arc welding electrodes. No additional filler metal and flux
are required with them. In general, these electrodes have core of mild steel and coating
over them of flux material. Coating on the electrode performs many functions. It
develops a reducing atmosphere and prevents oxidation, forms separable slag from
metal impurities, establishes ac providing necessary alloying elements to the weld pool.
Manganese oxide and potassium silicate are the alloying elements and stabilizers.
6.3. WELDING CABLES

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(i) Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source to
various parts of Arc welding process equipment i.e. Electrode, the arc, the workpiece
and back to the welding power source.
(ii) These are insulated copper or aluminium cables.
6.4. HAND SCREEN
Hand screen is used for the protection of eyes during Arc welding process.
6.5. CHIPPING HAMMER
It is used for striking the slag from the weld bead region.
6.6. WIRE BRUSH
A wire brush is generally used to clean the surface before and after the welding process.
6.7. PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
(i) The operator wears protective clothing such as apron to keep away from the
exposure of direct heat to the body.
(ii) Always wear Gloves before touching any item in the workshop.
6.8. Filler Metal
In case of use of non-consumable electrode separate filler metal is used to improve
properties of weldment. Selection of a filler metal depends on the metal to be welded.
Some common types of filler metal are discussed below.
6.8.1. COATED FILLER METAL
Rods of this type of filler metal consists the coating of flux material.
6.8.2. BARE FILLER METAL
No coating of flux is there, it is supplied additionally as per the requirement. For stainless
steel and alloy steel filler metal should be alloy of chromium and vanadium. For the
welding of copper filler metal should be phosphorous mixed copper. Filler metal
composition should be same as that of the material to be welded.

7. TIG WELDING

7.1. PRINCIPLE
In TIG welding process the electrode is non consumable and the purpose of it is only to
create an arc. A separate filler metal rod is used to deposit the material. This was primarily
invented to weld alloys of Aluminium and Magnesium. Aluminium is very difficult to weld
because as soon as it is exposed to atmosphere it forms a layer over it. To weld these
materials, work piece should be given negative polarity and electrode positive polarity.
As the electrons are coming out of the work piece, peels of the ceramic layer and fresh
Aluminium comes in contact with the arc. This phenomenon is called cathodic cleaning.

7.2. WORKING OF TIG WELDING

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(i) First, a low voltage high current supply supplied by the power source to the welding
electrode or tungsten electrode. Mostly, the electrode is connected to the negative
terminal of power source and work piece to positive terminal.
(ii) This current supplied form a spark between tungsten electrode and work piece.
Tungsten is a non –consumable electrode, which give a highly intense arc. This arc
produced heat which melts the base metals to form welding joint.
(iii) The shielded gases like argon, helium is supplied through pressure valve and
regulating valve to the welding torch. These gases form a shield which does not allow
any oxygen and other reactive gases into the weld zone. These gases also create
plasma which increases heat capacity of electric arc thus increases welding ability.
(iv) For welding thin material no filler metal is required but for making thick joint some
filler material used in form of rods which fed manually by the welder into welding zone.

Fig.8: TIG welding

Applications of TIG welding:
(i) Mostly used to weld aluminium and aluminium alloys.
(ii) It is used to weld stainless steel, carbon base alloy, copper base alloy, nickel base
alloy etc.
(iii) It is used to welding dissimilar metals.
(iv) It is mostly used in aerospace industries.

8. MIG WELDING

8.1. PRINCIPLE
MIG works on same principle of TIG or arc welding. It works on basic principle of heat
generation due to electric arc. This heat is further used to melt consumable electrode and
base plates metal which solidify together and makes a strong joint. The shielded gases
are also supplied through nozzle which protect the weld zone from other reactive gases.
This gives good surface finish and a stronger joint.
8.2. WORKING

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Its working can be summarized as follows

Fig.9: MIG welding

(i) First, a high voltage current is change into DC current supply with high current at low

voltage. This current pass though welding electrode.

(ii) A consumable wire is used as electrode. The electrode is connected to the negative

terminal and work piece from positive terminal.

(iii) A fine intense arc will generate between electrode and work piece due to power

supply. This arc used to produce heat which melts the electrode and the base metal.

Mostly electrode is made by the base metal for making uniform joint.

(iv) This arc is well shielded by shielding gases. These gases protect the weld form other

reactive gases which can damage the strength of welding joint.

(v) This electrode travels continuously on welding area for making proper weld joint. The

angle of the direction of travel should be kept between 10-15 degree. For fillet joints

the angle should be 45 degree.

Applications:

(i) MIG is best suited for fabrication of sheet metal.

(ii) Generally, all available metals can be weld through this process.

(iii) It can be used for deep groove welding.

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9. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TIG AND MIG WELDING

MIG WELDING TIG WELDING

1. This welding is known as metal inert gas welding. 1. This is known as tungsten inert gas welding.

2. Metal rod is used as electrode and work piece

2. Tungsten rod is used as electrode.
used as another electrode.
3. Continuous feed electrode wire is used which are
3. Welding rods are used which are slow feeding.
fast feeding.
4. TIG weld things like kitchen sinks and
4. MIG can weld materials such as mild steel,
toolboxes. Pipe welding and other heavier tasks
stainless steel and aluminium. A range of material
can also be performed, you just need to have a
thicknesses can be welded from thin gauge sheet
unit that is capable of putting out the amount of
metal right up to heavier structural plates.
power that you need.

5. MIG requires consumable metallic electrode. 5. It used non consumable tungsten electrode

6. Electrode is feeded continuously from a wire reel. 6. It does not require electrode feed.

7. DC with reverse polarity is used. 7. It can use both A.C and D.C.

8. Filler metal is compulsory used. 8. Filler metal may or may not be used.

9. It can weld up to 40 mm thick metal sheet. 9. Metal thickness is limited about 5 mm.

10. MIG is comparatively faster than TIG. 10. TIG is a slow welding process.

10. SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

Fig.10: Submerged arc welding

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This is semi-automatic version of SMAW process which can produce long weld runs. In this type
of welding electrode is in the form of spool of copper coated wire and granular flux is used.
Copper is coated to increase the conductivity of wire. Powdered flux is initially poured into the
welding area and arc is maintained within the pool of flux. This minimizes the Spatter of liquid
metal and suppresses the intense ultraviolet radiation Flux is fed on weld zone by gravity
through flow nozzle, a long continuous weld can be performed. It is mainly used in the down
hand welding position in a semi – automatic welding process and the feeding of electrode
towards the weld pool is controlled by machine. The welds obtained by this process are stronger
than the base plate, if done carefully.
The metals most widely welded through this process are low carbon steels, low alloy steels,
stainless steels and high alloy steels. It is extensively used in joints in thick plates in pressure
vessels, ships, bridges, structural work, welded pipes and nuclear reactors. It cannot be used
for plates less than 5 mm thick. The process is also used to make LPG cylinders.
Submerged Arc Welding Applications
The applications of Submerged Arc Welding include the following
(i) The Submerged Arc Welding can be used to weld pressure vessels like boilers.
(ii) A lot of structural outlines, pipes, earth moving tools, shipbuilding, railroad construction,
and locomotives.
(iii) This type of welding can be used to repair machine parts.

11. RESISTANCE WELDING

Resistance welding is a fusion pressure welding operation, because of application of large

amount of pressure the resistance welding is classified under pressure welding operation.
In Resistance welding whatever the heat required for melting and joining of plates is obtained
due to electrical resistance circuit, so the name given as resistance welding operation.
Applications of Resistance welding
(i) Construction of pressure vessels, joining of fuel tanks to the automobile body, joining
of throw away type of tip of the tool to the tool body.
(ii) Joining sheets, bars and tubes.
(iii) Making tubes for metal furniture and cycles
(iv) Welding aircraft and automobile parts
(v) Welding cutting tools
(vi) Welding of fuel tanks for cars etc.
Advantage of Resistance welding
(i) Fast rate of production
(ii)No filler rod is needed
(iii) Process is semi-automatic and less skilled worker can do the job
(iv) Similar and dissimilar metals can be welded
(v) Reliability and reproducibility are high

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Disadvantages of Resistance welding
(i) Initial cost of equipment is high
(ii) Skilled persons are needed for the maintenance of equipment
(iii)Special surface preparation is required in certain cases
(iv) Larger job thickness cannot be welded.
Heat balance in Resistance welding
Heat balance may be defined as a condition in which the fusion zones in the pieces of
material to be joined undergo the same degree of heating.
Heat required for producing nugget
= Mass of Nugget x (sensible heat + latent heat)
= volume × ρ × Heat required/gram

Fig.11: Weld-nugget in resistance welding

Because the exact dimension of elliptical nugget is not known. So, for theoretical
approximation, the shape of nugget produced is assumed as cylindrical with diameter
equal diameter of tip of electrode and height equal to distance between two electrode
plates.
 2
Volume of nugget = Dh
4

by using Unwin’s formula D = 6 t mm

t = Average thickness of plate to joined in mm
h = 2t – 2 × indentation
Heat required
 Heat input =
Heat generated

η = 85 – 95% → Resistance welding

η = 55 – 65% → Gas welding
η = 45 – 55% → Arc welding

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11.1. HEAT GENERATION IN RESISTANCE WELDING
(i) In this welding, the amount of heat generated in the work piece depends on the
magnitude of the current, the resistance of the current conducting part and the time
for which the current is made to flow.
(ii) The heat is obtained by large electrical current of the order of 3000A to 100000A
with voltages of 1 to 25 volts.
H.G = I2Rτ
I = current passing through circuit
R = Electrical Resistance at the interface
τ = time during which current is passing
11.2. RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
Resistance spot welding (RSW) is a process in which contacting metal surface points are
joined by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current.

Fig.12: Resistance spot-welding

Work-pieces are held together under pressure exerted by electrodes. The process uses
two shaped copper alloy electrodes to concentrate welding current into a small "spot"
and to simultaneously clamp the sheets together. Forcing a large current through the
spot will melt the metal and form the weld. The attractive feature of spot welding is that
a lot of energy can be delivered to the spot in a very short time (approximately 10–100
milliseconds). That permits the welding to occur without excessive heating of the
remainder of the sheet.
The main advantages of spot welding are:
(a) Its adaptability to mass production,
(b) High speed of operation,
(c) Cleanliness,
(d) No welding rods and less operational skill

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EXAMPLE 3
For resistance spot welding of two aluminium sheets, each 2 mm thick, a current of
5000 A was passed for 0.15 sec. The total resistance was estimated to be 75 μΩ and
the nugget diameter and thickness were measured to be 5 mm and 2.5 mm respectively.
What would be the proportion of heat energy utilized for welding if the melting energy
per unit volume for aluminium is taken as 2.9 j/mm3?
Sol.
Data given: t = 2 mm, I = 5000 A
τ = 0.15 sec, r = 75μΩ,
Nugget diameter = D = 5 mm,
Nugget thickness = h = 2.5 mm
Heat required per mm3 = 2.9 J/mm3.
 
Volume of nugget =  D2  h
 4 

 
=   52  2.5 = 49 mm3
 4 

Heat required for producing the welding bead

= volume of weld bead × H.R/mm 3
= [50002 × 75 × 10–6 × 0.15]
= 281.25 J
Percentage of heat utilized for welding operation
= heat required/heat generated
 142.1 
=  = 0.5052 = 50.52%
 281.25 

11.3. SEAM WELDING

(i) The resistance seam welding is a specialized process of spot welding.
(ii) In seam welding the heat at the interface is generated by contact resistance, which
can be increased by decreasing the electrode force or by weld time.
(iii) The amount of heat generated is controlled by speed of rotation of electrode disc,
the heat generated decreases with increase in speed of rotation.
(iv) Here the cylindrical electrodes are replaced by disc electrodes.
(v) The disc electrodes are continuously rotated so that the workpiece gets advanced
underneath them while at the same time the pressure on the joints is maintained.
(vi) Here the electrodes are not separated at any time.
(vii) The current is applied through the heavy copper electrodes in a series of pulses at
proper intervals.
(viii) The timing is adjusted so that the pulses overlap each other and thus formed a
continuous scam joint.

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Fig.13: Seam Welding

(ix) Seam welding is applied in welding of metal coatings, gasoline tanks, automobile
mufflers, refrigerator cabinets etc., seam welding gives neat design, saving in
material, produce leak proof joints and low cost of construction.
11.4. PROJECTION WELDING
The method of joining a projected component on a flat component by using resistance
welding is called resistance projection welding

Fig.14: Projection Welding

In projection welding, the shape of the electrode remains same as the shape of
components to be joined.
EXAMPLE 4
A projection welding of 3 spots is obtained with a current of 35,000 A for a period of
0.01 sec. If the effective resistance of the joint be taken as 120 micro ohms, and if the
joint can be considered as a cylinder of 6mm diameter and 2.5 mm in height, calculate
the heat distributed to the surroundings. Take heat required for melting steel as 10
Jmm3.
Sol.
Data given
number of spots = n = 3
I = 35000A, τ = 0.01sec,
R = 120μΩ,
Nugget diameter = D = 6mm,
Nugget thickness = h =2.5mm,
Heat required per mm3 = 10 J/mm3.

Volume of nugget =  D2  h
4 

 
=  62  2.5 = 70.65 mm3
 4 

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Heat required for producing the welding bead
= volume of weld bead × H.R/mm3 × 3
= 70.65 × 10 × 3 = 2119.5 J
Heat generated = I2Rτ[350002 × 120×10–6 × 0.01 × 3] = 4410J
The amount of heat distributed to the surroundings
= heat generated – heat required for weld bead
= 4410 – 2119.5 = 2290.5J
EXAMPLE 5
Two metallic sheets, each of 2mm thickness are welded in a lap joint manner by
resistance spot welding at a current of 10,000A and welding time of 10ms. A spherical
fusion zone extending up to the full thickness of each sheet is formed, given that
atmospheric temperature is 293K, melting temperature of that metal is 1793K and latent
heat of fusion is 300 kJ/kg, density is 7000 kg/m 3 and specific heat is 800J/kgK. If
contact resistance is 500μΩ, melting efficiency in % is ________.
Sol.
Heat required for welding, Qweld = mL + mC∆T
Volume of weld = Volume of sphere of radius t (as shown in figure below)
Where, t = thickness of plate = 2mm

4 3
Vweld = t = 33.5103 mm3
3

7000  33.5103
Mass of weld, m = V = 3
= 2.34  10−4 kg
1000

∴ Qreruired = [2.34 × 10–4 × 300 × 1000] + [2.34 × 10–4 ×800 × (1793 – 293)]
= 351.17 J
Qsupplied = I2Rt = 500 J
Qrequired 351.17
% Melting efficiency=  100% =  100% = 70.23%
Qsupplied 500

11.5. PERCUSSION WELDING

Fig.15: Percussion Welding

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(i) Percussion welding is non-fusion pressure welding operation.
(ii) Percussion welding produces butt joint.
(iii) The heat generated at the joint is sufficient to rise the joint temperature very near
to the MP of the metals to be joint.
(iv) Now the current supply will be stopped and apply the force by using the component
percussively (suddenly).
(v) In addition to the activeness of atoms when the sudden application of force is
taking place, the atoms will automatically share the energy and produces surface
alloy and gives strength to the joints.
(vi) Because of the higher softness of material at the joint, when the sudden force is
applied, the material is projected outside the joint producing flash.
(vii) As the flash is produced at the joint, the process is also called as Flash butt welding.
(viii) Because the surface alloy joint, the strength obtained due to percussion welding
operation is not so high.
(ix) It is used for joining of shaft from end to end.

12. CO2 ARC WELDING

In CO2 arc welding, the welding wire wound in coil is fed into the welding torch by the feeding
motor automatically. The welding wire that is electrified through the contact tip becomes the
electrode to strike an arc between itself and the base metal. The arc heat melts the wire and
the base metal to join two pieces of base metal. In this case, in order that the weld metal will
not be affected by oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere, CO2 gas is supplied from the nozzle
of the welding torch to shield the weld pool. Its schematic is shown below.

Fig.16: CO2 Arc Welding

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13. ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING

WORKING PRINCIPLE

Atomic hydrogen welding the atomic hydrogen welding is an inert gas arc welding process done

with non-consumable electrodes. The main difference between tungsten inert gas welding and

this process is that in atomic hydrogen welding, the arc is obtained between the two tungsten

electrodes rather than between the tungsten electrode and the workpiece. This shielding gas

used here is hydrogen, which is reactive in nature compared to argon. The hydrogen molecule

(H2), when passing through the electric arc, get this dissociated into two hydrogen atoms

(H+). The hydrogen atoms are highly reactive. They form hydrogen molecule and combine with

oxygen if present to form water vapour enters release intense heat for the necessary melting

of the joint. Because of its type reactivity, the atomic hydrogen is able to break the oxide on

the base metal and thus allow the formation of a clean weld.

Fig.17: Atomic hydrogen welding

Applications:

When properly performed, atomic hydrogen welding gives an extremely clean weld with

excellent quality. It is generally used for welding of tool Steels containing tungsten, Nickel and

Molybdenum as also for hard surfacing and repairing of moulds, dies and tools. Though it can

be used for any job, its high cost prohibits its general usage.

14. ULTRASONIC WELDING (USW)

It is a welding technique which uses ultrasonic vibration of high frequency to weld the two

pieces together. It is most commonly used to weld thermoplastic materials and dissimilar

materials. Metal with thin section can also be welded with USW.

The main parts or components of ultrasonic welding are

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Fig.18: Ultrasonic Welding

Working Process of Ultrasonic Welding
(i) The two plastic pieces to be joined is assembled in the nest (anvil or fixture)
(ii) The horn is made to contact at upper part of the piece.
(iii) A pressure is applied on the two pieces against the fixture. The pressure is applied
through the pneumatic or electric driven press.
(iv) Horn is vibrated vertically at very high frequency (20 kHz to 40 kHz), transmits the
mechanical vibration to the two plastic pieces. This generates heat energy at contact tip
of the two surfaces and melts them.
(v) A clamping force is applied on the two pieces for a predetermined amount of time to fuse
them together to form a strong weld on cooling and solidification.
(vi) After solidification, the clamping force is removed, and horn retracted. The welded plastic
part is taken out of the fixture as one piece.
Applications
It is mostly used in computer and electrical, aerospace and automotive, medical, and packaging
industries.

15. PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW)

The PAW (Plasma arc welding) method is related to GTAW (gas tungsten arc welding). This arc
can be formed among the metal as well as an electrode. The major difference among the PAW
and GTAW is that in PAW, the welder is capable in placing the electrode in the torch’s body so,
this will allow the PAW to be divided from the protecting gas.
Afterward, the plasma is fed throughout a nozzle which will compress the arc to force the
plasma away at high speed as well as temperature.

Fig.19: Plasma Arc Welding

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15.1. Working Principle of Plasma ARC Wielding
The plasma arc welding is method wherever a coalescence is generated with the
temperature which is developed from a special setup between a tungsten alloy electrode
and the water-cooled nozzle (Non transferred ARC) or between a tungsten alloy
electrode and the job (transferred ARC). In this type of winding, there are three types
of gas supplies being utilized namely plasma gas, shielding gas, and a back-purge gas.
Plasma gas supplies throughout the nozzle turn into ionized. The shielding gas supplies
throughout the external nozzle & protects the join from the environment. Back-Purge
gas is mainly used when particular materials are being used.
Applications of PAW
(i) PAW can be used in industries like aerospace as well as marine
(ii) PAW is used to join stainless tubes and pipes
(iii) This type of welding is mostly applicable for electronic industries.
(iv) PAW is mainly used to fix tools, mold and die.
(v) PAW is used to coating otherwise welding on the turbine blade.

16. ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (EBW)

Fig.20: Electron beam welder

(i) Basically, EBW is a thermal process. Here a stream of high-speed electrons impinges on
the work surface so that the KE of electrons is transferred to work producing intense
heating and melting of workpiece.

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(ii) Depending upon the intensity of heating, the work can melt and vaporize.
(iii) The process of heating by electron beam is used for annealing, welding, or metal removal.
(iv) Complex contours can be easily welded by manoeuvring the electron beam using magnetic
deflection coils.
(v) To avoid a collision of the accelerating electrons with the air molecules, the process has to
be conducted in vacuum (10-5 mm of Hg).
So, EBW is not suitable for large work pieces.
Advantages of EBW:
(i) Very very small size welds can be produced.
(ii) Surface finish produced is good.
(iii) Highly reactive metals like Al and Mg can be welded very easily.
Limitations:
(i) Maintaining perfect vacuum is very difficult.
(ii) Weld deposition rate is very low.
(iii) Because the total equipment is kept inside the container, the machining process can't be
seen by operator.
(iv) Work piece material is should be electrically conducting.
EXAMPLE 6: An electron beam welding unit operating at 100 KV and rated at 1 KW. If beam

KW
has a diameter of 0.5 mm and power density of 5 × 106 , the velocity of electron and power
m2
of the beam respectively are _____.(take charge of electron = 1.602 × 10 –19 coulombs, Mass
of electron = 9.1 × 10–31 Kg)
Sol.
Energy of ‘n’ electrons having charge q & voltage V is given by = nqV
= 1 × 1.602 × 10–19 × 100 × 103 Joule
= 1.602 × 10–14 joules
If V is velocity of electron, then

1
K.E. = mV2
2

2  K.E. 2  1.602  10−14

V = =
m 9.1  10−31

m
= 0.187  109
sec

Power P
Power density= =
Beam Area 
 (0.5  10−3 )2
4

P = 5  109   (0.5  10−3 )2
4
P = 982 watt.

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17. LASER BEAM MACHININC (LBM)

LASER: light amplification by simulated emission of radiation.

(i) LBM is similar to EBM. Laser is a highly coherent beam of electromagnetic radiation with

wavelength varying from 0.1-70pm. But due to limitation in power availability the usable

wavelength is 0.4 to 0.6 pm.

(ii) Because the laser beam is perfectly parallel and monochromatic, it can be focused on to a

very small diameter and so we can obtain a power density of 10 7 W/mm2(10 MW/mm2).

Fig.21: Laser beam welding setup

The machining by a laser beam is achieved through the following phases.

(i) Interaction of laser beam with work material.

(ii) Heat conduction and temperature rise.

(iii) Melting, vaporization and ablation.

Energy released by flash tube is much more than the energy emitted by the laser head in the

form of laser beam, so the system must be properly cooled.

(i) Efficiency of EBM is very low i.e. 0.3 to 0.5%.

(ii) Divergence of beam is about 2 x 10.3 radians.

(iii) Like EBM, LBM is also used for drilling micro holes and cutting very narrow slots.

(iv) Holes up to 250 microns diameter can be easily drilled by laser.

(v) The dimensional accuracy is ± 0.025 mm, when the work thickness is more than 0.25 mm;

a taper of 0.05 mm/mm is noticed.

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Advantages:

(i) No vacuum is required hence process will be easier

(ii) The size of hole and slots produced is same as that of EBM

(iii) Because the Ruby rod is flexible, to same extent the zigzag holes can be produced by using

LBM.

(iv) No need to have electrical conductivity of work piece material.

Disadvantages:

Energy or power required for LBM is very high

Limitations:

(i) Max. MRR is 5mm3/min

(ii) Specific power consumption is 1000 W/mm3/min.

(iii) Cannot cut materials with high `K' (Thermal conductivity) and high reflectivity material.

18. EXPLOSIVE WELDING

Explosion welding is a solid state (solid-phase) process where welding is accomplished by

accelerating one of the components at extremely high velocity through the use of chemical

explosives.

FIG.22: Explosion welding

1 Flyer (cladding).

2 Resolidified zone (needs to be minimised for welding of dissimilar materials).

3 Target (substrate).

4 Explosion.

5 Explosive

6 Plasma jet.

Applications

This process is most commonly utilized to clad carbon steel plate with a thin layer

of corrosion resistant material (e.g., stainless steel, nickel alloy, titanium, or zirconium). Due

to the nature of this process, producible geometries are very limited. Typical geometries

produced include plates, tubing and tube sheets.

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19. FRICTION WELDING

Friction welding works on basic principle of friction. In this welding process, the friction is used
to generate heat at the interference surface. This heat is further used to join two work pieces
by applying external pressure at the surface of work piece. In this welding process, the friction
is applied until the plastic forming temperature is achieved. It is normally 900-1300 degree
centigrade for steel. After this heating phase, a uniformly increasing pressure force applied
until the both metal work pieces make a permanent joint. This joint is created due to thermo-
mechanical treatment at the contact surface.
20.1. WORKING
There are many types of friction welding processes which works differently. But all
different these processes involve common a working principle which can be summarized
as follow:

Fig.23: Friction Welding

First both the work pieces are prepared for smooth square surface. One of them is
mounted on a rotor driven chuck and other one remains stationary.
(i) The rotor allows rotating at high speed thus it makes rotate mounted work piece.
A little pressure force is applied on the stationary work piece which permits
cleaning the surface by burnishing action.
(ii) Now a high-pressure force applied to the stationary work piece which forces it
toward rotating work piece and generates a high friction force. This friction
generates heat at the contact surface. It is applied until the plastic forming
temperature is achieved.
(iii) When the temperature is reached the desire limit, the rotor is stopped and the
pressure force is applied increasingly until the whole weld is formed.
(iv) This welding is used to weld those metals and alloys which cannot be welded by
other method.

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Applications:

(i) It is mostly used in aerospace, automobile, marine and oil industries.

(ii) Gears, axle tube, valves, drive line etc. components are friction welded.

Advantages:

(i) It is environment friendly process without generation smoke etc.

(ii) Narrow heat affected zone so no change in properties of heat sensitive material.

(iii) No filler metal required.

(iv) Welding strength is strong in most cases.

(v) Easily automated.

(vi) High welding speed.

(vii) High efficiency of weld.

(viii) Wide variety of metal can be weld by this process.

Disadvantages:

(i) This is mostly used only for round bars of same cross section.

(ii) Non-forgeable material cannot be weld.

(iii) Preparation of work piece is more critical

(iv) High setup cost.

(v) Joint design is limited.

20. THERMIT WELDING

As we discussed thermite welding is a liquid state chemical welding process, in which joint

formation takes place in molten state. Practically, it is combination of welding

and casting process in which, the molten iron poured at the welding plates and allow solidifying

to make a permanent strong joint. The molten state of iron creates without application of

external heat or conventional furnace so this is taken as a welding process. In this type of

welding, a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide is used in ratio 1:3 by weight. This mixture

chemically reacts as follow.

8 Al + 3 Fe3O4 --------> 9 Fe + 4 Al2O3 + Heat

This reaction gives aluminium oxide and iron and also liberate a huge amount of heat which

coverts this mixture into molten state. Because the molten iron has higher density compare to

aluminium oxide so it remains bottom of the crucible. There is an opening at bottom of the

crucible from where, this molten iron poured at the required plates where we want to create

joint. This is basic principle of thermite welding.

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Fig.24: Thermit welding process

20.1. WORKING
Now we know basic principle and essential parts of thermite welding. Thermite welding
is similar like a casting process in which the molten state of metal is created by the
chemical reaction. Its working can be summarized as follow:
(i) First both the work pieces which are needed to be weld, are cleaned.
(ii) Now a wax pattern is created around the weld cavity.
(iii) A moulding flask is fixed around the joint with the help of mold handle clamp. This
wax pattern is situated at the middle of the flask.
(iv) Now the molding sand rammed around the wax pattern to create mold in which
the molten metal will pour. This mold involves all necessary parts like runner,
riser, pouring basin, gating system, opening for wax pattern etc. same as involves
in casting.
(v) Now this mold is heated to remove wax pattern. The wax is melted and run off
from the wax pattern outlet prepared at bottom of the sand mold.
(vi) Now the thermite mixture is taken into the refectory crucible. The ignite powder
is placed over the mixture. This mixture is ignited by a magnesium ribbon.
(vii) This will start the thermite reaction which liberates a huge amount of heat. This
reaction form molten state of iron which flows from crucible to sand mould.
(viii) This molten metal fills the weld cavity and fuses the parent metal to make a
permanent joint. This will allow to cool down. After proper cooling, flask is removed
from the joint.
(ix) After removing the flask, machining is done to remove the welding burr or other
extra metal.

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Applications:
(i) It is mostly used to weld railroad at the site.
(ii) It was used to weld thick plate before introduce electroslag welding.
(iii) They are used to repair heavy castings.
(iv) It is used to weld cable connectors of copper.
(v) It is used to make structure joints in large ships etc.
(vi) It is used to joint pipe, thick plate etc. where power supply is not available.

21. OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING (GAS WELDING)

Oxy-acetylene welding can used for welding of wide range of metals and alloys. Acetylene
mixed with oxygen when burnt under a controlled environment produces large amount of heat
giving higher temperature rise. This burning also produces carbon dioxide which helps in
preventing oxidation of metals being welded. Highest temperature that can be produced by
this welding is 3200°𝐶. The chemical reaction involved in burning of acetylene is
2C2H2 + 5O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat

Fig.25: Oxy-Acetylene gas welding equipment

Oxygen cylinder valves are made of Brass and Acetylene cylinder valves are made by Steel.

Brass valve does not corrode so easily and that is why brass valves are used in oxygen cylinder.

Acetylene is a very dangerous gas because it can explode under its own weight. So, calcium

silicate is filled in the cylinder and then acetone is poured. Acetylene is absorbed in acetone.

21.1. FLAME FORMATION AND ITS DIFFERENT TYPES

On the basis of supply proportion of acetylene and oxygen, flames can be divided into

three categories, neutral flame, carburizing flame and oxidizing flame. These are

described here.

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Fig.31: Types of flames

Fig.26: Establishment of Flame in Oxy-acetylene Welding

21.1.1 NEUTRAL FLAME

Neutral flame produces hissing sound and the flame is used to weld low Carbon steels
and Aluminium. This consists of nearly one to one ratio of acetylene and oxygen by
volume. It consists of two parts namely the inner cone and the outer envelope. It has
the clear luminous hissing cone indicating that the combustion is complete. Such a flame
makes the hissing sound and it is useful to weld metals. The temperature of neutral
flame is 3150°C.
21.1.2 CARBURIZING FLAME
carburizing flames contains unburnt Carbon and after solidification of weld the bead will
have pitted surface over it and the weld bead appear to be very hard and brittle, because
lot of free Carbon will be present in the flame and it is used to weld high Carbon steels
and cast Irons. It will not produce any sound. This flame is obtained when excess of
acetylene is supplied than which is theoretically required. It is white in colour due to
excess acetylene. The resulting flame will a carburizing flame. Its temperature
generation range is 3100°C to 3300°C. It is used for the welding of metals where risk of
oxidation at elevated temperature is more like aluminium, its alloys and lead and its
alloys

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21.1.3 Oxidizing Flame
Oxidized flames are the hottest flames and it produces roaring sound. This flame has
an excess of oxygen over the acetylene. It consists of a very short pointed white inner
cone and a shorter outer envelope. The reduction of length of the inner cone is a
measure of excess oxygen. This is the hottest flame produced. These flames are used
to weld alloys of Copper and Zinc. In welding these metals, the oxidizing flame produces
a base metal oxide layer to protect the evaporation of low point alloying elements. The
temperature of these flames is around 3480°C.

22. SOLDERING, BRAZING AND BRAZE WELDING

If the parent material cannot withstand high temperature, or the parts to be joined are delicate
or intricate or metals with different properties, thickness etc. then to weld with those processes
is difficult, so to weld those, allied processes are introduced. In this additional metal is
deposited on a substrate either by spraying or by some welding process are used.
22.1. SOLDERING
The two surfaces are cleaned, and a flux is applied over them. This flux dissolves
whatever amount of oxide is remaining on the surface and also protects the surface
from further oxidation. After the application of the flux the pieces are heated and the
solder is then applied on the gap. The material flows into the interface of mating surface
by capillary action. On cooling, it solidifies and provides a joint of adequate strength.
Soldering is done by thoroughly cleaning the pieces with the help of wire brush, emery
cloth, file or even steel wool. On cooling, the joint is cleaned by hot water to avoid
corrosive action of the flux residue. Soldering of lead pipe is known as wiping.

Fig.27: Soldering of two parts

Soldering is used extensively in the electronics industry. Solders are not used for load
bearing members because of the low strength than brazing. This process is used to join
Copper with such precious metals such as silver and gold.The temperature is the
soldering is less than 450°C and the flux material used is zinc chloride.The filler material
used is solder alloy (Lead + Tin).
22.2. BRAZING
The process is performed above 450°C but below solidus temperature of the base metal.
The surfaces to be joined are grinded and then cleaned by applying some chemicals like
Carbon Tetrachloride. A brazing flux (borax) is then applied over the surface to dissolve
any remaining metal oxide. A brazing material like brass is poured at the joint. The
molten metal fills by capillary action. Upon cooling and solidification of the filler metal,
a strong joint is obtained. Joints to be brazed are made with small clearance, so that
brazing flux is applied, to dissolve solid metal oxide which is still present and to prevent
further oxidation.

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Brazing fluxes are generally borax, boric acid, borates, fluorides and chlorides.
Surfaces to be brazed must be clean in order to obtain proper wetting and spreading
characteristics of the molten filler metal in the joint and to develop maximum bond
strength.

Fig.28: Brazing of mating parts

Fig.29: Variation of strength with gap

In brazing operation, the strength of the joint increases first then decreases
22.3. BRAZE WELDING
(i) Braze welding is similar welding is that the joint is obtained by means of filler
metal, whose liquidus temp is greater than 427°C and below solidus temp of the
base metal.
(ii) But the difference is that in braze welding the filler metal reaches the joint by gravity.
(iii) That is without capillary action, because the join gap is more as in the case of
welding.
(iv) A braze welded joint is designed very much like gas welding joint but effort should
be made to avoid sharp corner that are easily over heated or that become point
of stress concentration. The cleaning and flux requirements are similar to brazing.
(v) The joint is obtained by diffusion of filler metal into the base metal and by surface
(vi) Alloy formation. Silver brazing alloys are not used in braze welding because of the
high costs involved.
(vii) Braze welding is extensively used for repair work. Some fabrication work on such
metals as grey CI, malleable iron, wrought iron, steel, Cu, Ni, high melting brasses
and bronzes.
22.4. SIMILARITIES BETWEEN BRAZING AND BRAZE WELDING
(i) Both of them used for non-ferrous filler metals
(ii) Liquids temp of filler metal is less than the solidus temp of base metal and greater
than 427°C
(iii) In both the cases the bonding is achieved without melting the base metal.
(iv) The mechanism of bonding is same.

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NOTE:
Mostly used heating method is oxyacetylene welding torch and in special case, carbon
arc metal arc and TIG are used.
Metals braze welded are primarily on steel and C.I, but also joins Cu, Ni and Ni alloys.
22.5. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRAZE AND BRAZE WELDING
(ii) Without the joint preparation, if two components are joined, it is called as brazing.
(ii) With joint preparation, it two components are joined, it is called as braze welding.

23. DEFECTS IN WELDING

The ideal weld should be such that adequate fusion exists between the filler metal and edge
preparation together with good penetration. The major discontinuities are
23.1. POROSITY
Porosity is caused due by the entrapment of gas bubbles by the freezing dendrites during
the cooling of the wed pool and occur essentially only in the weld metal, or by chemical
reactions during welding, or by contaminants. These are generally in the shape of
spheres or of elongated pockets. The porosity may be distributed throughout weld zone
or may be concentrated in a certain region. This can be reduced by proper selection of
filler metals, by preheating the weld area, by proper cleaning the weld zone, and by
reducing the welding speeds.
23.2. SLAG INCLUSIONS
Inclusions may be caused by compounds such as oxides, fluxes, and electrode coating
materials, which are trapped in the weld zone. If shielding is not provided properly the
contaminants from atmosphere will contribute to such inclusion. This can be reduced by
cleaning the weld bead, by providing enough shielding gas.

Fig.30: Defects in welding

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23.3. INCOMPLETE FUSION AND PENETRATION

It is usually caused by insufficient heat and too fast travel of torch or electrode. This

can be avoided by raising the temperature of the base metal, cleaning the weld area,

providing enough shielding gas. Incomplete penetration occurs when the depth of the

welded joint is insufficient. This can be reduced by increasing the heat input, reducing

the speed, changing joint design and ensuring proper fit.

23.4. UNDER CUTTING

It is the melting or burning away the base metal at the toe of the weld as sharp recess

or notch. Undercut can be as stress raiser and can reduce the fatigue strength of the

joint. In such cases it may lead to premature failure. These undercuts are generally due

to excessive weaving speeds.

23.5. UNDER FILLING

It results when the joint is not filled with the proper amount of the weld metal.

23.6. INCOMPLETE FUSION

This is because of failure in fusing adjacent layers of weld metal together. This is caused

by failure to raise the temperature of base metal to its melting point or failure to remove

oxides or other foreign material.

23.7. OVERLAPPING

It is the protrusion of weld metal beyond the root of the weld and occurs due to

insufficient travel speed which permits the weld puddle to move ahead of electrode, also

due to insufficient angle.

23.8. CRACKS

Cracking is the most serious defect in a weld since it can lead to premature failure

particularly in a dynamically loaded component. The typical types of cracks are

longitudinal, transverse, crater, under bead and toe cracks. Cracks occurs due to;

temperature gradients that causes thermal stresses in weld zone, variations in the

compositions of the weld zone, hydrogen embrittlement, inability of the weld metal to

contract during cooling and embrittlement of grain boundaries.

There are two types of cracks, hot crack and cold crack. Hot cracks occur while the joint

is still at elevated temperatures. Cold cracks develop after the weld metal has solidified.

This can be prevented by changing the joint design, by changing the parameters,

procedures and the sequence of the welding process, preheating the component, and

by avoiding rapid cooling of the weld components.

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23.9. LAMELLAR TEARS

The work piece when tested at its thickness direction it is weaker alignment of non-

metallic impurities and inclusions. This is mainly in rolled plates. In welding such

components these lamellar tears will appear, because of shrinkage of the restrained

components during cooling. This can be avoided by providing for shrinkage of the

members.

23.10. SURFACE DAMAGE

This occurs due to spatter during the welding. Because of that small droplet of metal

deposited on adjacent surfaces. Such surface discontinuities are objectionable. By using

proper welding techniques and procedures surface damage can be avoided.

24. WELD TESTING & INSPECTION

Methods of weld testing and analysis are used to assure the quality and correctness of the weld

after it is completed.

Testing of Welds

(i) Stages of Inspection

– Before Welding (cleaning of surface oxides, grease oil removal)

– During Welding

– After Welding

(ii) Testing Techniques

– Destructive

– Non-Destructive

Before Welding

(cleaning of surface oxides, grease oil removal)

Edge preparation for Dimensions and Quality of Edge

Baking of electrodes etc (Removal of Moisture from electrode coating)

During welding (Selection of input parameters like Current & Voltage, welding speed, shielding

gases, heat source temperature etc.)

After Welding

Removal of the slag

(i) Peening

– Stress removal

(ii) Post Welding Treatment

– Refinement of grain structure & stress removal

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24.1. DESTRUCTIVE WELD TESTING

Destructive test, some sort of the damage takes place in the component which is being

tested, the extent of damage may be more or less, but most of the time it is observed

that component, which has been tested by the destructive test is damaged to such as

extent that it cannot be used for further, for the targeted application.

Types of Destructive Weld Testing:

(i) Tensile Test

(ii) Bend Test

(iii) Hardness Test

(iv) Toughness Testing

(v) Fatigue Behaviour

24.1.1 TENSILE TESTING

(i) Tensile test is used to check how the weld joint will perform under tensile loading

and under different environment.

(ii) Modulus of elasticity, Yield strength Ultimate strength, kind of the deformation at

the different stages and the total elongation of the weld joint, till the fracture.

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PRACTICE QUESTION

1. In a given arc welding operation, the power source is at 20 V and current at 300 A. If the
electrode travel speed is 6 mm/s, calculate the cross-sectional area of the joint. The heat transfer
efficiency is taken as 0.80 and melting efficiency as 0.30. Heat required to melt the steel is 10
J/mm3.
Ans. 24 mm2
2. In a resistance welding of a lap joint or two mild steel sheets of 1.5 mm thick, a current of 10
000 A is passed for a period of 0.1 seconds. The effective resistance of the joint is 120 micro
ohms. Density of steel is 0.00786 g/mm3 and heat required to melt is 1381 J/g. The joint can
be considered as a cylinder of 5 mm diameter and 2.25 mm in height. Calculate the percentage
of heat distributed to the surroundings.
Ans. 720.455 J
3. The voltage-length characteristic of a direct current (dc) arc is given by V = (20 + 40l) volts,
where l is the length of the arc in cm. The power source characteristic is approximated by a
straight line with an open circuit voltage = 80 V and a short circuit current = 1000 amp.
Determine the optimum arc length (in cm) and the corresponding arc power(kVA).
Ans. L = 0.5 cm. P= 20 kVA.
4. Consider a situation in which a welding Operation is being performed with V = 20 volts, I = 200
A, and the cross-sectional area of the weld bead is 30 mm 2. Estimate the welding speed if the
Workpiece and electrode are made of (a) aluminum, (b), carbon steel, and (c) titanium, Use an
efficiency of 75%.
For aluminium specific energy required is u = 2.9 J/mm3.
For carbon specific energy required is u = 9.7 J/mm3
For titanium specific energy required is u = 14.3 J/mm3
Ans. (a) 34.5 mm/s (b) 10.3 mm/s (c) 7 mm/s
5. Calculate the melting efficiency (in%) in the case of arc welding of steel with a potential of 20 V
and current of 200 A.The travel speed is 5 mm/s and the cross-sectional area of the joint is 20
mm2. Heat required to melt steel may be taken as 10 J/mm 3 and the heat transfer efficiency as
0.85.
Ans. 0.2941
6. Two steel sheets of 1.0 mm thick are resistance welded in a lap joint with a current of 10000A
for 0.1 second. The effective resistance of the joint can be taken as 100 micro ohms. The joint
can be considered as a cylinder of 5 mm diameter and 1.5 mm height. Density of steel is 0.00786
g/mm3 and heat required for melting steel be taken as 10 J/mm3.Calculate the percentage heat
lost to surrounding.
Ans. 70.5%

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7. A heat source transfers 3000 W to the surface of a metal part. The heat impinges the surface in
a circular area, with intensities varying inside the circle. The distribution is as follows: 70% of
the power is transferred within a circle of diameter = 5 mm, and 90% is transferred within a
concentric circle of diameter 12 mm. What are the power densities in
(a) the 5-mm-diameter inner circle and (b) the 12-mm-diameter ring that lies around the inner
circle?
Ans. (a)107 W/mm2, (b) 6.42 W/mm2
8. A gas tungsten arc welding operation is performed at a current of 300 A and voltage of 20 V.
The melting factor f2 = 0.5, and the heat transfer factor f1 = 0.7, the unit melting energy for the
metal Um = 10 J/mm3. Determine (a) power in the operation, (b) rate of heat generation at the
weld, and (c) volume rate of metal welded.
Ans. (a) 6000 W, (b) 2100 W (c) 210 mm3/s
9. A resistance spot-welding operation performed on two pieces of 2.5-mm-thick sheet steel uses
12,000 amps for a 0.20-s duration. The electrodes are 6 mm in diameter at the contacting
surfaces. Resistance is assumed to be 0.0001 Ω, and the resulting weld nugget 6 mm in diameter
and averages 3 mm in thickness. The unit melting energy for the metal Um = 12.0 J/mm3. What
percentage heat lost to surrounding.
Ans. 64.7%
10. An oxyacetylene torch supplies 0.3 m3 of acetylene per hour and an equal volume rate of oxygen
for an OAW operation on 45-mm-thick steel. Heat generated by combustion is transferred to the
work surface with a heat transfer factor f1 = 0.20, if 75% of the heat from the flame is
concentrated in a circular area on the surface that is 9.0 mm in diameter, find (a) rate of heat
liberated during combustion, (b) rate of heat transferred to the work surface, and (c) average
power density in the circular area.(Given acetylene rate of heat of combustion=55 × 10 6 J/m3)
Ans. (a) 4583 W (b) 917W (c) 10.8 W/mm2
11. In a resistance welding process, the applied voltage is 5V. Determine the rate of heat generated
per unit area with 25 bridges/cm 2, each bridge having a radius of 0.1 mm The resistivity of the
material is given to be 2 × 10–5 ohm-cm.
Ans. 1.136 × 105 W/cm2

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