WELDING BASICS, TECHNIQUES

AND SAFETY
Contents
Welding
Welding Terminology
Types of Welding
Arc Welding Processes
Fundamentals of Joints
Fundamentals of Welds
Weld Joint symbols
Welding positions
Welding discontinuities
Welding Safety
 Welding

“A material joining process which produces

coalescence of materials by heating them to
suitable temperature enough to cause
softening or melting with or without the use
of filler material and with or without the
application of pressure”
 Welding History

“Welding of precious materials was established ~2000 years ago

and learned to forge‐weld iron about 1000 years.

Modern implementation of welding did not begin until a little

more than 140 years ago.

In the early 1880s, the acetylene torch and the electric arc were
introduced as tools capable of fusion welding
 Brazing and Soldering
Brazing and Soldering are joining processes where materials are bonded
together using a heating method and a filler metal without melting the base
materials. The filler metal melts, wets the base materials, and subsequently
flows by capillary action.

The difference between brazing and soldering lies in the temperature of the
heating process.

Brazing occurs at temperatures over 450°C and soldering occurs at

temperatures less than 450°C.
 Welding Terminologies (AWS 3.0)
• Weldability
The relative case with which a material may be welded (under the fabrication
conditions imposed) to meet an applicable standard

• Arc
A controlled electrical discharge between the electrode and the workpiece
formed and sustained by the establishment of a gaseous conductive medium,
called an arc plasma.

• Arc Gouging
An arc cutting process that melts base metal by the heat of a carbon arc and
removes the molten metal by a blast of air.
 Welding Terminologies (AWS 3.0)

• Arc Force
The axial force developed by an Arc plasma.

• Arc blow
The deflection of an arc from its normal path due to magnetic forces.

• Electrode Force
The force applied by the electrodes to the workpieces in making spot,
seam, or projection welds.

• Deposition Rate
The weight of material deposited in a unit of time.
 Welding Terminologies (AWS 3.0)
• Dilution
Change in composition of a welding filler metal caused by the admixture of
the base metal or previously deposited weld metal in the deposited weld
bead.

• Electrode Pickup
Contamination of the electrode by the base metal or its coating during
welding

• Recovery
It is the amount of alloying element in the weld deposited by the filler rod
or electrode.
 Welding Terminologies (AWS 3.0)
• Peening
The mechanical working of metals by means of impact blows

• Pre‐Heating
The act of applying heat to the workpiece(s) prior to joining, thermal cutting,
or thermal spraying.

• Interpass Temperature
The temperature of the weld area immediately prior to applying subsequent
passes.

• Post‐Heating
The application of heat to a weldment after welding.
 Welding Terminologies (AWS 3.0)
• Puddling
Welding done without filler rod. Normally this is used for plates of less than
3mm thickness.
• Stringer
A weld bead formed without appreciable weaving.
• Weaving
A type of weld bead made with transverse oscillation, and consequently
wider than the stringer bead.
• Joint Efficiency
The ratio of the strength of a joint to the strength of the base metal,
expressed in percentages.
 Welding Terminologies (AWS 3.0)
• As Welded
The condition of weld metal, welded joints, and
weldments after welding but…..
prior to any subsequent thermal, mechanical or chemical
treatments.

• Crater
A depression in the weld face at the termination of a
weld bead

• Cladding
Surfacing variation primarily used to improve corrosion
or heat resistance. It is a relatively thick layer of filler
metal applied to a carbon or low‐alloy steel base metal.
 Welding Terminologies (AWS 3.0)
• Build‐up
Surfacing variation primarily used to achieve required dimensions by
welding.

• Hardfacing
surfacing variation used to improve wear resistance by welding

• Buttering
A surfacing variation primarily used to provide metallurgically compatible
weld metal for the subsequent completion of the weld
 Types of Welding

 Arc Welding

 Gas Welding

 Resistance Welding

 Radiant Energy Welding

 Solid State Welding

 Types of Arc Welding

 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)

 Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG)

 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

 Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
(SMAW)
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

• An electric arc used to melts the base

metals and filler metal (consumable)
together so that they all fuse into one solid
piece of metal without the application of
pressure.

• The electricity flows from the power source,

through the electrode and across the arc,
through the base material to the work lead
and back to the power source
 Basic Electric Philosophy
• Voltage – The electrical potential or
pressure that causes current to flow DC - DC+
Measured in Volts

• Current – The movement of charged

particles in a specific direction
Measured in Amps
AC
• Polarity
DC‐ (Direct Current Electrode Negative)
DC+ (Direct Current Electrode Positive)
AC (Alternating Current)
 Fundamentals of SMAW
Electrode
• Consumable get melted during the welding
process.
1. Core rod (Metal filler)
2. Extruded flux coating
• Main types of electrode covering
 Cellulosic ‐ deep penetration/fusion
 Rutile ‐ general purpose
 Basic ‐ low hydrogen
 Functions of Electrode Covering

• Facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability

• Gas for shielding the arc & molten metal
• De‐oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into
the slag
• Form a protective slag
• Provide alloying elements
• Aid positional welding
• Control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type)
 Electrode Designation (AWS 5.1 / 5.1M)

The following example shows the meaning of the

identifiers on a common electrode E7018
• E : Electrode E
• 70 : Tensile strength of weld in thousands of
pounds per square inch 70
• Position: 1 – All 2 – Horizontal 4 – Vertical 1
• 8 : Type of coating (low hydrogen, mineral,
organic or rutile), type of arc (soft, medium or 8
digging), penetration (light, medium or deep)
and amount of iron powder in the coating.
 Fundamentals of SMAW (AWS 3.0)
• Electric Arc
Established in the space between the end of the
electrode and the work.
It reaches temperatures of 10,000°F which melts
the electrode & base material.

• Arc Length
The distance from the tip of the welding
electrode to the adjacent surface of the weld
pool.

• Weld Pool / Puddle

The local sized volume of molten metal in a weld
prior to its solidification as weld metal.
 Fundamentals of SMAW (AWS 3.0)
• Shielding gas
A gas used to produce a protective atmosphere Shielding Gas

during welding.

• Solidified Weld Metal

It is the molten weld puddle solidifies to forms
a joint

• Travel Speed
The speed at which the welder moves the
electrode along the joint to make a weld.
 SMAW process philosophy

Electrode

1
Travel direction

Shielding Gas
4

Slag
6

3 Weld Puddle

2 Arc

5 Solidified Weld Metal

 Effects of Welding Variables (LINCON Electric)
A. Proper Current, Travel Speed
and Arc Length

B. Current too low

C. Current too high

D.Arc length too short

E. Arc length too long

F. Travel speed too low

G.Travel speed too fast

 SMAW ‐ Industrial Applications
• Shielded metal arc welding is one of world's most popular welding
processes.

Because of its versatility and simplicity, it is particularly dominant in

• Fabrication of Boilers, Pressure Vessels and Tanks.
• The maintenance and repair jobs
• Construction of steel structures
• Industrial piping fabrication
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING
(GTAW)
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

• It is commonly referred to as TIG. It uses

a non‐consumable solid tungsten
electrode.

• Fusion is produced by heating with an

electrical arc between electrode and
workpiece without application of
pressure. Shielding gas is used to protect
the molten puddle from the atmosphere
which results in a weld without slag.

• Filler metal is added to the leading edge

of the molten puddle.
GTAW process philosophy
 Fundamentals of GTAW
• Electrode
The electrode material for GTAW is made from
a tungsten alloy. Tungsten has one of the
highest melting temperatures of any metal
about 3,410 oC.

• Filler Wire
Material consumed during welding and become
the part of weld joint. It is generally covered
with copper coating to resist corrosion.

• Arc
An electric arc occurs in the gas filled space
between the electrode tip and the work piece
 Fundamentals of GTAW
• Weld Pool
The localized volume of molten metal in a weld prior to
its solidification as weld metal

• Shielding gas
GTAW welding requires a shielding gas to protect the
weld pool.
Shielding gas is usually CO2 , argon, or a mixture of
both.

• Solidified Weld Metal

The welder “lays a bead” of molten metal that quickly
solidifies into a weld.
The resulting weld is slag free.
 Effects of Welding Variables
A. Proper Current, Travel Speed, wire
feed and Arc Length
B. Wire feed too low
C. Wire feed too high
D.Arc length too short
E. Arc length too long
F. Travel speed too low
G.Travel speed too fast
H.Inadequate gas coverage
 GTAW – Industrial Applications
• The advantages of GTAW welding include very high weld quality, absence
of slag and very little spatter. The method is extremely versatile, since
most weldable materials can be GTAW welded and many welding
positions and joint configurations can be used.

GTAW welding can be used:

• Boilers, Pressure vessels and Tanks.
• Weld thin metals and small objects, the method is also used in the
electronic industry.
• Welding of pipes, pressure vessels and heat exchangers.
 Electrode Wire Tagging (AWS 5.18 / 5.18M)

Arc Welding Electrodes vary in size, type,

positional use and strength. The following example ER70S‐3
shows the meaning of the identifiers on a common
electrode
• ER : Rod
ER
• 70 : Tensile strength of weld in thousands of
pounds per square inch 70
• S : Filler metal is solid S
• 3 : Indicates the chemical composition of a solid 3
electrode.
WELD JOINTS
 Weld Joints
The junction of members or the edges of members that are to be joined or have
been joined
 Type of Weld Joints

Butt / Groove welds

Fillet welds

Spot/Seam welds

Plug/Slot welds

Edge welds
Types of Weld Joints
Parts of Groove Weld Joint

Included angle Included angle

Angle of bevel

Root Radius

Root Face Root Face

Root Gap Root Gap
 Parts of Groove Weld Joint
• Reinforcement
Weld metal in excess of the quantity required
to fill as joint

• Fusion zone
The depth to which the parent metal has been
fused.

• Toe
The point at which the weld face and the base
metal meet
 Fundamentals of Butt Weld Joint
• Root face
The surface formed by the ‘squaring‐off’ of the root edge of the fusion face to
avoid a sharp edge at the root of the preparation.

• Deposited metal
The metal produced by the melting of the filler metal or electrode and which
becomes part of the weld.

• Parent / Base metal

The metal or alloy being welded

• Fusion face
The portion of a surface, or of an edge which is to be fused on making the
weld.
 Fundamentals of Butt Weld Joint
• Root Gap
The distance between the parts to be joined.

• Weld Face
The surface of a weld, seen from the side from which the weld was made.

• Root
The position in a prepared joint where the parts to be joined are nearest
together, or the apex of the angle formed by the two fusion faces.
 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
The portion of the base metal that has not been melted, but whose mechanical
properties or microstructure have been altered by the heat of welding or cutting.

Maximum solid solid-liquid Boundary

Temperature weld
grain growth zone
metal
recrystallized zone
partially transformed zone
tempered zone

unaffected base
material
Parts of Fillet Weld Joint

Excess
Weld
Vertical Metal
Leg
Length Design
Throat

Horizontal leg Length

 Parts of Fillet Weld Joint (AWS‐3.0)
• Toe
The junction of the weld face and the base metal.
• Leg
The distance from the joint root to the toe of fillet weld.
• Face
The exposed surface of the weld on the side from which welding was done.
• Theoretical Throat and Effective Throat
The minimum distance minus any reinforcement between the joint root
and the face of fillet weld.
• Actual Throat
The shortest distance between the root and the face of fillet weld.
Fillet Weld Profiles

Concave is preferred for joints subject to fatigue loading

WELDING JOINT SYMBOLS
Welding Joint Symbol (AWS‐2.4)
Welding Joint Symbols (AWS 2.4)
WELD POSITIONS
Welding Positions – Pipe (AWS‐3.0 / ASME SEC‐IX)
Welding Positions – Pipe (AWS‐3.0 / ASME SEC‐IX)
WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
 Welding Discontinuities & Defects
• “A Discontinuity is an interruption of the typical structure of a Weldment”,
such as lack of homogeneity in the mechanical, metallurgical, or physical
characteristic of the material or weldment

• Discontinuities are reject‐able only if they exceed specific requirement in

terms of size, type, or distribution. “A reject‐able discontinuity is called a
Defect”
 Cracks
Cracks that may occur in welded materials are caused generally by many
factors and may be classified by shape and position.
Classified by Shape
• Longitudinal Cracks
• Transverse Cracks
• Chevron Cracks
• Lamellar Tear Cracks
Classified by Position
• HAZ (Heat Affected Zone) Cracks
• Centerline Cracks
• Crater Cracks
• Fusion zone Cracks
• Parent metal Cracks
 Cracks

Longitudinal parent metal Transverse weld metal

Longitudinal weld metal Lamellar tearing

 Cracks

Transverse crack Longitudinal crack

 Solidification Cracks

• Occurs during weld solidification process

• Steels with high sulfur impurities content
(low ductility at elevated temperature)
• Requires high tensile stress
• Occur longitudinally down center of weld
 Lamellar Tearing
• Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance
due to the solid inclusions in the parent
material (e.g. sulfides and silicates) linking
up under the influence of welding stresses
• Low ductile materials in the short
transverse direction containing high levels
of impurities are very susceptible to
lamellar tearing
• It forms when the welding stresses act in
the short transverse direction of the
material (through thickness direction)
 Hydrogen Induced Cracking
• Requires susceptible hard grain structure,
stress, low temperature and hydrogen
• Hydrogen enters weld via welding arc
mainly as result of contaminated electrode
or preparation
• Hydrogen diffuses out into parent metal on
cooling
• Cracking developing most likely in HAZ
 Reheat Cracks
• The principal cause to this cracking is that
when heat treating susceptible steels, the
grain interior becomes strengthened by
carbide precipitation, forcing the relaxation
of residual stresses by creep deformation at
the grain boundaries.
• Main factors are the Temperature between
350ºC and 550ºC and presence of
Chromium, molybdenum and vanadium
 Distortion
• Thermal expansion and contraction will
result in Stresses of high magnitude during
weldment solidification

• These will remain in the weldment after the

structure has cooled and tend to cause
distortion
 Cavities
Gas pore Cluster porosity
• Cavity may be either
gas cavity due to
entrapment of gas or
due to shrinkage Root pipe
caused by shrinkage
during solidification.

• Generally known as
Porosity
Cluster
porosity

Herringbone porosity
 Solid Inclusions
Solid foreign substances entrapped in the weld
metal is called solid inclusion. These can be the
following types:
• Slag inclusion Slag inclusion

• Flux inclusion
• Oxide inclusion
• Metallic inclusion
Tungsten inclusion
 Overlap
An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld
caused by metal flowing on to the surface of
the parent metal without fusing to it

Causes:
• Contamination
• Slow travel speed
• Incorrect welding technique
• Current too low
 Weld Root Imperfections

Lack of Root Fusion Lack of Root Penetration

Weld Root Imperfections

Excessive root penetration

 Weld Root Imperfections
• A shallow groove, which may occur in the root of
a butt weld
Causes:
• Excessive back purge pressure during TIG welding
• Excessive root bead grinding before the
application of the second pass
Concave Root
• Welding current too high for 2nd pass overhead
welding
• root gap too large - excessive ‘weaving’
Weld Root Imperfections

Concave Root
 Weld Root Imperfections

Concave root Excess root penetration

 Cap Undercut

Intermittent Cap Undercut

 Cap Undercut

Root undercut Cap undercut

 Surface & Profile

• Poor cap profiles and excessive cap

reinforcements may lead to stress
Poor cap profile
concentration points at the weld toes
and will also contribute to overall poor
toe blend
Excessive cap height

Incomplete filled groove

 Surface & Profile

Excess cap reinforcement Incomplete filled groove

 Oxidized Root (Root Coking)
Causes:
• Loss or insufficient back purging gas (TIG)

• Most commonly occurs when welding

stainless steels

• Purging gases include argon, helium and

occasionally nitrogen
 Miscellaneous Imperfections

• Accidental striking of the arc

onto the parent material

• Faulty electrode holder

• Poor cable insulation

• Poor return lead clamping Arc strike

 Miscellaneous Imperfections
Causes:
• Excessive current
• Damp electrodes
• Contamination
• Incorrect wire feed speed when
welding with the MAG welding process
• Arc blow
Spatter
 Codes & Standards
• ASME Section IX “Welding & Brazing Qualifications.”

• ASME Sec. II Part C “ Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes & Filler
metals.”

• B31.3 “Process Piping”

• AWS/ANSI D1.1 “Structural Welding Code – Steel.”

• AWS/ANSI A2.4 “Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing & NDTs.”

• AWS/ANSI A3.0 “Standard Welding Terms & Definitions.”

WELDING SAFETY
 Welding Work – Checklist
• Prepare the base materials: remove paint and rust
• Choose the right welding process
• Choose the right filler material
• Assess and comply with safety requirements
• Use proper welding techniques and be sure to protect the
molten puddle from contaminants in the air
• Inspect the weld
 Welding – Safety Precautions
Read and understand the following before welding
1. Warning Labels
2. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
3. Do not touch electrode with bare hand.
4. Do not wear wet or damaged gloves.
5. Do not weld in wet area.
6. Use proper PPEs for the Welding job
7. The welding arc is brighter than the sun
Precaution must be taken to protect your eyes
and skin from UV radiation Wear correct eye and
body protection
 Welding – Fire Safety
Flying sparks, hot work piece, and hot equipment can
cause fires and burns.
1. Do not weld near flammable material or where the
atmosphere may contain flammable coal dust, gas,
or liquid vapors (such as gasoline).
2. Watch for fire, and keep a fire extinguisher nearby.
3. Be alert that welding sparks and hot materials from
welding can easily go through small cracks and
openings to adjacent areas.
4. Treat gas cylinders with respect.
 Welding – Fire Safety
1. Do not weld on drums, tanks, or any closed
containers unless a qualified person has tested
it and declared it or prepared it to be safe.
2. Do not touch live electrical parts.
3. Only qualified persons should install, operate,
maintain welding units
4. Turn off equipment when not in use.
5. Use local exhaust / ventilating fan to remove
the fumes from your breathing zone and
welding area.
Arc Welding – Safety
Flying sparks, hot work piece, and hot
equipment can cause fires and burns.

1. Protect yourself and others from potential

hazards including:
2. Fumes and Gases
3. Electric Shock
4. Arc Rays
5. Fire and Explosion Hazards
6. Noise
7. Hot objects
The Crystalline Structure of Metals
Metals usually solidify as a “true solid”; that is, they have a structure that is
crystalline in every aspect of the term.

The majority of metals develop a crystalline structure during solidification.

Crystal structures are mainly face‐centered cubic (FCC), body‐centered cubic
(BCC), or hexagonal close‐packed (HCP).
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