Welding

Chapter Topics:
 Overview: discusses welding, its refinery applications, its basic equipment, and the
arc-welding process
 Arc-Welding Methods: compares the four types of arc welding
 Weld Metallurgy: describes the physical and microstructural effects of heating and
cooling on the weld bead and the steel
 Stress-Relieving Treatments: presents three techniques for relieving weld stress
 Weld Defects and Inspection: identifies and describes common weld defects and
weld inspection
 Special Welds: discusses special weld situations and recommended welding
procedures for ensuring quality welds

 Welding Procedures and Code Requirements: lists sources of welding information

and discusses Amoco's welding procedures

Overview
Section Topics:
 Definition
 Applications
 Types
 Basic arc-welding equipment

 Basic arc-welding process

Definition

Welding is the process that uses various combinations of heat, pressure, or filler material
to metallurgically bond two or more materials (metals or nonmetals). Welding is a fusion
process that melts and changes the properties of the materials it joins. The metallurgical
bond formed at the welded joint has the same strength properties as the base metals.
Two related processes--brazing and soldering--do not cause the base metals to melt.
Consequently, these processes cannot duplicate the strength properties of the base metals
at the joint. Table 1 describes the three joining processes.
Table 1: Metal Joining Processes
Metal-Joining Process Description
 Fusion process
Welding  Joins material with heat and/or pressure
 Joins with or without filler metal
  Melts base metal and changes its properties
Brazing  Nonfusion process
 Joins metal with heat
 Uses filler metal with a melting point above 840°F
 Does not melt base metal

 May change the mechanical properties of the base metal

Soldering  Nonfusion process
 Joins metals with heat
 Uses filler metal with a melting point below 840°F
 Does not melt base metal

 Does not change properties of base metal

Applications

Welding has a wide range of applications. At Amoco, the welding process is used
primarily for the design and maintenance of piping and pressure vessels. Each welding
job requires strict adherence to engineering codes and company procedures.
A number of individuals may participate in Amoco's design or maintenance welding
projects:
 Welder (Amoco or contract)
 Engineer
 Construction supervisor
 Metallurgist

Types

The welding process can be classified in a variety of ways. This section covers Types of
Arc Welding and Performance Options.

Types of Arc Welding

Arc welding is the most common type of welding process. Arc welding uses an electric
arc to perform the following functions:
 Supply heat (6500°F) to melt the metals
 Transfer molten metal from the electrode to the workpiece
 Remove surface films (grease, paint, etc.) from the workpiece
 Initiate the gas-slag-metal reactions that produce metallurgical changes

Amoco relies on four arc-welding methods for construction and repair of piping and
pressure vessels:
 Shielded metal-arc welding
 Gas-shielded arc welding (including two subtypes)
 Flux-core arc welding
  Submerged arc welding

Table 2 lists arc-welding methods, their common names, and related terms. See Arc-
Welding Methods for a more detailed description of each method.
Table 2: Common Arc-Welding References
Method Common Related Terms
Name
Stick Stick-electrode welding
Shielded metal-arc welding (SMAW) Manual welding
Plain-arc welding
Gas-shielded tungsten-arc welding TIG Nonconsumable electrode
(GTAW) welding
Heliarc welding
Gas-shielded metal-arc welding MIG Spray-arc or short-arc welding
(GMAW) Squirt welding
Flux-core arc welding (FCAW) Flux-core Innershield welding
Cored-electrode welding
Squirt welding
Submerged arc welding (SAW) Sub-arc Sub-arc welding

Performance Options

Each welding process offers some degree of performance flexibility. The performance
type chosen often depends upon the welding environment. Table 3 compares the three
performance types.
Table 3: Welding Performance Types
Performance Definition
Type
Any welding process performed entirely by the welder.
Manual
Semiautomatic Any welding process performed by a machine that is controlled and
adjusted by the welder.
Automatic Any welding process performed entirely by machine with only minor
adjustments by the welder.

Basic Arc-Welding Equipment

Although the size and features of arc-welding equipment vary from process to process,
the basic components are the same. Table 4 lists and describes basic arc-welding
equipment.
Table 4: Basic Arc-Welding Equipment
 Equipment Types Function
AC or DC Generates electrical current
Power source
Cables and ground Connects the power source to the workpiece
clamp Connects the power source to the electrode
Carries the electric current
Workpiece Plate Item to be welded, made up of like or
Casting dissimilar base metals arranged in one of a
Piping number of joint configurations
Electrode Nonconsumable Metal rods or coils that carry the electric
(See Arc-Welding Consumable current and sustain the arc, as follows:
Methods for the  Nonconsumable electrodesusually
standard electrode made of carbon or tungstendo not
classification contribute molten metal to the weld.
system.)
 Consumable electrodesoften covered or
filled with shielding materialcarry
electric current and supply filler metal
to the weld. They are composed of
metals that liquefy under the intense
heat created by the arc.
Electrode holder Standard holder Allows manipulation of the electrode
Gun or torch May dispense shielding material, flux, or gas
Filler metal Coated electrode Molten material making the weld
(Stick) Adds filler metal to the weld puddle, filling
Coil of non-filled large joints associated with thicker steel plate
filler wire (MIG and Filler metal type and function vary with the
Sub-arc) welding method, as follows:
Coil of filled wire  Filler metal usually shares the same or
(Flux-core) similar properties as the base metal(s).
Bare rod of filler  Separate filler-metal rods are used with
metal (TIG) nonconsumable electrodes for TIG
welding.
 TIG welding thin plates may require no
fillers.
 For MIG, stick, and sub-arc welding,
consumable electrodes combine the
filler metal with the electrode.

 Stick welding filler-metal rods may be

coated with shielding material or flux.
Flux Coating Chemical substance that coats the electrode,
Filling fills a cored electrode, or rests in granular form
 Granules on the weld joint
Produces a gas that shields the arc from
oxygen (air) and protects the droplets during
the transfer through the arc stream
Provides scavengers and deoxidizers that
condition the weld metal
Creates slag which coats the bead, and
insulates it from contaminants during cooling
Shielding material Gas Shields welding arc and weld puddle from the
Slag nitrogen and oxygen in air
Prevents the chemical reactions that produce
weld-joint weakening nitrides and oxides
during solidification
Supplies scavengers that react with oxides,
salts, and other unwanted substances on the
metals, incorporating them into the slag

Basic Arc-Welding Process

The basic arc-welding process includes nine steps:

1. Preparing the joint--The pieces of metal to be welded are arranged in one of a
number of joint configurations. Table 5 shows common weld joints.

Table 5: Common Weld Joints

Type Example
Butt

Corner

Lap

Edge

The edges of each piece are usually beveled to form a groove. Table 6 shows
common groove welds.

Table 6: Common Groove Welds

 Type Single Double

Fillet

Square

Bevel groove

V groove

J groove

U groove

2. Preheating the metal--Some base metals require a preheating treatment before

welding to prevent excessive stress build-up or to dry the base metal. See Stress-
Relieving Treatments for more information.
3. Establishing and shielding the arc--Raising the electrode approximately 1/8 inch
from the base metal establishes an electric arc. This arc melts the base metal and
the consumable electrode or supplemental filler metal. The arc and the molten
metal are shielded from the air by one of the following:
o Gas from the gun or torch
o Flux on or in the electrode
o Flux granules poured around the electrode
4. Forming the bead--Moving the electrode across the weld joint (or moving the
joint under the electrode) creates a weld puddle. The weld puddle--made of
molten filler metal and base metal--solidifies after the electrode passes. This
string of solidified metal is called the weld bead. When flux provides the
shielding gas, a slag covering forms over the weld bead.
5. Removing the slag--Slag is a glass-like coating of impurities that forms over
molten metal. The welder must remove this covering from each weld bead to
ensure proper fusion of the metals during the next weld pass.
6. Conducting intermediate inspections--Welds on alloys or thick materials must be
inspected for defects.
7. Continuing the process--The cycle of preheating the workpiece, making weld
passes, and removing slag continues until the joint is filled.
8. Performing post-weld heat treatment--Some weld joints must be heated after
welding to remove residual stresses. Post-weld heat treatment (PWHT)
requirements depend upon the metals being joined. See Stress-Relieving
Treatments for more information.
9. Inspecting the finished weld--If required, nondestructive tests (NDT) are used to
assess the quality of the weld and to reveal hidden weld defects.
 Figure 1 shows a diagram of the most common welds and joints.

Figure 1: Common Welds and Joints

Arc-Welding Methods
Section Topics:
 Shielded metal-arc welding (stick)
 Gas-shielded arc welding
 Flux-core welding
 Submerged arc welding (sub-arc)

 Comparing arc-welding methods

Shielded Metal-Arc Welding (Stick)

This section describes the Function, Special Equipment, Process, Advantages, and
Electrode Classification System for shielded metal-arc welding.

Function

Shielded metal-arc welding (SMAW)--also called "stick," "stick-electrode," "manual,"

and "plain-arc" welding--is performed manually. SMAW offers versatility, flexibility,
simplicity, and minimal equipment costs. It is the most widely used arc-welding method.

Special Equipment

Stick welding requires two special pieces of equipment:

 A consumable, flux-coated metallic electrode
 A standard electrode holder
Figure 2 shows the basic stick-welding equipment.

Figure 2: Setup and Fundamentals of SMAW

Process Description

SMAW is always performed manually using these key steps:

1. The welder grips the electrode holder, creates an arc between the electrode tip and
the base metal, and maneuvers the tip along the weld joint.
2. Heat from the arc melts the base metal and the electrode and releases the shielding
properties of the flux coating.
3. The base metal mixes with the molten deposits of the electrode or filler metal and
forms the weld bead.
4. When the electrode is consumed to the point of a stub, the welder replaces it with
a new stick.

Figure 3 shows the decomposition of the flux-covered metal-arc electrode.

 Figure 3: Diagram of Flux-Covered Metal-Arc Electrode During Welding

Advantages

A primary advantage of stick welding is its extreme versatility in a number of areas:

 Welding positions
 Electrode sizes
 Electrode types

This versatility, combined with its flexibility, simplicity, and minimal equipment costs,
makes it the most broadly applicable arc-welding method. It is used extensively for
welding many ferrous and nonferrous materials in refinery maintenance and construction.

Electrode Classification System

This section covers the Function, Example, and System for classifying SMAW
electrodes.

Function

The base metal(s) being welded and the amount of slag deposition required determine the
type of electrode used. SMAW electrodes are classified according to the following
factors:
 Strength properties
 Welding positions
 Type of covering
 Current
 Alloy in the deposit

The SMAW electrode classification system simplifies and standardizes electrode

identification.

Example

The following list provides examples of SMAW electrode classifications for carbon steel
and low-alloy steel electrodes commonly used in refineries:
 E6010
 E7018
 E7024
 E8018-B2
 E9018-B3

System

SMAW electrodes for low alloy steels are classified using the system outlined in Table 7.
Table 7: SMAW Electrode Classification
 Item Definition Example
Prefix Arc-welding electrode EXXXX-XX
where E = Electrode
First two Minimum tensile strength E70XX-XX
digits where 70 = 70,000 psi tensile strength
Next-to-last Welding position EXX1X-XX
digit where 1 = All positions
Other options are as follows:
 2 = Flat and horizontal fillets only

 4 = Vertical down welds only

Last digit Type of covering--required EXXX8-XX
current where 8 = Iron powder, low-hydrogen--AC
or DCRP
Other options are as follows:
 0 = High cellulose, sodium--DCRP
High iron oxid--eAC or DC
 1 = High cellulose, potassium--AC or
DCRP
 2 = High titania, sodium--AC or DC
 3 = High titania, potassium--AC or
DC
 4 = Iron powder, titania--AC or DC
 5 = Low hydrogen, sodium--DCRP
 6 = Low hydrogen, potassium--AC
or DCRP

 7 = Iron powder, iron oxide--AC or

DC
Suffix Approximate alloy in the EXXXX-A1
deposit where A1 = 1/2% Mo
Other options are as follows:
 B1 = 1/2% Cr, 1/2% Mo
 B2 = 1-1/4% Cr, 1/2% Mo
 B3 = 2-1/4% Cr, 1% Mo
 C1 = 2-1/2% Ni
 C2 = 3-1/4% Ni
 C3 = 1% Ni, 0.35% Mo, 0.15% Cr
 D1 & D2 = 0.250.45% Mo,
1.252.00% Mn
 G = One or more of the following:
o 0.50% min Ni
o 0.30% min Cr
 o 0.20% min Mo

o 0.10% min V

Gas-Shielded Arc Welding

Gas-shielded arc welding (GSAW) includes a pair of welding processes that use inert
gases as the shielding medium. GSAW includes two basic subtypes:
 Gas-shielded tungsten-arc welding (Tungsten Inert Gas, or TIG)
 Gas-shielded metal-arc welding (Metal Inert Gas, or MIG)

Originally, these two subtypes used only inert gas, such as helium or argon. Today, TIG
and MIG welding also use other gases.
This section describes Gas-Shielded Tungsten-Arc Welding (TIG) and Gas-Shielded
Metal-Arc Welding (MIG).

Gas-Shielded Tungsten-Arc Welding (TIG)

This section describes the Function, Special Equipment, Process, Advantages, and
Electrode Classification System for gas-shielded tungsten-arc welding.

Function

Gas-shielded tungsten-arc welding (GTAW, or TIG)--also known as "nonconsumable

electrode" welding--is most commonly used to join relatively tiny or thin sections of
sheet, strip, or light-wall tubing. TIG is sometimes used to make the first pass on pipe
welds to ensure good weld quality.
TIG welding can be used on the following metals:
 Most grades of carbon, alloy, and stainless steels
 Magnesium and alloys
 Copper, brasses, and bronzes
 High-temperature alloys
 Hard-surfacing alloys
 Titanium
 Zirconium
 Gold
 Silver

Special Equipment

TIG welding uses the following special equipment:

 A TIG torch
 A supply of argon and/or helium gas
 A nonconsumable tungsten electrode
 Optional filler wire (similar to the metals being welded)
Figure 4 shows a torch used for TIG welding.

Figure 4: GTAW (TIG) Torch

Figure 5 shows a typical TIG welding setup. (Note: Sometimes a water circulator is used)

Figure 5: Typical TIG Welding Setup

Process Description
At Amoco, TIG welding is performed manually, although the process can be automated
for production work. The TIG welding process varies slightly depending on the thickness
of the metals being joined.
For average-to-heavy plate, the TIG welding process includes these key steps:
1. The welder grips the TIG torch in one hand and the filler wire in the other.
2. With the arc started and the shielding gas flowing, the welder melts the base metal
to develop a weld puddle and then adds the filler wire to the weld puddle to fill
the joint.
3. The welder maneuvers the torch and filler wire along the joint, completing the
weld pass.

Figure 6 shows a diagram of the TIG process using filler wire.

Figure 6: Diagram of Gas-Shielded Tungsten-Arc Welding (TIG)

For thin plate, the TIG welding process includes these key steps:
1. The welder grips the TIG torch. No filler wire is used.
2. With the arc started and the shielding gas flowing, the welder heats the edges of
the plate above the melting point. The materials from the two pieces melt
together.
3. The welder maneuvers the torch along the joint, completing the weld pass.

Advantages

TIG welding offers these advantages:

 Excellent welding control for thin sections
 Slag-free welding
 Weld joints requiring very little finishing
Electrode Classification System

Both types of gas-shielded arc welding use the same electrode classification system. See
Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc Welding for more information.

Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc Welding (MIG)

This section describes the Function, Special Equipment, Process, Advantages, and
Electrode Classification System for gas-shielded metal-arc welding.

Function

Gas-shielded metal-arc welding (GMAW, or MIG)--also known as "spray-arc," "short-

arc," or "squirt" welding--is most often used to weld heavy gauge sheet or thin plate or to
make the first, or root, pass when welding pipe. MIG welding can be used on all
commercial metals, including the following:
 Carbon, alloy, and stainless steels
 Aluminum
 Titanium
 Magnesium
 Copper

Special Equipment

MIG welding uses the following special equipment:

 Consumable, continuous electrode
 Externally supplied gas mixture
 Semiautomatic gas-cooled gun

Figure 7 shows a MIG gun.

Figure 7: GMAW (MIG) Gun

Figure 8 shows a typical MIG welding setup.
 Figure 8: Typical MIG Welding Setup

Process Description

MIG welding is performed semiautomatically using a hand-held gun. The MIG welding
process includes these key steps:
1. The welder grips the gun and establishes an arc which is shielded by the flowing
gas.
2. The higher welding current melts the electrode wire and deposits it onto the
molten base metal as a steady spray or a stream of tiny droplets.
3. The gun automatically feeds the electrode wire as the welder maneuvers the gun
over the joint, completing the weld pass.

Figure 9 shows a diagram of the MIG process.

 Figure 9: Diagram of Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc Welding (MIG)

Advantages

MIG welding offers these advantages:

 Deep penetration suitable for heavier gauges of sheet or plate
 Lack of impurities introduced when fluxes are used
 Automatic electrode feed
 High deposition rates

Electrode Classification System

This section covers the Function, Example, and System for classifying TIG and MIG
electrodes.

Function

The base metal(s) being welded and the amount of slag deposition required determine the
type of electrode used. TIG and MIG electrodes are classified according to the following
factors:
 Strength properties
 Welding positions
 Type of wire
 Chemical composition

The TIG and MIG electrode classification system simplifies and standardizes electrode
identification.
Example

The following list provides examples of TIG and MIG electrode classifications:
 ER70S-2
 ER70S-3
 ER70S-4
 ER70S-5
 ER90S-B3

System

Both types of gas-shielded arc welding--TIG and MIG--use the electrode classification
system shown in Table 8.
Table 8: TIG and MIG Electrode Classification
Item Definition Example
Prefix Arc-welding electrode ERXXX-X
where ER = Electrode rod or wire
First two digits Minimum tensile strength ER70X-X
where 70 = 70,000 psi tensile strength
Last digit Type of wire ERXXS-X
where S = Solid
The other option is as follows:
 C = Cored
Suffix Chemical composition EXXXX-B2 where B2 = 1-1/4 Cr - 1/2 Mo

Flux-Core Welding

This section describes the Function, Special Equipment, Process, Advantages, and
Electrode Classification System for flux-core welding.

Function

Flux-core welding (FCAW)--commonly called "Innershield" welding--is similar to

shielded metal-arc welding. Flux-core welding is commonly used in manufacturing
applications where fitup has been a problem. Flux-core welding reduces rework and
repair and maintains quality.

Special Equipment

Flux-core welding uses the following special equipment:

 Consumable, continuous, flux-filled, tubular electrode wire
 Semiautomatic gun
Two features of the flux-core welding electrode set it apart from the SMAW flux-coated
electrode stick and gas-shielded MIG welding:
 A continuously fed coil of electrode wire
 A flux-filled core which eliminates the need for shielding gases and their required
equipment

Figure 10 shows a diagram of flux-core welding.

Figure 10: Diagram of Flux-Core Welding

Process Description

Flux-core welding offers semiautomatic or fully automatic options. At Amoco, flux-core

is most often performed semiautomatically using the following key steps:
1. The welder grips the semiautomatic gun and establishes the arc.
2. The heat from the arc melts the base metal and tubular electrode and generates the
shielding and metal-conditioning capabilities of the flux core.
3. The welder maneuvers the gun over the joint, completing the weld pass.

Advantages

Flux-core welding offers the following advantages:

 Up to four times higher deposition rates (than SMAW) to decrease welding costs
as much as 50-75% and to speed filling of gouged out voids
 Efficient and economical automatic electrode feed
 Automation without expensive specialty equipment for flux handling or gas
metering
 More flexibility than other semiautomatic processes
  Penetration control which minimizes weld repair, reworking, or rejection

Electrode Classification System

This section covers the Function, Example, and System for classifying flux-core
electrodes.

Function

The base metal(s) being welded and the amount of slag deposition required determine the
type of electrode used. FCAW electrodes are classified according to the following
factors:
 Strength properties
 Welding positions
 Type of electrode
 Usability and performance capabilities
 Chemical composition of the deposit

The flux-core electrode classification system simplifies and standardizes electrode

identification.

Example

A variety of flux-core electrodes are used in refineries, most commonly by contractors.

Most pipe welds are made with MIG rather than flux-core because the gas shielding
ensures weld purity. The E71T5-Ni3 is one example.

System

FCAW electrodes are classified using the system outlined in Table 9:

Table 9: FCAW Electrode Classification
Item Definition Example
Arc-welding electrode EXXTX-X
Prefix where E = Electrode
First digits Minimum tensile strength E7XTX-X
where 7 = 70,000 psi tensile
strength
Middle digit Welding position EX1TX-X
where 1 = All positions
Another options is as follows:
 0 = Flat and horizontal
fillets only
Next-to-last Electrode type EXXTX-X
digit where T = Flux-core electrode
Last digit Usability and performance capabilities EXXT5-X
Suffix Chemical composition of the deposited EXXTX-Ni3
weld metal

Submerged Arc Welding (Sub-Arc)

This section describes the Function, Special Equipment, Process, Advantages, and
Electrode Classification System of submerged arc welding.

Function

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is often called "sub-arc" welding. Although submerged
arc welding is much faster than SMAW, it has limited applications because of its weld-
position restrictions. Unless special fixtures are used to keep the granular flux on the
joint, SAW welding can be done only on flat or horizontal joints. These special fixtures
are rarely used in a refinery.

Special Equipment

SAW uses the following special equipment:

 SAW unit with automatic electrode feed, flux hopper, and flux recovery system
 Granulated flux
 Continuous spool of consumable electrode wire
 Backing strip, if required

Figure 11 shows a typical sub-arc (SAW) welding setup.

Figure 11: Typical Sub-Arc (SAW) Welding Setup

Process Description

In refineries, SAW is performed semiautomatically. In other environments, SAW can be

fully automatic. The SAW process includes the following key steps:
1. The welder submerges the end of the electrode in the mound of finely granulated
flux covering the joint and establishes an arc.
2. The arc generates heat which forms a weld puddle in the base metal, melts the
electrode, and releases the shielding properties of the flux.
3. The SAW unit dispenses the flux and feeds the electrode wire as the weld pass is
completed.
4. The slag is removed.

Note: Before using SAW on pipe welds, welders use another method of welding to make
the root pass.
Figure 12 shows a diagram of the SAW process on heavy plate.

Figure 12: Diagram of Submerged Arc Welding Operation on Heavy Plate

Advantages

Sub-arc welding has the following advantages:

 It is three-to-ten times faster than stick or MIG welding.
 It can be used on the full range of carbon and low-alloy steels.
 The arc is not visible because the tip of the electrode is submerged in the flux.
 Higher currents can be used without creating a violent arc, allowing larger weld
beads.
 Higher currents allow deeper penetration in a narrow band, minimizing the width
of the groove and the amount of filler metal per foot of joint.·
 The deposited weld metal is usually clean and free of porosity because of the
protection of the molten slag.
 The continuous spool of electrode wire eliminates or reduces joint preparation.

Electrode Classification System

Submerged arc welding uses a slightly different classification system because the flux
can contribute to the weld metal. This system is beyond the scope of this Document, but
for more information see ASME Sec. II-C.

Comparing Arc-Welding Methods

Table 10 compares the arc-welding methods.

Table 10: Comparing Basic Arc-Welding Methods
Method Refinery Electrode Type Flux/Shielding Welding
Applications Positions
Broad Consumable wire Coating on wire All
SMAW
TIG Welding thin Nonconsumable wire External gas All
material with filler wire
MIG Making root Consumable coil External gas All
passes
FCAW Limited Consumable hollow coil Filling inside All
hollow coil
SAW Performing shop Consumable coil Granular Down only
welds
Table 11 compares the advantages and disadvantages of each arc-welding method.
Table 11: Advantages and Disadvantages of Arc-Welding Methods
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Versatility Slower deposition rates
Stick  Weld positioning (welding interrupted for
 Electrode sizes electrode replacement)
 Electrode types Slag removal
High consumable costs
Flexibility
Simplicity
Minimal equipment costs
Broad applications
TIG Excellent welding control for thin sections More costly equipment,
Slag-free welding including the following:
Weld joint requiring very little finishing  Gas
 Gas storage
 Gas metering

Gas-shielding qualities
affected by wind, fans, and
ventilation systems
 MIG Deep penetration suitable for heavier gauges of More costly equipment,
sheet or thin plate including the following:
 Gas
 Gas storage
 Gas metering

Gas-shielding qualities
affected by wind, fans, and
ventilation systems
Flux- Up to four times higher deposition rates to Slag formed
core decrease welding costs as much as 5075% and to Very smoky
speed filling of gouged out voids Requires ventilation
Efficient and economical automatic electrode equipment when used indoors
feed
Automation without expensive specialty
equipment for flux handling or gas metering
More flexibility than other semiautomatic
processes
Sub-arc Three-to-ten times faster than SMAW welding Limited to use on flat or
Used on the full range of carbon and low-alloy horizontal joints only
sheet steels Requires special equipment
Keeps the arc out of view because the tip of the and training
electrode is submerged in the flux Limited to use on pipe with
Allows use of higher currents without creating a diameters larger than six
violent arc inches
Uses higher currents for deep penetration in a
narrow band, minimizing the width of the groove
and the amount of filler metal per foot of joint
Produces a weld deposit that is usually clean and
free of porosity because of the protection of the
molten slag
Uses a continuous spool of electrode wire to
eliminate or reduce joint preparation caused by
electrode changes

Weld Metallurgy
Section Topics:
 Weld bead metallurgy
 Steel phases

 Changes caused by heating and cooling

Weld Bead Metallurgy

The heat of welding brings about certain changes, both in the structure of the steel being
welded and in the weld metal. Some of these changes occur during welding; others occur
when the metal is cooling.
This section describes Temperature Differences, Microstructural Changes, and Hardness
in a weld bead.

Temperature Differences

Heat from welding exposes steel to a range of temperatures. The molten weld metal--or
weld puddle--reaches a temperature of 3000°F (1649°C) or higher and remains at high
temperatures for a long time. The steel adjacent to the weld is heated to near its melting
point, but remains at that high temperature for a shorter time. Areas away from the weld
reach lower temperatures and remain at those temperature for shorter periods of time. A
short distance from the weld, the temperature of the plate may be only about 600°F
(316°C).
Steel has upper and lower critical temperatures--temperatures at which the properties of
that steel change. These critical temperatures vary with each type and grade of steel.

Microstructural Changes

High temperatures change the properties--or microstructure--of a steel weld.

Microstructural changes include the following:
 Grain boundary structure
 Hardness
 Strength properties

The length of time a weld metal stays at its upper critical temperature and the rate at
which it cools affect its microstructural changes. A weld puddle remains at its steel's
upper critical temperature for a long time, producing a structure with large grain size.
Metal adjacent to the weld is at the upper critical temperature for a very short time,
producing a slight decrease in grain size and an increase in strength and hardness. Areas
away from the weld do not reach temperatures high enough to change their
microstructure or base metal properties.
In multipass weld joints, each bead reheats and refines the grain of the previously laid
bead. However, this refining is not likely to be uniform throughout the joint.
Figure 13 shows a weld cross-section.
 Figure 13: Weld Cross-Section
Figure 14 illustrates microstructural changes and the temperatures at which they occur for
0.25% carbon steel plate.

Figure 14: Weld Bead Schematic

The rapid heating and cooling of the steel results in the formation of zones around the
weld. Table 12 lists and describes the four zones:
Table 12: Weld Bead Zones of Nonequilibrium Microstructure
Zone Definition
Rapidly cooled cast microstructure with a composition that
1. Composite zone is a mixture of base metal and weld metal
Coarse, large grain boundary structure
2. Transition zones Rapidly cooled cast microstructures of varying composition
between the base metal and the weld metal
Metal that has been heated above its upper critical
 temperature1526°F (830°C) for 0.25% carbon steelbut has
not melted
The zone of large grain growth most prone to underbead
cracking during and after welding
3. Heat affected zone (HAZ) Region where the steel has been heated above its lower
critical temperature1330°F (721°C) for 0.25% carbon steelto
cause microstructural changes
Zone in which grain refinement has taken place
4. Unaffected base metal Metal that has been heated slightly, but not above the lower
critical temperature
Zone in which no structural changes have occurred

Hardness

Hardness of a steel indicates some of the properties of it. Hard steels resist wear well but
can crack easily. Most steels used in process facilities should be soft so that they do not
crack.
Metallurgists measure the hardness of steel using two methods:
 Brinell
 Vickers

Inspectors normally measure process unit hardness in Brinell units--a measure of the
average hardness over many grains of the metal. Amoco normally specifies steel to have
a Brinell hardness under 200.
Vickers hardness measures the individual grain hardness of the metal. Vickers tests are
used in a lab to qualify weld procedures and are rarely used in the field.

Steel Phases

This section covers Phases in Steel Welds and Phases of Equilibrium and
Nonequilibrium.

Phases in Steel Welds

Heating temperatures and cooling rates produce microstructural changes in the steel. The
phases commonly found in steel welds include the following:
 Martensite
 Austenite
 Ferrite
 Carbides
 Pearlite
 Bainite

Table 13 describes each steel phase and its characteristics.

Table 13: Steel Phases
Steel Phase Crystal Structure Description
Body-centered Preheating the steel prior to welding minimizes the
Martensite tetragonal formation of martensite.
The formation of martensite in higher alloys is
unavoidable.
Post-weld heat treating (PWHT) softens, or tempers, a
martensitic microstructure by converting it to an
aggregate of fine carbide particles in a ferrite matrix.
Stainless steels which form martensitic microstructures
are called "martensitic" stainless steels. Types of
martensitic stainless steels include 410, 416, and 420.
Austenite Face-centered cubic Carbon steel has this crystal structure above 1342°F.
The carbon in the steel is uniformly distributed.
Some stainless steelsthe "austenitic" gradeshave this
structure at all temperatures because of their alloy
content. Types of austenitic stainless steels include 304,
316, 321, 347, 310
Ferrite Body-centered cubic Carbon steels at temperatures below 1342°F consist of
ferrite and small amounts of iron carbide. Ferrite is a
very weak material.
Stainless steels that maintain a ferritic microstructure
up to their melting points are called "ferritic" stainless
steels. Types of ferritic stainless steels include 405 and
409.
Iron Varied Iron carbides are intermetallic compounds containing
Carbides carbon with various compositions and crystal
structures.
The most common carbide found in steel has the
formula, Fe3C. Steels with higher alloy content form
carbides with more complex chemical formulas.
Pearlite Alternating layers of Pearlite is an aggregate of ferrite and carbide.
ferrite and carbide Microstructures in carbon steel generally consist of
pearlite and ferrite. The amount of pearlite increases
with increasing carbon content.
Most carbon steel weld procedures promote the
formation of pearlite-ferrite microstructures in the steel.

Pearlite is found in the soft, ductile steels used for

pressure vessels.
Bainite Unorganized mix of Bainite is the microstructure that forms in many steels
austenite and when austenite transforms during cooling in the
carbides temperature range of 600°F1000°F.
Unlike pearlite, these carbides are not organized in
 layers.
Several forms of bainite with different morphologies
exist.
Some forms of bainite are relatively hard. Weld
procedures for carbon steel are generally designed to
avoid the formation of bainite.
In higher alloys where the formation of bainite cannot
be avoided through preheating, post-weld heat treating
is used to soften the bainite formed during welding.

Phases of Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium

Austenite, ferrite, pearlite, and carbides are equilibrium phases which are softer and less
prone to cracking. Martensite and bainite are nonequilibrium phases. They contain
residual stresses making them harder and prone to cracking.
Weld procedures are designed to minimize the formation of martensite and other hard,
nonequilibrium phases. If the high alloy content of the steel restricts the use of preheating
and other weld procedures designed to minimize the formation of martensite, the weld is
given a post-weld heat treatment to soften or "temper" the hard phases formed during
welding.

Changes Caused by Heating and Cooling

The hardness of the welded steel and the microstructures that form are affected by three
basic factors:
 Heating temperatures
 Cooling times
 Base metal composition (amount of alloying)

Two types of diagrams illustrate the interrelationship of these factors:

 Equilibrium phase diagrams illustrate the relationship between temperature, steel
composition, and the equilibrium phases present in steel.
 Continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams illustrate the relationship
between temperature, cooling time, phases that form in steel, and hardness of the
steel.

This section covers Equilibrium Phase Diagrams, Continuous Cooling Transformation

Diagrams, and Effects of Alloying.

Equilibrium Phase Diagrams

Equilibrium phase diagrams show the phases of equilibrium that develop as a result of the
relationship between temperature and steel composition. Metallurgists use these diagrams
and Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) diagrams to make one of two
determinations:
 How to make the steel
  What to expect when that steel is welded

Figure 15 shows the effect of welding on a carbon steel pipe containing only 0.20%
carbon.

Figure 15: Iron-Iron Carbide Equilibrium Phase Diagram

Welding this carbon steel pipe causes a portion of it to liquefy. As the liquid steel cools
slowly, some high-temperature solid phase--called delta--will form. This phase and the
remaining liquid transforms to austenite. In austenite, the carbon in the steel is uniformly
distributed in the crystal structure.
If the liquid steel cools rapidly, martensite develops. The carbon is evenly distributed
throughout the martensitic crystal structure--as it was in the austenite. However, it no
longer fits well. This highly strained crystal lattice is generally hard and brittle.

Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) Diagrams

The Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) diagram performs two functions:

 It illustrates the relationship between temperature, cooling time, and the phases
that form in a steel of a specific composition.
 It shows cooling curves and the hardness that results from cooling the steel at
various rates.

CCT diagrams exist for all types of steel. Alloy steel diagrams are significantly different
than those of carbon steel.
Figure 16 shows a CCT diagram for steel alloyed only with carbon and manganese.
 Figure 16: CCT Diagram for Steel Alloyed with Carbon and Manganese
Cooling this medium carbon steel at various rates results in only marginal changes in
hardness. Only very high cooling rates cause bainite or martensite to form. Hardness is a
measurement of how much martensite, bainite, or both were formed during the welding
process. Under most conditions, welding this particular carbon steel will not produce a
hard heat affected zone. However, thick pieces of this steel will have cooling rates high
enough to form hard phases.
For carbon steel, the hardness must be below 200 Brinell. Most welds above 200 Brinell
are prone to cracking. Performing a PWHT reduces the residual stresses measured by the
hardness.
Curve 1 in Figure 17 shows the effects of cooling carbon steel from its lower critical
temperature to 900°F in approximately 8 seconds and to ambient temperature in 90
seconds, for a total cooling time of approximately 100 seconds. Curve 2 in Figure 17
shows the effects of slower cooling times on a thin piece of carbon steel.
Curve 1 shows a predicted hardness of 265 Brinell, indicating that a PWHT is required.
Lack of preheat or thick steel may have caused the rapid cooling. Curve 2 shows that
welding a thinner plate of the same material causes the heat to be absorbed more slowly
into the base metal. This causes the cooling time to significantly increase and produces a
hardness of only 190 Brinell.
 Figure 17: CCT Diagram Comparing Rapidly Cooled and Slowly Cooled Carbon
Steel

Effects of Alloying

An increase in alloy content moves CCT diagrams to the right, making the formation of
harder phases more likely. It takes longer for phases such as soft pearlite and ferrite
structures to form during cooling. Steel hardenability is the effect of alloy content on a
steel as it cools from austenitizing temperatures.
Figure 18 shows the CCT diagram for a steel which has about the same composition as
the previous carbon steel except for the addition of 0.53% molybdenum.
This relatively small molybdenum addition significantly changes the microstructures and
increases hardness levels. Because alloy content affects steel characteristics, different
steel grades require different weld procedures and PWHT.
 Figure 18: CCT Diagram for Steel Alloyed with Carbon, Manganese, and
Molybdenum
Figure 19 compares the effects of short and long cooling times for alloyed steel.

Figure 19: CCT Diagram for Alloyed Steel Comparing Short and Long Cooling
Times
Curve 1 shows that cooling this weld in 100 seconds yields a Vickers hardness of
approximately 620. Curve 2 shows that the weld requires a five-hour cooling time to
reach an acceptable hardness below 200. Only PWHT can control the cool-down and
produce the desired hardness.
 Stress-Relieving Treatments
Section Topics:
 Weld stress and treatment
 Preheating
 Hydrogen bakeout

 Post-weld heat treating

Weld Stress and Treatment

Stress in a weld can cause poor performance and cracking in service. Weld stress is
caused by a number of factors, including the following:
 The hardening of the weld's heat affected zone
 Contraction of the cooling weld
 Hydrogen in the base metals

Stress-relieving treatments prepare the base metals for welding and temper the heat
affected zone after welding. These treatments include the following:
 Preheating
 Hydrogen bakeout
 Post-weld heat treating

Preheating

his section describes the preheating Function, Process, and Guidelines.

Function

Preheating performs three basic functions:

 Primarily, it slows the cooling rate of the HAZ.
 It minimizes martensite formation in the weld and HAZ.
 It ensures that the steel surface is dry before welding.

Process

Preheating requires both heating and testing. Preheating is performed using two methods:
 Electric resistance with thermocouples and insulation
 Torch heating

Preheating slows the cooling rate and minimizes martensite formation. Welders use
electric resistance or torch heating to heat the base metals to the desired temperature. To
ensure that the preheating requirements are being met, welders use melt sticks to check
the steel temperature a short distance from the weld.
To dry steel surfaces, welders use a torch to preheat the steel above 200°F. Preheating
eliminates moisture which can cause weld defects and lead to HAZ cracking.

Guidelines

Two factors must be considered when establishing preheating guidelines: Desired

Microstructure and Steel Thickness.

Desired Microstructure

The microstructures formed in the steel after welding are a function of the preheating
temperature and cooling time. Higher preheat temperatures produce softer
microstructures. Figure 20 shows the effects of preheating on CCT curves.

Figure 20: Effects of Preheating on CCT Curves

Table 14 identifies the microstructures formed at different preheating temperatures.
Table 14: Effects of Preheating on CCT Curves
Preheat HAZ Cooling Rate (from Maximum HAZ Microstructure
Figure20) Hardness
See curve 1. 550 Brinell Fully martensitic
None (620 Vickers)
200°F See curve 2. 270 Brinell Bainitic
(287 Vickers)
500°F See curve 3. 163 Brinell Pearlitic and ferritic
 (196 Vickers)
For an explanation of the physical properties of each microstructure, see Weld
Metallurgy.
Many refinery applications require that the weld HAZ hardness be below 200 Brinell to
be acceptable for service and to avoid environmental cracking. Only the weld made with
the 500°F preheat (curve 3) would be soft enough in the as-welded condition to avoid
cracking. Sometimes a 500°F preheat is not practical or field conditions prohibit it. The
welder then chooses one of two options:
 A post-weld heat treatment only (with no preheat)
 A standard (200°F) preheat plus a post-weld heat treatment

Preheating reduces the formation of martensite in the weld. A post-weld heat treatment
(PWHT) performed after welding eliminates residual stress in the weld.

Steel Thickness

Steel thickness is also a key factor in determining preheat guidelines. Preheating is

essential for thick steel but unnecessary for thin. The base metal of thick steels welded
without preheating absorbs the heat rapidly and the weld cools rapidly. For thin sections,
the heat of welding sufficiently warms the surrounding steel, slows cooling rates, and
minimizes the formation of martensite. Many welding codes contain preheating guidance
based on preheat-thickness relationships.

Hydrogen Bakeout

This sections describes a hydrogen bakeout's Function, Process, and Guidelines.

Function

A hydrogen bakeout is a special preheating method used to remove hydrogen absorbed

by the steel before welding. Hydrogen bakeouts are used before making weld repairs on
process units with high partial pressures of hydrogen. Hydrogen-charged environments
include process streams containing liquid water with H2S, amines, or cyanides. Hydrogen
absorbed in the metal of these units can cause blisters or hydrogen cracks. Before the
metal can be welded, the hydrogen must be removed, or "baked out." Hydrogen left in the
steel will "bubble out" in the weld bead, causing a defective weld.

Process

A hydrogen bakeout involves a two-step process:

1. Furnaces or electric resistance equipment heats the steel to 500-700°F and holds it
at that temperature for several hours to allow the hydrogen to diffuse from the
steel.
2. The temperature is then dropped to the preheat temperature in preparation for
welding.
Guidelines

The effectiveness of a hydrogen bakeout depends upon three factors:

 Steel thickness
 Bakeout temperatures
 Bakeout time

Thick steel requires longer bakeout times and sometimes higher bakeout temperatures.

Post-Weld Heat Treating

This section describes post-weld heat treating's Function, Process, and Guidelines.

Function

Post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) uses heat to temper the hard steel phases (martensite
and bainite) formed during welding. This tempering serves two functions:
 It softens and toughens the weld.
 It lowers the level of residual stress, making the steel more resistant to the
following problems:
o Distortion or cracking under applied load
o Fatigue cracking under cyclic loads

PWHT temperatures are too low to change the microstructure or cooling curve of the
steel.

Process

PWHT involves two basic steps:

1. Furnaces or electric resistance equipment heats welded sections to the specified
temperature--up to but not exceeding the austenitizing temperature for that grade
of steel (1342°F for carbon steel).
2. This temperature is maintained for the specified time.

Guidelines

Changes in PWHT time and temperature produce different levels of microstructural

softening. Raising PWHT temperatures produces the same effect as lengthening PWHT
time. In other words, the higher the PWHT temperature, the shorter the PWHT time.
Short PWHT cycles at higher temperatures are usually more cost-effective than longer
cycles at lower temperatures.
Table 15 shows the relationship of PWHT temperature on microstructural softening.
Table 15: The Effect of a 1-Hour PWHT on the Vickers Hardness of 1-1/4 Cr, 1/2
Mo Steel
PWHT Temperature Martensitic Bainitic Pearlitic
 550 Vickers 375 Vickers 185 Vickers
No PWHT
1100°F 370 Vickers 325 Vickers 182 Vickers
1200°F 330 Vickers 275 Vickers 180 Vickers
1300°F 275 Vickers 250 Vickers 176 Vickers
PWHT has some limitations. For example, PWHT should not be used on the following:
 Vessels with severe blistering problems
 Some dissimilar metal joints involving austenitic stainless steels

To make determining the PWHT requirements easier, piping codes and Amoco
specifications specifically detail the PWHT requirements for the most commonly used
steels.
For more information on the treatment of austenitic stainless steels, see Special Welds.

Weld Defects and Inspection

Section Topics:
 Weld defects
 Comparing weld defects

 Weld inspection

Weld Defects

Weld defects are discontinuities in the weld metal, base metal, or heat affected zone
(HAZ) of butt, tee, corner, and lap joints. The severity of the discontinuity is judged
according to its type, size, and location. Not all discontinuities are rejected as defects.
This section describes the following weld defects:
 Cracks
 Porosity
 Inclusion
 Incomplete Fusion
 Inadequate Joint Penetration
 Undercut
 Underfill
 Laminations
 Delamination

Cracks

This section covers the Definition, Cause, and Types of cracks.

Definition

Cracks are brittle separations in the weld and base metal. They usually occur near
existing discontinuities or mechanical notches associated with the design.
Hot cracks develop at elevated temperatures immediately upon solidification of the
metal. Hot cracks develop along grain boundaries.
Cold cracks--also called delayed cracks or hydrogen cracks--develop hours or even
months after solidification. Cold cracks are most often associated with hydrogen
embrittlement.
Figure 21 shows different types of weld cracks.

Figure 21: Cracks in a Weld

Cause

One or more of the following factors contribute to crack formation:

 High residual stresses that exceed the ultimate strength of the material
 Hydrogen embrittlement

Types

Table 16 lists and describes the six basic types of cracks.

Table 16: Types of Cracks
Type Description
Parallel to the axis of the along the centerline of the weld
Longitudinal cracks metal or in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the base metal
Transverse cracks Perpendicular to the axis of the weld in the weld metal, base
metal, or both
Contained completely within the weld, or extending from the
weld metal into the adjacent HAZ and unaffected base metal
Crater cracks Shallow, star-like cluster of hot cracks located in the crater or
depression that is formed by improper termination of the
welding arc
Throat cracks Longitudinal cracks generally located in the center of the
weld bead
Generally hot cracks
Root cracks Longitudinal cracks in the root of the weld
 Generally hot cracks
Underbead and heat Generally short cold cracks that form in the HAZ
affected zone (HAZ) cracks Potential for short cracks to join together and form larger
continuous cracks

Porosity

This section covers the Definition, Cause, and Types of porosity.

Definition

Gas entrapped in solidifying metal forms spherical or elongated pores in the weld, known
as porosity. Porosity in the weld and heat affected zone may lead to cracking.
Figure 22 shows types of weld porosity.

Figure 22: Porosity in a Weld

Cause

One or more of the following factors contribute to porosity:

 Improperly controlled welding process
 Contaminated base metal
 Variable composition base metal
 Hydrogen in the weld and HAZ

When the weld cools slowly, entrapped gas may rise and escape from the surface before
the weld solidifies.

Types

Table 17 lists and describes the four basic types of porosity.

Table 17: Types of Porosity
Type Description Possible Cause
 Scattered pores throughout a single weld Faulty welding technique
Uniformly pass or several weld passes Improper materials
scattered porosity
Cluster porosity Localized grouping of pores Improper initiation or
termination of the welding
arc
Linear porosity Alignment of pores along the root of the Contamination
weld or joint and interbead boundaries
Piping porosity Elongated (cylindrical) pores extending Contamination
from the root of a fillet weld towardsbut Moisture
not breakingthe surface

Inclusions

This section covers the Definition, Cause, and Types of inclusions.

Definition

An inclusion is a metallic or nonmetallic substance entrapped within weld metal, between

weld passes, or between the weld and base metal.
Figure 23 shows types of weld inclusions.

Figure 23: Inclusions in a Weld

Cause

The cause of inclusions depends on the type.

Types

Table 18 lists and describes the two basic types of inclusions.

Table 18: Types of Inclusions
 Type Description Possible Cause
Entrapped nonmetallic, solid material Faulty welding technique
Nonmetallic common in welds made by an arc- Failure to clean properly between
slag welding method weld passes
Limited access for welding within
the joint boundaries or between
weld passes
Metallic Entrapped droplets of tungsten found Dipping the tungsten electrode
tungsten only in welds made by the TIG into the molten metal
method Setting the current too high

Incomplete Fusion

This section covers the Definition and Cause of incomplete fusion.

Definition

Incomplete fusion occurs when the base metal and weld metal fail to coalesce across all
boundaries.
Figure 24 shows incomplete fusion between the weld bead and the base metal.

Figure 24: Incomplete Fusion Between Weld Bead and Base Metal
Figure 25 shows incomplete fusion between two weld passes.

Figure 25: Incomplete Fusion Between Two Weld Passes

Cause

One or more of the following factors contribute to incomplete fusion:

 Improper welding techniques
 Improper preparation of materials for welding
 Improper joint design
 Insufficient welding heat
  Improper electrode manipulation
 Lack of access to all weld joint boundaries to be fused during welding
 Tightly adhering oxides

Inadequate Joint Penetration

This section covers the Definition and Cause of inadequate joint penetration.

Definition

Inadequate joint penetration indicates that the weld has not penetrated the joint to the
depth required.

Cause

One or more of the following factors contribute to inadequate joint penetration:

 Insufficient welding heat
 Improper electrode manipulation or guidance
 Improper joint design or alignment

Figure 26 shows inadequate joint penetration due to internal misalignment.

Figure 26: Inadequate Joint Penetration Due to Internal Misalignment

Undercut

This section covers the Definition and Cause of undercut.

Definition

Undercut is the mechanical notch at the fusion boundary of the weld. Undercut occurs at
the junction of the weld and base metal at the toe of fillet welds, at the fusion line of
groove welds, and at the root of groove welds made from one side only.
Some undercut is acceptable. When the degree of undercut exceeds acceptable limits, it is
considered a defect.
Figure 27 shows internal and external undercut.
 Figure 27: Undercut in a Weld

Cause

Either or both of the following factors contribute to defective levels of undercut:

 Improper welding technique
 Excessive welding heat

Underfill

This section covers the Definition and Cause of underfill.

Definition

Underfill is a depression on the weld that dips below the surface of the workpiece.
Figure 28 shows underfill at the root surface.

Figure 28: Underfill at the Root

Cause

Underfill occurs when the welder or welding operator fails to fill the weld joint to the
level required by the welding procedure specification.

Laminations

This section covers the Definition and Cause of laminations.

Definition
Laminations are planar elongations either internal or extending to the surface of an end or
edge. They most often occur in rolled or forged products. Laminations may be the source
of gas voids or cracks in adjacent butt welds.

Cause

Laminations occur when gas voids, nonmetallics, or ingot shrinkage cavities are rolled
flat.

Delamination

This section covers the Definition and Cause of delamination.

Definition

Delamination is a lamination that has been separated. Delaminations can be internal and
discovered only through ultrasonic tests or external and visible at the edges or ends of
pieces.

Cause

Residual stress from welding or applied stress causes a lamination to separate and form a
delamination.

Comparing Weld Defects

Table 19 summarizes common weld defects and their locations.

Table 19: Comparing Weld Defects
Defect Location
 Cracks  Weld, HAZ, and base metal
 Longitudinal  Weld, HAZ, and base metal
 Transverse  Weld
 Crater  Weld
 Throat  Weld
 Root
 HAZ
 Underbead and heat affected zone
Porosity Weld
Inclusion Weld
Incomplete fusion Weld
Inadequate joint penetration Weld
Undercut Base metal
Underfill Weld
 Lamination Base metal
Delamination Base metal

Weld Inspection

This sections covers weld inspection's Function and Method.

Function

Weld inspection is a quality control procedure that examines and evaluates the following:
 The weld
 The welder performance
 The weld procedure

Method

Inspectors use nondestructive examination methods to find most weld defects. For more
information on the types of weld inspections, see Inspection.

Special Welds
Section Topics:
 Welding stainless steels

 Welding other materials

Welding stainless steels

The unique properties of stainless steels require special weld techniques. Table 20
describes the various techniques used for welding stainless steels.
Table 20: Techniques for Welding Stainless Steels
Situation Techniques and Procedures
Use the required high PWHT
Welding martensitic stainless steels (410, 420, temperatures.
440, 440, etc.) Beware of the distortion that high PWHT
temperatures and welding may cause in
thin components.
Avoid tack welding.
Treat type 410Swith its low carbon
contentlike ferritic stainless steels and
avoid PWHT.
Welding austenitic stainless steels, containing
up to 18% chromium
Note: Welding austenitic stainless steels causes
chromium carbide precipitation not tolerated in
services requiring nonsensitized welds.
Welding stabilized steels (321, 347)
Notes: Stabilized steels allow the chromium to
stay in solution and provide corrosion
protection. The columbium and titanium in
stabilized steels have a high affinity for
carbides. Welding produces columbium and
titanium carbides, preventing carbide
precipitation.
Welding 300-series stainless steels to carbon
steel or another dissimilar metal
This weld is very common in refineries.
Examples include the following:
 Cladding on the inside surfaces of a
pressure vessel
 Small alloy nozzles in clad vessels
 Tray ring supports
 Furnace tubes or transfer lines
 Cat cracker internals
 Catalyst reactor internals
 Butt weld valves
 Hard facing on valves or vessel
internals to prevent erosion
 Temporary repairs
Welding stainless steel to a lower alloy grade
that requires a preheat or PWHT
Welding ferritic stainless steels to dissimilar
metals
Note: Slowly heating or cooling ferritic
stainless steels through the 7001000°F range
(as with PWHT) causes embrittlement.
Welding austenitic stainless steels to ferritic
steels
Note: The coefficient of expansion of
austenitic stainless steel is 30% greater than
Use low-carbon stainless steels (such as
304L and 309L) whenever possible.
Note: The use of low-carbon stainless
steels prevents carbide precipitation only
up to 800°F.
Use stabilized steels, such as ANSI 321
and 347, for processes above 800°F.
Weld stabilized steels with a stabilized
electrode to protect the weld from
corrosion.
Consult Amoco Welding Procedures
manuals for procedures.
Contact Engineering Services for
assistance.
Consider these key factors:
 "P-Number" of the material (See
Welding Procedures and Code
Requirements for a sample of P-
Numbers from the ASME Code
tables.)
 Corrosion resistance requirements
 Effect of thermal expansion
 Proper electrode selection
Note: To offer the proper corrosion
resistance or mechanical strength, the
electrode characteristics may need to
match one of the base metals or exhibit
qualities of both.
Consult the metallurgist.
Some stainless steels should not be
preheated or given a PWHT.
Avoid PWHT.
Have metallurgist review any PWHT
requirements.
Use nickel weld metal if the process
operating temperature exceeds 400°F.
Note: Nickel's coefficient of expansion,
approximately 15% greater than that of
that of ferritic steel.
Welding Other Materials
In addition to stainless steels, other materials require special weld techniques. Table 21
describes the various techniques used for welding other materials.
Table 21: Techniques for Welding Other Materials
Situation
Welding clad steela plate
combining a thin sheet of
corrosion-resistant metal and a Follow these joint preparation steps:
carbon-steel backing material for
strength
Welding cast iron, most
commonly gray irona type of
cast iron named for the graphite
precipitation on the surface of
the cooled castings
Note: Cast iron's low tensile
strength limits its refinery
applications to large pieces of
equipment or water services.
Welding dissimilar metals
ferritic steel, compensates for the 30%
difference between austenitic stainless
steel and ferritic steel. Some welds also
require a nickel transition piece.
Techniques and Procedures
For thick-walled vessels, weld backing material from
both sides before applying the cladding
Use special joint designs.
1. Complete the root weld of the carbon steel plate.
2. Ensure good joint fit so that the cladding does
not get contaminated.
3. Complete the carbon steel weld.
4. Grind slag and imperfections from the root weld.
5. Inspect.
6. Bridge cladding using an electrode of the same
material as the cladding.
Preheat the casting so that the weld will not cool too
rapidly and cause the graphite to precipitate into,
harden, and sensitize the welds.
Base the electrode selection on the welding method
used. Most cast iron welding uses high-nickel electrodes
and the SMAW (stick) or GTAW (TIG) welding
methods. Note: Brazing is also a method for repairing
cast iron when high strength is not required.
Cool the casting very slowly.
For water service (such as a cylinder cooling water
jacket), "stitch" together fractured castings and weld the
seal to make the castings water tight.
Because of the welding difficulty, carefully review
procedures to determine the cost-effectiveness of
welding poor-quality castings with high graphite
content.
Arc welding will almost always harden the cast iron
somewhat.
Ensure that the metal junction created does not
introduce a situation that would accelerate corrosion of
 the weld or base metals.
Weld-repairing furnace Prevent weld-puddle contamination by grinding any
hardware, such as tube hangers carburized or oxidized surfaces that will contact the
or supports weld puddle.

Welding Procedures and Code Requirements

Section Topics:
 General welding codes

 Amoco welding procedures

General Welding Codes

This sections presents General Sources, Code Conventions, and Examples.

General Sources

Welding in refineries is guided by several sources. Table 22 lists these sources and their
primary applications.
Table 22: Refinery Welding Code Sources
Source Application
Preheating and PWHT guidelines for the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, construction of new pressure vessels
Section 8
The American Petroleum Institute Inspection, rating, repair, and alteration
Pressure Vessel Inspection Code (API guidelines for existing pressure vessels
510)
ASME/ANSI B31.3 and API 570 Codes for pressure piping in chemical plants
and refineries and guidelines for welding piping

Code Conventions

Each welding information source uses special coding and classification conventions. This
sections discusses ASME P-Numbers and Arc-Welding Electrode Classification.

P-Numbers

ASME Section IX groups metals that have similar weldability together under the same P-
Number and permits substitution of metals with the same P-Number in a welding
procedure. A complete listing of P-Numbers is available under QW-422 of Section IX.
Table 23 provides an abbreviated version of this list.
Table 23: ASME Section IX P-Numbers
P-Number Description Typical Specification
Carbon steel A106 Gr. B, A516 Gr 70
1
3 Carbon-1/2 Mo steel A182 Gr. F1, A204 Gr. B
4 1-1/4 Cr-1/2 Mo steel A182 Gr. F11, A387 Gr. 11
5A 2-1/4 Cr-1 Mo steel A182 Gr. F22, A387 Gr. 22
5B 5 Cr-1/2 Mo steel A182 Gr. F5, A387 Gr. 5
9 Cr-1 Mo steel A182 Gr. F9, A387 Gr. 9
6 Martensitic SS* A240 Type 410, A352 Gr. CA6NM
7 Ferritic SS A240 Type 410S, Type 409
8 Austenitic SS Types 304, 316, 321, 347
9B 3-1/2 Ni steels A333 Gr. 3, A203 Gr. E
2125 Aluminum alloys  
3135 Copper alloys  
41 Pure Nickel Alloy 200
42 Ni-Cu alloys Monel, Alloy 400
43 Ni-Cr-Mo-Fe alloys Alloy 600, Alloy 625
44 Ni-Mo-Cr alloys Hastelloy C-276, B-2
45 Ni-Fe-Cr alloys Alloy 800, 825, 20
5152 Titanium alloys  

Arc-Welding Electrode Classification

SMAW, GMAW, and FCAW all have similar but distinct electrode classification
systems. See Arc-Welding Methods for complete arc-welding electrode classifications.

Examples

Figure 29 shows a sample of the ASME Codes for preheating and post-weld heat treating
carbon steels and low-alloy steels. Engineers must consult the most current published
version of the code when making decisions about welding requirements.
 Figure 29: Postweld Heat Treatment Requirements for Carbon and Low Alloy
Steels

Amoco Welding Procedures

This section presents the Function, Description, and Examples of Amoco's Welding
Procedures.

Function

Amoco's Welding Procedures Manuals have been compiled to provide guidelines for the
production of high-quality welds during the construction and repair of pressure vessels,
piping, and other equipment. Weld procedures are required by the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, ANSI codes, and by law in many states.

Description

This section describes Amoco's Welding Procedures Manuals, Welding Procedure

Components, and Contract Welding Documentation and Review.

Welding Procedures Manuals

Amoco's Welding Procedures Manuals--a two-volume or on-line publication--include

two main components:
 Weld Procedures Specifications (WPS)
 Procedure Qualification Records (PQR)
The Welding Procedures Manuals are available at all Amoco plants that have facilities
for welding. Copies can be obtained by sending a request to Amoco Corporate R&D,
ER&S.

Welding Procedure Components

Amoco's welding procedure includes three distinct aspects:

 Weld Procedure Specifications (WPS)
 Weld Procedure Qualification Records (PQR)
 Welder Performance Qualification (WPQ)

The weld procedure is the plan for the weld. A metallurgist or welding engineer writes a
weld procedure to cover a wide range of situations, metal thickness, steel grades, etc.
Over 300 WPS have been developed and qualified.
Weld Procedure Qualification Records (PQR) document the performance and testing of
the weld procedure. After the procedure is written, the appropriate steel is welded
according to the procedure. It is then tested to ensure that the use of this procedure results
in an acceptable weld. The results are documented in the PQR.
Welder Performance Qualifications (WPQ) are conducted on a routine basis and are
designed to evaluate the skill of the welder. Each refinery should establish a program to
periodically conduct welder qualification tests based upon code requirements and state
laws. To properly weld a pressure vessel or refinery pressure piping, you need a qualified
weld procedure that fits the situation and a qualified welder.

Contract Welding Documentation and Review

Amoco commonly employs contract welders for TAR situations and for structural
welding (beams, girders, etc.). These contractors must submit WPS, PQR, and WPQ
documentation to the refinery for review. These reviews can be made by the engineer,
construction supervisor, or metallurgist.
All refinery welding in Amoco pressure vessels and pressure piping must use qualified
weld procedures and qualified welders. However, it may not be common practice for
contractors in "non-code" states to have weld procedures for all situations. This issue
should be addressed well before the TAR so that all parties know what documentation is
needed before work begins.

Examples

Amoco Oil Engineering Specification 43D-1 lists the qualified welding procedure
specifications. Engineers narrow the range of applicable procedures using an elimination
sequence based on these factors:
1. Base material(s) to be welded
2. Desired welding process
3. Required base metal thickness (for groove welds only)

Table 24 provides an example of Amoco's list of qualified welding procedure

specifications.
 Table 24: Index of Qualified Welding Procedures
WPS Base Base Filler Thickness Welding PWHT Amoco Remarks
No. Metal(s) Metal Metals Range Process Welding
P- Inches Procedures
Nos. Manual
Page No.
1 P-1, E6010 3/16-0.864 SMAW No 3
Carbon Gr. 1 E7018 For all P1
Steel Note 8 Materials,
Qualification
with F-4
Filler Metals
Qualifies for
Lower F
Numbers
2 P-1, ER70S-2 1/16-0.436 GTAW No 9
Carbon Gr. 1 For all PI
Steel Materials, 100%
Argon Gas
Shield
3 P-1, E6010 1/16-0.436 SMAW No 13
Carbon Gr. 1 E7018 E6010 Root Pass
Steel
E7018
Remainder
4 P-1, ER70S-2 3/16-0.864 GTAW No 17
Carbon Gr. 1 SMAW Qualified for P1
Steel E7018 Materials down
to -50°F
Service
5 P-1, E6010 3/16-0.864 SMAW No 23
Carbon Gr. 1 E7018 Qualified for P1
Steel Materials down
to -50°F
Service
6 P-3, E7018- 3/16-0.864 SMAW No 29
Carbon- Gr. 1 A1 No Preheat to
1/2 Mo 1/2"; for 1/2" to
3/4" Preheat to
Steel
175°F
7 P-4, ER80S- 3/16-0.864 GTAW Yes 33
1-1/4 Cr- Gr. 1 B2 SMAW This Procedure
E80XX- Allows Welding
1/2Mo
B2 P-4, Gr. 1 to all
Steel Lower P-No.
 Materials
8 P-4, ER80S- 1/16-0.312 GTAW No 37
1-1/4 Cr- Gr. 1 B2 This Procedure
1/2 Mo Allows Welding
P-4, Gr. 1 to all
Steel Lower P-No.
Materials
9 P-5, ER90S- 3/16-0.864 GTAW Yes 41
2-1/4 Cr- Gr. 1 B3 SMAW This Procedure
E90XX- Allows Welding
1 Mo
B3 P-4 Gr. 1 to all
Steel Lower P-No.
Materials
Qualified with
E9018-B3
Electrode

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