ARC Welding

TY Prod
 Plasma Cutting
⚫Uses ionized gas jet (plasma) to cut materials resistant to
oxy‐fuel cutting,
⚫High velocity electrons generated by the arc impact gas
molecules, and ionize them.
⚫The ionized gas is forced through nozzle (upto 500 m/s),
and the jet heats the metal, and blasts the molten metal
away.
⚫More economical, more versatile and much faster (5 to 8
times) than oxyfuel cutting, produces narrow kerfs and
smooth surfaces.
⚫HAZ is 1/3 to ¼ th than oxyfuel cutting.
⚫Maximum plate thickness = 200 mm
Electric Arc Welding
 Principle of Arc
⚫An arc is generated between cathode and anode when they are touched to

.
•establish the flow of current and then separated by a small distance.

⚫65% to 75% heat is generated at the anode.

⚫If DC is used and the work is positive (the anode of the circuit), the
condition is known as straight polarity (SPDC).
⚫Work is negative and electrode is positive is reverse polarity (RPDC).

⚫SPDC conditions are preferred.

⚫DC arc‐welding maintain a stable arc and preferred for difficult tasks such
as overhead welding.

⚫For a stable arc, the gap should be maintained.

⚫Manual arc welding is done with shielded
(covered) electrodes
⚫Bare‐metal wire used in automatic or
semiautomatic machines.
⚫Non consumable electrodes (e.g tungsten) is not
consumed by the arc and a separate metal wire
is used as filler.
⚫There are three modes of metal transfer
(globular, spray and short‐circuit).
Three modes of metal transfer during
arc welding
 Major Forces take part in Metal
Transfer
(i)gravity force
(ii) Surface tension
(iii) electromagnetic interaction
(iv) hydrodynamic action of plasma
 METHODS OF ARC WELDING
• Carbon Arc Welding;
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW);
• Submerged Arc Welding (SAW);
• Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW);
• Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW);
• Electro slag Welding (ESW);
• Plasma Arc Welding (PAW);
Arc Welding
 ELECTRIC ARC
WELDING
The welding in which the electric arc is produced
to give heat for the purpose of joining two
surfaces is called electric arc welding.

The joining by fusing of two or more pieces of

metal together by using the heat produced
from an electric arc .
 How an arc is formed?
• The arc is like a flame of
intense heat that is
generated as the
electrical current
passes through a highly
resistant air gap.
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
 Arc Welding
• It is a fusion welding processes which uses an
electric arc to produce the heat required for
melting the metal.
• The welder creates an electric arc that melts
the base metals and filler metal
(consumable) together so that they all fuse
into one solid piece of metal
 Arc Welding
• Many things around us are welded …
– Pipelines that bring fresh water
– Towers that carry electricity to houses
– Cars and buses that take people where they need to go
• Arc welding continues to be used extensively in the construction
of steel structures and in industrial fabrication.
• The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including
stainless steel) but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also
be welded with this method.
• It dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and
repair industry, and though flux-cored arc welding is growing
in popularity
• Is popular because it can be used in the field
without complicated equipment and gases
 Arc Welding
• It is a manual arc welding process that uses a
consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the
weld.
• An electric current, in the form of either alternating
current or direct current from a welding power
supply, is used to form an electric arc between the
electrode and the metals to be joined.
• As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode
disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a
shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of
which protect the weld area from atmospheric
 Arc Welding
• Arc welding is a process that melts and joins metals by
heating them with an arc established between a
sticklike covered electrode and the metals.
• The core wire conducts the electric current to the arc
and provides filler metal for the joint.
• The electrode holder is essentially a metal clamp with
an electrically insulated outside shell for the welder to
hold safely.
• The heat of the arc melts the core wire and the
flux covering at the electrode tip into metal
droplets.
• Molten metal in the weld pool solidifies into the weld
metal while the lighter molten flux floats on the top
surface and solidifies as a slag layer.
Arc Welding
 Arc Welding
• Also known as “stick welding”
• Uses an arc between a covered
electrode and a workpiece
• Shielding is obtained from decomposition
of the electrode cover
• Pressure is not used
• Filler metal is obtained from the electrode
 Principle of Arc
• A suitable gap is kept between the work
and electrode
• A high current is passed through the circuit.
• The electric energy is converted into heat
energy, producing a temperature of 3000°C
to 4000°C.
• This heat melts the edges to be welded and
molten pool is formed.
• On solidification the welding joint is obtained
 Arc Welding
• Process:
– Intense heat at the arc melts the tip of the electrode
– Tiny drops of metal enter the arc stream and are
deposited on the parent metal
– As molten metal is deposited, a slag forms over the
bead which serves as an insulation against air
contaminants during cooling
– After a weld ‘pass’ is allowed the cool, the oxide layer is
removed by a chipping hammer and then cleaned with
a wirebrush before the next pass.
 Arc Welding
• Because of the versatility of the process and
the simplicity of its equipment and
operation, shielded metal arc welding is
one of the world's most popular welding
processes.
 Basics of Arc
Welding
• The arc is struck between the
electrode and the metal.
• It then heats the metal to the
melting point.
• The electrode is then removed,
breaking the arc between the electrode
and the metal. This allows the molten
metal to “freeze” or solidify.
 Arc
Welding
Arc Welding
Arc Welding
 Basic Steps of Arc
Welding
• Prepare the base materials: remove paint
and rust
• Choose the right welding process
• Choose the right filler material
• Assess and comply with safety requirements
• Use proper welding techniques and be sure to
protect the molten puddle from contaminants
in the air
• Inspect the weld
 ARC WELDING
• An electric arc is generated between
an electrode and the parent metal
• The electrode carries the electric current to
form the arc, produces a gas to control the
atmosphere and provides filler metal for
the weld bead
• Electric current may be AC or DC.
 Electric Power for
Welding
• Current used may be
– 1. AC
– 2. DC

For most purposes, DC is

preferred.
 AC Arc
Welding
• instead of 220 V at 50 A, for example, the
power supplied by the transformer is
around 17–45 V at currents up to 600 A.
 DC Arc
Welding
• D.C. machines are made up to the capacity
range of 600 amperes.
• 45 to 95 volts
• D.C. can be given in two ways:
(a) Straight polarity
(b) Reverse polarity
The polarity will affect the weld size and
application
 Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc
welding Direct Current (from Generator)
1. Less efficiency
2. Power consumption more
3. Cost of equipment is more
4. Low voltage – safer operation
5. Suitable for both ferrous non ferrous metals
6. Preferred for welding thin sections
7. Positive terminal connected to the work
8. Negative terminal connected to the electrode
Arc Welding
Equipments
Metal arc
welding
 Types of
Electrodes
1. Bare electrodes
2. Coated electrodes
 Arc Welding
• The choice of electrode for SMAW depends
on a number of factors, including
1. The weld material
2. Welding position and
3. The desired weld properties.
 Welding
Electrodes
• The composition of the electrode core is generally similar
and sometimes identical to that of the base material.
• But even though a number of feasible options exist, a slight
difference in alloy composition can strongly impact the
properties of the resulting weld. This is especially true of alloy
steels such as HSLA steels.
• Likewise, electrodes of compositions similar to those of the
base materials are often used for welding nonferrous materials
like aluminium and copper.
• However, sometimes it is desirable to use electrodes with core
materials significantly different from the base material. For
example, stainless steel electrodes are sometimes used to weld
two pieces of carbon steel, and are often utilized to weld stainless
steel workpieces with carbon steel workpieces.
 Coated
Electrodes
• The electrode is coated in a metal
mixture called flux, which gives off gases
as it decomposes to prevent
1. Weld contamination
2. Introduces deoxidizers to purify the weld
3. Causes weld-protecting slag to form
4. Improves the arc stability, and
5.Provides alloying elements to improve the weld
quality.
 Electrode Coating
• Electrode coatings can consist of a number of different
compounds, including rutile, calcium fluoride, cellulose, and iron powder.
• Rutile electrodes, coated with 25%–45% TiO2, are characterized by ease
of use and good appearance of the resulting weld. However, they create
welds with high hydrogen content, encouraging embrittlement and
cracking.
• Electrodes containing calcium fluoride (CaF2), sometimes known as basic
or low-hydrogen electrodes, are hygroscopic and must be stored in dry
conditions. They produce strong welds, but with a coarse and convex-
shaped joint surface.
• Electrodes coated with cellulose, especially when combined with
rutile, provide deep weld penetration, but because of their high
moisture content, special procedures must be used to prevent excessive
risk of cracking.
• Finally, iron powder is a common coating additive, as it improves the
productivity of the electrode, sometimes as much as doubling the yield.
 Functions of electrode (flux)
covering
• Provides the gaseous shield to protect
the molten metal from air.
– Cellulose-type electrode (C6H10O5)x ,
providing gas mixture of H2, CO, H2O and CO2.
– Limestone-type electrode (CaCO3) – low in
hydrogen and it is used for welding metals that
are susceptible to hydrogen cracking such as
high- strength steels.
 Functions of electrode (flux)
covering
• Deoxidation - Provide deoxidizers and fluxing agent
to deoxidize and cleanse the weld metal. The solid
slag also protects the weld metal from oxidation.
• Arc stabilization - Provide arc stabilizers which are
compounds such as potassium oxalate and
lithium carbonate. They readily decompose into
ions in an arc, which increase electrical
conductivity.
• Metal addition - Provide alloying elements (for
composition control) and metal powder
(increase deposition rate) to the weld pool.
 Types of
Electrodes
Electrodes can be divided into three groups—
1. Fast-fill electrodes,
Fast-fill electrodes are designed to melt quickly
so that the welding speed can be maximized
2. Fast-freeze electrodes,
fast-freeze electrodes supply filler metal that
solidifies quickly, making welding in a variety of
positions possible by preventing the weld pool
from shifting significantly before solidifying. and
3. Intermediate electrodes go by the name "fill-freeze"
or "fast-follow" electrodes.
 Arc Welding Power
Supplies
• The current for arc welder can be supplied
by line current or by an
alternator/generator.
– The amount of heat is determined by the current flow (amps)
– The ease of starting and harshness of the arc is determined by the
electrical potential (volts).

• Welding current adjustments can include:

– Amperage
– Voltage
– Polarity
– High frequency current
– Wave form
 Amperage Output
• The maximum output of the power supply
determines the thickness of metal that can
be welded before joint beveling is required.
• 185 to 225 amps is a common size.
• For an individual weld, the optimum output
amperage is determined by
– thickness of the metal
– type of joint and
– type of electrode
 Five Common Output
Currents For Arc
Welding
1. AC (Alternating Current)

2. DC (Direct Current)

3. ACHF (Alternating Current-High

Frequency)

4. PC (Pulsed Current)

5. Square wave
 Alternating Current
• Alternating current: The type of current
where the flow of electrons reverses
direction (polarity) at regular intervals.
• Recommended for general purpose
electrodes and flat position.
Alternating Current
 Direct
Current
• Direct current: The type of current where the flow
of electrons (polarity) is in one direction.
• Controlling the polarity allows the welder to influence
the location of the heat.
• When the electrode is positive (+) DCRP, it will be
slightly hotter than the base metal.
• When the base metal is positive (+), DCSP, the base
metal will be slightly hotter than the electrode.
• DC is required for GMAW
• It is frequently used for SMAW
 Ampere
• Electricity passing through a resistance
causes heat.
• An air gap is a high resistance
• The greater the amperage flowing through
the resistance (air gap) the greater the
heat.
• The electrode also has resistance.
• Excessive amperage for the diameter of
the electrode (current density) over heats
the electrode.
• Insufficient amperage for the diameter of
electrode makes the electrode hard to
start.
 Drooping
Characterstics

Constant Current

Increasing the voltage from 20 to 25 volts

(25%) only decreases the amperage from
113 to 120 Amp (5.8%).
 Arc Welding
Defects
The most common quality problems associated with SMAW include
• 1. Weld spatter
Weld spatter, while not affecting the integrity of the weld,
damages its appearance and increases cleaning costs. It can be
caused by excessively high current, a long arc, or arc blow, a
condition associated with direct current characterized by the
electric arc being deflected away from the weld pool by magnetic
forces. Arc blow can also cause porosity in the weld, as can joint
contamination, high welding speed, and a long welding arc,
especially when low-hydrogen electrodes are used.
• 2. Porosity
Porosity, often not visible without the use of advanced
nondestructive testing methods, is a serious concern because it
can potentially weaken the weld.
 Arc Welding
Defects
• 3. Poor fusion
Another defect affecting the strength of the weld is poor
fusion, though it is often easily visible. It is caused by low
current, contaminated joint surfaces, or the use of an
improper electrode.
• 4. Shallow penetration
Shallow penetration, another detriment to weld strength, can be
addressed by decreasing welding speed, increasing the current
or using a smaller electrode.
• 5. Cracking.
Any of these weld-strength-related defects can make the weld
prone to cracking, but other factors are involved as well. High
carbon, alloy or sulfur content in the base material can lead to
cracking, especially if low-hydrogen electrodes and preheating
are not employed. Furthermore, the workpieces should not be
excessively restrained, as this introduces residual stresses into
the weld and can cause cracking as the weld cools and
contracts.[10]
 Advantages of arc
welding
• 1. Simple welding equipment
• 2. Portable
• 3. Inexpensive power source
• 4. Relatively inexpensive equipment
• 5. Welders use standard domestic current.
• 6. Process is fast and reliable
• 7. Short learning curve
• 8. Equipment can be used for multiple functions
• 9. Electric arc is about 5,000 oC
• 10. Used for maintenance, repair, and field construction
 Disadvantage
s
• Not clean enough for reactive metals such
as aluminium and titanium.
• The deposition rate is limited because the
electrode covering tends to overheat and
fall off.
• The electrode length is ~ 35 mm and
requires electrode changing lower the
overall production rate.
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

• Uses an arc between a continuous

filler metal electrode and a workpiece
• Shielding is provided by a flux
contained within the electrode
• Additional shielding may be obtained
from an externally supplied gas or gas
mixture
• Commonly used in construction because
it is a fast welding process and is easily
portable
Arc Welding
Arc Welding
 JWM 2010
Assertion (A) : Bead is the metal added during single pass of welding.
Reason (R) : Bead material is same as base metal.
(a)Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b)Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
 GATE-1993
•In d.c. welding, the straight polarity
(electrode negative) results in
(a)Lower penetration
(b)Lower deposition rate
(c)Less heating of work piece
(d)Smaller weld pod
 Arc welding equipments
1. Droopers: Constant current welding machines
Good for manual welding
2. Constant voltage machines
Good for automatic welding

Contd…
 Fig. Machine with different settings

Fig. Characteristic curve of a constant voltage arc-welding machine

Formula
 •.

Re.quires a large current (150 to 1000 A), voltage is

between 30 and 40 V, actual voltage across the arc
varying from 12 to 30 V.
To initiate a weld, the operator strike the electrode
and start arc.
 IES 2010
In arc welding, the arc length should be equal to
(a) 4.5 times the rod diameter
(b) 3 times the rod diameter
(c) 1.5 times the rod diameter
(d) Rod diameter
 IES2001

In arc welding, d.c. reverse polarity is used to bear

greater advantage in
(a) Overhead welding
(b) Flat welding of lap joints
(c) Edge welding
(d) Flat welding of butt joints
 IES-2001
In manual arc welding, the equipment should have
drooping characteristics in order to maintain
(a) Voltage constant when arc length changes

(b) Current constant when arc length changes

(c) Temperature in the are constant

(d) Weld pool red-hot

 IES 2001
The voltage-current characteristics of a dc generator for
•.
arc welding is a straight line between an open-circuit
voltage of 80 V and short-circuit current of 300 A. The
generator settings for maximum arc power will be
(a) 0 V and 150 A (b) 40 V and 300 A
(c) 40 V and 150 A (d) 80 V and 300 A
GATE -2012 Same Q in GATE -2012 (PI)
In a DC arc welding operation, the voltage-arc
length characteristic was obtained as Varc = 20 +
5L where the arc length L was varied between 5
mm and 7 mm. Here Varc denotes the arc voltage
in Volts. The arc current was varied from 400 A
to 500 A. Assuming linear power source
characteristic, the open circuit voltage and the
short circuit current for the welding operation
are
(a) 45 V, 450 A (b) 75 V, 750 A
(c) 95 V, 950 A (d) 150 V, 1500 A
 GETE 2007
The DC power source for arc welding has the
characteristic 3V + I = 240, where V = Voltage
and I = Current in amp. For maximum arc
power at the electrode, voltage should be set
at
(a) 20 V (b) 40 V (c) 60 V (d) 80 V
 GETE 2007
A low carbon steel plate is to be welded by the manual
metal arc welding process using a linear V - I
characteristic DC Power source. The following data are
available :
OCV of Power source = 62 V
Short circuit current = 130 A
Arc length, L = 4 mm
Traverse speed of welding = 15 cm/s
Efficiency of heat input = 85%
Voltage is given as V = 20 + 1.5 L
Calculate the heat input into the workprice
 Duty Cycle
• The percentage of time in a 5 min period that
a welding machine can be used at its rated
output without overloading.
• Time is spent in setting up, metal chipping,
cleaning and inspection.
• For manual welding a 60% duty cycle is
suggested and for automatic welding 100%
duty cycle.
 Duty Cycle
Required duty cycle,

Where ,T = rated duty cycle

I = rated current at the rated duty cycle
Io = Maximum current at the rated duty
cycle
 IES 2010
What is the maximum output current that can
be drawn at 100% duty cycle from a welding
power source rated at 600A at 60% duty cycle.
[3-Marks
 Electrodes
1. Non-consumable Electrodes
2. Consumable Electrodes

Non-consumable Electrodes
Made of carbon, Graphite or Tungsten.
Carbon and Graphite are used for D.C.
Electrode is not consumed, the arc length
remains constant, arc is stable and easy to
maintain.
 Consumable Electrodes

Provides filler materials.

Same composition.
This requires that the electrode be moved toward
or away from the work to maintain the arc and
satisfactory welding conditions
 Consumable electrodes are three
kinds

(a) Bare
(b) Fluxed or lightly coated
(c) Coated or extruded / shielded
• For automatic welding, bare electrode is in the form
of continuous wire (coil).
 Electrode coating characteristic
1. Provide a protective atmosphere.
2. Stabilize the arc.
3. Provide a protective slag coating to accumulate
impurities, prevent oxidation, and slow the
cooling of the weld metal.
4. Reduce spatter.
5. Add alloying elements.
6. Affect arc penetration
7. Influence the shape of the weld bead.
8. Add additional filler metal.
 GATE-1994
The electrodes used in arc welding are coated. This
•.
coating is not expected to
(a) Provide protective atmosphere to weld
(b) Stabilize the are
(c) Add alloying elements
(d) Prevents electrode from contamination
 Electrode coatings
l. Slag Forming Ingredients. asbestos, mica, silica, fluorspar,
titanium dioxide, Iron oxide, magnesium carbonate,
Calcium carbonate and aluminium oxide.

2. Arc Stabilizing Ingredients. or ionizing agents: potassium

silicate, TiO2 + ZrO2 (Rutile), Mica, Calcium oxide, sodium
oxide, magnesium oxide, feldspar (KAI Si3 O8)

Contd…
 3. Deoxidizing Ingredients. Cellulose, Calcium carbonate,
dolo- mite, starch, dextrin, wood flour, graphite, aluminium,
ferromanganese.

4. Binding Materials Sodium silicate, potassium silicate,

asbestos.

5. Alloying Constituents to Improve Strength of Weld

6. TiO2 and potassium compounds increase the melting rate

of the base metal for better penetration.

7. Iron powder provides higher deposition rate.

Contd…
Contd…
• The slag is then easily chipped.

• Coatings are designed to melt more slowly than the filler

wire.
 ELECTRODE IDENTIFICATION
Arc welding electrodes are identified using the
A.W.S, (American Welding Society) numbering
system and are made in sizes from 1/16 to 5/16 .
An example would be a welding rod identified as
an 1/8" E6011 electrode.
The electrode is 1/8" in diameter
The "E" stands for arc welding electrode.
• Next will be either a 4 or 5 digit number stamped on
the electrode. The first two numbers of a 4 digit
number and the first 3 digits of a 5 digit number
indicate the minimum tensile strength (in thousands
of pounds per square inch) of the weld that the rod
will produce, stress relieved. Examples would be as
follows:
• E60xx would have a tensile strength of 60,000 psi
E110XX would be 110,000 psi
• The next to last digit indicates the position the
electrode can be used in.
• EXX1X is for use in all positions
• EXX2X is for use in flat and horizontal positions
• EXX3X is for flat welding

86
• The last two digits together, indicate the type
of coating on the electrode and the welding
current the electrode can be used with. Such as
DC straight, (DC -) DC reverse (DC+) or A.C.
Type of coatings of the various electrodes are
explained elsewhere.
• Examples of the type current each will work
with are as below.

87
• ELECTRODES AND CURRENTS USED
• EXX10 DC+ (DC reverse or DCRP) electrode positive.
• EXX11 AC or DC- (DC straight or DCSP) electrode negative.
• EXX12 AC or DC-
• EXX13 AC, DC- or DC+
• EXX14 AC, DC- or DC+
• EXX15 DC+
• EXX16 AC or DC+
• EXX18 AC, DC- or DC+
• EXX20 AC ,DC- or DC+
• EXX24 AC, DC- or DC+
• EXX27 AC, DC- or DC+
• EXX28 AC or DC+

88
• CURRENT TYPES
• SMAW is performed using either AC or DCcurrent.
Since DC current flows in one direction, DC current
can be DC straight, (electrode negative) or DC
reversed (electrode positive). With DC reversed,(DC+
OR DCRP) the weld penetration will be deep. DC
straight (DC- OR DCSP) the weld will have a faster
melt off and deposit rate. The weld will have
medium penetration.
Ac current changes it's polarity 120 times a second
by it's self and can not be changed as can DC current.

89
 ELECTRODE SIZE AND AMPS USED
The table shown will serve as
Electrode Table
a basic guide of the amp
range that can be used for ELECTRODE AMP PLATE
different size electrodes. DIAMETER RANGE
These ratings can be different
1/16" 20 - 40 UP TO 3/16"
between various electrode
manufactures for the same 3/32" 40 - 125 UP TO 1/4"
size rod.
The type coating on the 1/8 75 - 185 OVER 1/8"
electrode could effect the
5/32" 105 - 250 OVER 1/4"
amperage range.
Check manufacturer’s 3/16" 140 - 305 OVER 3/8"
recommended amperage
settings. 1/4" 210 - 430 OVER 3/8"

Note! The thicker the material to 5/16" 275 - 450 OVER 1/2"
be welded, the higher the current
needed and the larger the
electrode needed
90
 SOME ELECTRODE TYPES
• E6010 :
Used for all position welding using DCRP. It produces a deep penetrating
weld and works well on dirty,rusted, or painted metals

• E6011:
Same characteristics as of the E6010, but can be used with AC and DC
currents.

• E6013:
Used with AC and DC currents. It produces a medium penetrating weld with
a superior weld bead appearance.

• E7018:
Known as a low hydrogen electrode and can be used with AC or DC. The
coating on the electrode has a low moisture content that reduces the
introduction of hydrogen into the weld. The electrode can produce welds of
x-ray quality with medium penetration.
(This electrode must be kept dry. If wet, it must be dried in a rod oven
before use.)

91
Effects of expansion and contraction

92
CONTROLLING DISTORTION

93
HEAT AFFECTED ZONE

94
95
 Binders
• AC arc welding used potassium silicate binders.
• DC arc welding used sodium silicate binders.

• Potassium has a lower ionization potential as compared

with sodium.
 IES 2007
The coating material of an arc welding electrode
contains which of the following?
1. Deoxidising agent
2. Arc stabilizing agent
3. Slag forming agent
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
 IES-1997
Assertion (A): The electrodes of ac arc welding are coated
with sodium silicate, whereas electrodes used for dc arc
welding are coated with potassium silicate binders.
Reason (R): Potassium has a lower ionization potential than
sodium.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
 IES-2002
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer:
List I (Ingredients) List II (Welding functions)
A. Silica 1. Arc stabilizer
B. Potassium oxalate 2. De-oxidizer
C. Ferro silicon 3. Fluxing agent
D. Cellulose 4. Gas forming material
Codes:A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 4 2 1 (b) 2 1 3 4
(c) 3 1 2 4 (d) 2 4 3 1
 Welding Flux
Available in three forms
• Granular
• Electrode wire coating
• Electrode core
 Low Hydrogen Electrode
• The basic coatings contain large amount of calcium
carbonate (limestone) and calcium fluoride
(fluorspar) and produce low hydrogen.
• But it can absorb moisture therefore coated low
hydrogen electrodes are backed before use to a
temperature of 200oC to 3000C and stored in an oven
at 110oC to 150oC
• Other types of electrode release large amount of
hydrogen, which can dissolve in the weld metal and
lead to embrittlement or cracking.
 IFS-2011
What is meant by low -hydrogen electrode ?
[2-marks]
 Welding Positions

Fig. The position of electrode for horizontal welding

Fig. Positioning of electrode for welding in vertically upward position

 Welding Current
• Welding current depends upon: the thickness of the
welded metal, type of joint, welding speed, position of
the weld, the thickness and type of the coating on the
electrode and its working length.
• Welding current, I = k. d, amperes; d is dia. (mm)
 Welding Voltage
• The arc voltage depends only upon the arc length

V = k 1 + k 2l Volts

Where l is the arc length in mm and k1 and k2 are

constants,
k1 = 10 to 12; and k2 = 2 to 3

The minimum Arc voltage is given by

Vmin = (20 + 0.04 l) Volt
 Arc Length
• For good welds, a short arc length is necessary, because:
1. Heat is concentrated.
2. More stable
3. More protective atmosphere.

Contd…
 A long arc results in
• Large heat loss into atmosphere.
• Unstable arc.
• Weld pool is not protected.
• Weld has low strength, less ductility, poor fusion and
excessive spatter.
Fig. Arc Power Vs Arc Length
 Arc length should be equal to the diameter of the electrode size

Bead width should be equal to three diameter of the electrode size

 GATE-2002, Conventional
The arc length-voltage characteristic of a DC arc is given by
the equation: V = 24 + 4L, where V is voltage in volts and L
is arc length in mm. The static volt-ampere characteristic of
the power source is approximated by a straight line with a
no load voltage of 80 V and a short circuit current of 600A.
Determine the optimum arc length for maximum power.
 GATE-2010 (PI)
During a steady gas metal arc welding with direct current
electrode positive polarity, the welding current, voltage
and weld speed are 150 A, 30 V and 6 m/min, respectively.
A metallic wire electrode of diameter 1.2 mm is being fed
at a constant rate of 12 m/min. The density, specific heat
and melting temperature of the wire electrode are 7000
kg/m3, 500 J/kgoC and 1530oC, respectively. Assume the
ambient temperature to be 30oC and neglect the latent
heat of melting. Further, consider that two-third of the
total electrical power is available for melting of the wire
electrode. The melting efficiency (in percentage) of the
wire electrode is
(a) 39.58 (b) 45.25 (c) 49.38 (d) 54.98
 GATE-2008
In arc welding of a butt joint, the welding speed is to be
selected such that highest cooling rate is achieved.
Melting efficiency and heat transfer efficiency are 0.5
and 0.7, respectively. The area of the weld cross section
is 5 mm2 and the unit energy required to melt the metal
is 10 J/mm3. If the welding power is 2 kW, the welding
speed in mm/s is closest to
(a) 4 (b) 14 (c) 24 (d) 34
 GATE-2006
In an arc welding process, the voltage and current are
25 V and 300 A respectively. The arc heat transfer
efficiency is 0.85 and welding speed is 8 mm/sec. The
net heat input (in J/mm) is
(a) 64
(b) 797
(c) 1103
(d) 79700
 GATE-2009 (PI)
Autogenous gas tungsten arc welding of a steel
plate is carried out with welding current of 500 A,
voltage of 20 V, and weld speed of 20 mm/sec.
Consider the heat transfer efficiency from the arc to
the weld pool as 90%. The heat input per unit length
(in KJ/mm) is
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.35 (c) 0.45 (d) 0.55
 Example
Calculate the melting efficiency in the case of
arc-welding of steel with a potential of 20 V and a
current of 200 A. The travel speed is 5 mm/s and
.the cross-sectional area of the joint is 20 mm2.
Heat required to melt steel may be taken as 10
J/mm3 and the heat transfer efficiency as 0.85.
Arc blow in DC arc welding

Contd…
• Arc blow occurs during the welding of magnetic materials
with DC.
• The effect of arc blow is maximum when welding corners
where magnetic field concentration is maximum.
• The effect is particularly noticeable when welding with
bare electrodes or when using currents below or above
• Again the problem of arc blow gets magnified when
welding highly magnetic materials such as Ni alloys,
because of the strong magnetic fields set up by these
metals.
• Cause: Unbalanced magnetic forces.
Contd…
 Effect of arc blow
• Low heat penetration.
• Excessive weld spatter.
• Pinch effect in welding is the result of electromagnetic
forces
• Weld spatter occurs due to
High welding current
Too small an electrode arc

Contd…
 The effects of arc blow can be minimized with D.C.
welding by
• Shortening the arc.
• Reduce current
• Reducing weld speed.
• Balance magnetic field by placing one ground lead at
each end of the work piece.
• Wrapping the electrode cable a few turns around the
work piece.
 IES-2001
Arc blow is more common in
(a) A.C. welding
(b) D.C. welding with straight polarity
(c) D.C. welding with bare electrodes
(d) A.C. welding with bare electrodes
 IES-2001
Pinch effect in welding is the result of
(a) Expansion of gases in the arc
(b) Electromagnetic forces
(c) Electric force
(d) Surface tension of the molten metal
 ISRO-2006
Too high welding current in arc welding would result in
(a) Excessive spatter, under cutting along edges, irregular
deposits, wasted electrodes
(b) Excessive piling up of weld metal, poor penetration,
wasted electrodes
(c) Too small bead, weak weld and wasted electrodes
(d) Excessive piling up of weld metal, overlapping without
penetration of edges, wasted electrodes
 METHODS OF ARC WELDING
CARBON ARC WELDING (CAW)
Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) is a welding process, in
which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between
an carbon electrode and the work piece. The arc heats
and melts the work pieces edges, forming a joint.
Carbon arc welding is the oldest welding process.
If required, filler rod may be used in Carbon Arc Welding.
End of the rod is held in the arc zone. The molten rod
material is supplied to the weld pool. Shields (neutral
gas, flux) may be used for weld pool protection
depending on type of welded metal.
 Carbon Arc welding
• Arc is produced between a carbon electrode and the
work.
• Shielding is not used.

• No pressure

• With or without filler metal

• May be used in "twin arc method", that is, between two

carbon (graphite) electrodes.
METHODS OF ARC WELDING
 Gas shields
• An inert gas is blown into the weld zone to drive away
other atmospheric gases.
• Gases are argon, helium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and a
mixture of the above gases.
• Argon ionizes easily requiring smaller arc voltages.It is
good for welding thin sheets.

Contd…
 METHODS OF ARC WELDING
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (Stick
welding, Manual metal arc welding)
• Shielded metal arc welding uses a metallic consumable
electrode of a proper composition for generating arc
between itself and the parent work piece. The molten
electrode metal fills the weld gap and joins the work
pieces.
The electrodes are coated with a shielding flux of a
suitable composition. The flux melts together with the
electrode metallic core, forming a gas and a slag,
shielding the arc and the weld pool. The flux cleans the
metal surface, supplies some alloying elements to the
weld, protects the molten metal from oxidation and
stabilizes the arc. The slag is removed after Solidification.
• This is the most popular welding process capable to
produce a great variety of welds.
METHODS OF ARC WELDING
 METHODS OF ARC WELDING
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
Submerged Arc Welding is a welding process, which
utilizes a bare consumable metallic electrode producing
an arc between itself and the work piece within a
granular shielding flux applied around the weld.
The arc heats and melts both the work pieces edges and
the electrode wire. The molten electrode material is
supplied to the surfaces of the welded pieces, fills the
weld pool and joins the work pieces.
Since the electrode is submerged into the flux, the arc is
invisible. The flux is partially melts and forms a slag
protecting the weld pool from oxidation and other
atmospheric contaminations.
METHODS OF ARC WELDING
 METHODS OF ARC WELDING
METAL INERT GAS WELDING (Gas
Metal Arc Welding)
• Metal Inert Gas Welding is a arc welding process, in
which the weld is shielded by an external gas (Argon,
helium, CO2, argon + Oxygen or other gas mixtures).
• Consumable electrode wire, having chemical
composition similar to that of the parent material, is
continuously fed from a spool to the arc zone. The arc
heats and melts both the work pieces edges and the
electrode wire. The fused electrode material is supplied
to the surfaces of the work pieces, fills the weld pool and
forms joint.

• Due to automatic feeding of the filling wire (electrode) the

process is referred to as a semi-automatic. The operator
controls only the torch positioning and speed
METHODS OF ARC WELDING
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) or MIG
• A consumable electrode in a gas shield.
• Arc is between workpiece and an automatically fed
bare-wire electrode.
• Argon, helium, and mixtures of the two can be used.
• Any metal can be welded but are used primarily with the
non-ferrous metals.
• When welding steel, some O2 or CO2 is usually added to
improve the arc stability and reduce weld spatter.

Contd…
• Fast and economical.
• A reverse-polarity dc arc is generally used because
of its deep penetration, spray transfer, and ability to
produce smooth welds with good profile.
Fig. MIG
 METHODS OF ARC WELDING
TUNGSTEN INERT GAS ARC WELDING (Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding)
• Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding is a welding process,
in which heat is generated by an electric arc struck
between a tungsten non-consumable electrode and the
work piece.
The weld pool is shielded by an inert gas (Argon, helium,
Nitrogen) protecting the molten metal from atmospheric
contamination.
• The heat produced by the arc melts the work pieces
edges and joins them. Filler rod may be used, if required.

• Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding produces a high quality

weld of most of metals. Flux is not used in the process.
• Helium, most expensive, has a better thermal
conductivity, is useful for thicker sheets, copper and
aluminium welding, higher deposition rate.
• The arc in carbon dioxide shielding gas is unstable, least
expensive, deoxidizers needed.
• It is a heavy gas and therefore covers the weld zone very
well.
METHODS OF ARC WELDING
 METHODS OF ARC WELDING
ELECTROSLAG WELDING
• Electroslag Welding is a welding process, in which the heat is
generated by an electric current passing between the
consumable electrode (filler metal) and the work piece through
a molten slag covering the weld surface.
Prior to welding the gap between the two work pieces is filled
with a welding flux. Electroslag Welding is initiated by an arc
between the electrode and the work piece (or starting plate).
Heat, generated by the arc, melts the fluxing powder and forms
molten slag. The slag, having low electric conductivity, is
maintained in liquid state due to heat produced by the electric
current.
• The slag reaches a temperature of about 3500°F (1930°C).
This temperature is sufficient for melting the consumable
electrode and work piece edges. Metal droplets fall to the
weld pool and join the work pieces.

• Electroslag Welding is used mainly for steels.

• https://youtu.be/Ce6IKDDk2u8
METHODS OF ARC WELDING
 METHODS OF ARC WELDING
PLASMA ARC WELDING
• Plasma Arc Welding is the welding process utilizing heat
generated by a constricted arc struck between a tungsten non-
consumable electrode and either the work piece (transferred
arc process) or water cooled constricting nozzle (non-
transferred arc process).
• Plasma is a gaseous mixture of positive ions, electrons and
neutral gas molecules.
• Transferred arc process produces plasma jet of high energy
density and may be used for high speed welding and cutting of
Ceramics, steels, Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Titanium
alloys, Nickel alloys.
• Non-transferred arc process produces plasma of relatively low
energy density. It is used for welding of various metals and for
plasma spraying (coating). Since the work piece in non-
transferred plasma arc welding is not a part of electric circuit,
the plasma arc torch may move from one work piece to other
without extinguishing the arc.
• https://youtu.be/CvDyJglWdtY
METHODS OF ARC WELDING
 RESISTANCE WELDING
• Resistance Welding is a welding process, in which
work pieces are welded due to a combination of a
pressure applied to them and a localized heat
generated by a high electric current flowing through
the contact area of the weld. Heat produced by the
current is sufficient for local melting of the work
piece at the contact point and formation of small
weld pool (”nugget”). The molten metal is then
solidifies under a pressure and joins the pieces
Resistance Welding (RW) is used for joining vehicle
body parts, fuel tanks, domestic radiators, pipes of
gas oil and water pipelines, wire ends, turbine
blades, railway tracks.
 RESISTANCE WELDING
AC electric current (up to 100 000 A) is supplied
through copper electrodes connected to the
secondary coil of a welding transformer.

The following metals may be welded by

Resistance Welding:

❑ Low carbon steels - the widest application of

Resistance Welding
❑ Aluminum alloys
❑ Medium carbon steels, high carbon steels and
Alloy steels (may be welded, but the weld is brittle)
 RESISTANCE WELDING

The most popular methods

of Resistance Welding are

• Spot Welding (RSW)

• Flash Welding (FW)
• Resistance Butt Welding (UW)
• Seam Welding (RSEW)
 METHODS OF RESISTANCE
WELDING
SPOT WELDING (RSW)
• Spot Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in
which two or more overlapped metal sheets are joined by
spot welds. The method uses pointed copper electrodes
providing passage of electric current. The electrodes also
transmit pressure required for formation of strong weld.
Diameter of the weld spot is in the range 1/8” - 1/2” (3 -
12 mm).Spot welding is widely used in automotive
industry for joining vehicle body parts.
 METHODS OF RESISTANCE
WELDING
FLASH WELDING (FW)
• Flash Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process,
in which ends of rods (tubes, sheets) are heated and
fused by an arc struck between them and then forged
(brought into a contact under a pressure) producing a
weld. The welded parts are held in electrode clamps, one
of which is stationary and the second is movable. Flash
Welding method permits fast (about 1 min.) joining of
large and complex parts. Welded part are often annealed
for improvement of toughness of the weld.
Steels, Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Magnesium
alloys, Copper alloys and Nickel alloys may be welded by
Flash Welding. Thick pipes, ends of band saws, frames,
aircraft landing gears are produced by Flash Welding.
 METHODS OF RESISTANCE
WELDING
RESISTANCE BUTT WELDING (UW)
• Resistance Butt Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW)
process, in which ends of wires or rods are held under a
pressure and heated by an electric current passing
through the contact area and producing a weld.
The process is similar to Flash Welding, however in Butt
Welding pressure and electric current are applied
simultaneously in contrast to Flash Welding where
electric current is followed by forging pressure
application.
Butt welding is used for welding small parts. The process
is highly productive and clean. In contrast to Flash
Welding, Butt Welding provides joining with no loss of the
welded materials.
• https://youtu.be/0j21LBq3OVs
 METHODS OF RESISTANCE
WELDING
SEAM WELDING (RSEW)
• Seam Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW)
process of continuous joining of overlapping sheets
by passing them between two rotating electrode
wheels. Heat generated by the electric current
flowing through the contact area and pressure
provided by the wheels are sufficient to produce a
leak-tight weld. Seam Welding is high speed and
clean process, which is used when continuous tight
weld is required (fuel tanks, drums, domestic
radiators).
https://youtu.be/8RIQ0n1m8VE
 ADVANTAGES OF
RESISTANCE WELDING
❑ High welding rates;
❑ Low fumes;
❑ Cost effectiveness;
❑ Easy automation;
❑ No filler materials are required;
❑ Low distortions.
• https://youtu.be/0j21LBq3OVs
 DISADVANTAGES OF
RESISTANCE WELDING
❑ High equipment cost;
❑ Low strength of discontinuous welds;
❑ Thickness of welded sheets is limited - up to
1/4” (6 mm);
 IES 2010
Assertion (A): Straight polarity is always recommended
for Carbon-electrode welding.
Reason (R): Carbon arc is stable in straight polarity.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
• https://youtu.be/VrBJ5WOzXkY
 IES 2007
In MIG welding, the metal is transferred into the form
of which one of the following?
(a) A fine spray of metal
(b) Molten drops
(c) Weld pool
(d) Molecules
 IES-1997
Consider the following statements:
MIG welding process uses
1. Consumable electrode 2.non-consumable electrode
3. D.C. power supply 4. A.C. power supply
Of these statements
(a) 2 and 4 are correct
(b) 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 1 and 4 are correct
(d) 1 and 3 are correct
 IES 2010
Assertion (A): Inert gas and bare electrode instead of
flux coated electrode is used in the case of automatic TIG
and MIG welding processes.
Reason (R): Better protection is provided by a cloud of
inert gas than the cover created by the flux.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
 IES - 2012
Statement (I): DC with reverse polarity is used in MIG
welding
Statement (II):Use of DC with reverse polarity enables
deeper penetration and a clean Surface
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of
Statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually
true but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of
Statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true
 Submerged Arc welding (SAW)
• A thick layer of granular flux is deposited just ahead of a
bare wire consumable electrode, and an arc is
maintained beneath the blanket of flux with only a few
small flames being visible.
• A portion of the flux melts. Molten flux and flux provides
thermal insulation, slows cooling rate and produce soft,
ductile welds.

Contd…
• Most suitable for flat butt or fillet welds in low carbon
steel (< 0.3% carbon).
• The process is not recommended for high-carbon steels,
tool steels, aluminum, magnesium, titanium, lead, or
zinc.
• https://youtu.be/H6QGLGJ-BOE
Characteristic of submerged arc welding
• High speeds,
• High deposition rates,

• Deep penetration,

• High cleanliness (due to the flux action).

 Advantages
• Wire electrodes are inexpensive.
• No weld spatter.

• Nearly 100% deposition efficiency.

• Lesser electrode consumption.

 Limitations
• Extensive flux handling,
• Contamination of the flux by moisture.

• Large-grain-size structures.

• Welding is restricted to the horizontal position.

• Chemical control is important

 IES 2011
The welding process in which bare wire is used as
electrode, granular flux is used and the process is
characterized by its high speed welding, is known as:
(a) Shielded arc welding
(b) Plasma arc welding
(c) Submerged arc welding
(d) Gas metal arc welding
 IES-2006
In which of the following welding processes, flux is
used in the form of granules?
(a) AC arc welding
(b) Submerged arc welding
(c) Argon arc welding
(d) DC arc welding
 IES-2005
Which of the following are the major characteristics of
submerged arc welding?
1. High welding speeds.
2. High deposition rates.
3. Low penetration.
4. Low cleanliness.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2
 IES-2008
Assertion (A): Submerged arc welding is not recommended
for high carbon steels, tool steels, aluminium, magnesium
etc.
Reason (R): This is because of unavailability of suitable
fluxes, reactivity at high temperatures and low sublimation
temperatures.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of
A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct
explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
 GATE-1999
For butt -welding 40 mm thick steel plates, when the
expected quantity of such jobs is 5000 per month over a
period of 10 year, choose the best suitable welding
process out of the following available alternatives.
(a) Submerged arc welding
(b) Oxy-acetylene welding
(c) Electron beam welding
(d) MIG welding
 Atomic Hydrogen welding (AHW)
• An a.c. arc is formed between two tungsten electrodes
along which streams of hydrogen are fed to the welding
zone. The molecules of hydrogen are dissociated by the
high heat of the arc in the gap between the electrodes.
The formation of atomic hydrogen proceeds with the
absorption of heat:
H2 = 2H - 421.2 k J / mol
• This atomic hydrogen recombines to form molecular
hydrogen outside the arc, particularly on the relatively
cold surface of the work being welded, releasing the heat
gained previously:
2H = + 421.2 k J / mol.
Contd…
• Temperature of about 3700oC.
• Hydrogen acts as shielding also.

• Used for very thin sheets or small diameter wires.

• Lower thermal efficiency than Arc welding.

• Ceramics may be arc welded.

• AC used.
 IES-2005
In atomic hydrogen welding, hydrogen acts as
(a) A heating agent
(b) One of the gases to generate the flame
(c) An effective shielding gas protecting the weld
(d) A lubricant to increase the flow characteristics of
weld metal
 Weldability and defects in
weldments
Subjects of Interest
• Reviews of weld design and
weldability
• Residual stresses and weld
distortion
• Weld metal inhomogeneities
•micro/macro segregations
•Banding
•Inclusion
•Gas porosity
• Weld cracking
•Solidification cracking
•Liquation cracking
•Hydrogen cracking
 Weld design – joint type
Welds are made at the junction of all the
pieces that make up the weldment
(assembled part).
A: Butt joint •A joint between two members aligned
approximately in the same plane.

B: Corner joint •A joint between two members located

approximately at right angles to each other in the
form of an L.

C: T-joint •A joint between two members located

approximately at right angles to each other in a
form of a T.

D: Lap joint •A joint between two overlapping

members located in parallel.

D: Edge joint •A joint between the edges of two or more parallel

or nearly parallel members.

Five basic joint types

 Weld design – weld type
•There are eight weld
types:
Fillet weld -On the joint

Groove weld -In the joint

Back weld -Made on the backside of the

joint

Slot weld -Used with prepared holes

-Weld at the interface of the

Spot weld
members

Seam weld -Without prepared holes

Stud weld
-Welding a metal stud

Surface weld -Weld beads deposited on the

base metal or broken surface
 Weld design – Fillet weld

Definitions of different parts in fillet weld

Fillet weld
 Weld design – Groove weld
•There are seven basic groove
welds: square, V, bevel, U, J,
flare V and flare bevel.

Groove weld
Types of groove welds
Suranaree University of
Technology
 Weld approval

For quality control Welding

procedure sheet is approved and
distributed to personnel
concerned with its
implementation.
Details
 Weldability
The capability of a material to be welded under the
Definition
imposed fabrication conditions into a specific, suitably
designed structure and to perform satisfactorily in the
intended service.
•It has been stated that all metals are weldable but
some are more difficult than another.
•Steel is readily weldable (in many ways) than
aluminium and copper.
•Copper is not easily welded due to its high thermal
conductivity which makes it difficult to raise the
parent metal to its melting point. require
preheating ~300- 400oC.
www.twi.co.uk •Weldability depends on various factors such as,
nature of metals, weld designs, welding techniques,
skills, etc.
•Some aluminium based die casting alloys give weld
pool too large to control, and aluminium welds
normally have oxide inclusions and porosity.
 Weldability
Steels •Weldability of steels is inversely proportional to its
hardenability,
due to martensite formation during heat treatment
Carbon content Hardenability Weldability

•There is a trade-off between materials strength and weldability.

•Austenitic stainless steels tend to be the most weldable but suffer from
distortion due to high thermal expansion. Cracking and reduced corrosion
resistance.
•Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are not easily welded, often to be
preheated and use special electrodes.
•Ferritic steels is susceptible to hot cracking if the ferrite amount is not
controlled.
 Weldability
Aluminium and its alloys •Weldability of aluminium
depends on chemical
composition of the alloy.
•Aluminium alloys are susceptible to hot cracking, oxide
inclusions, dross, porosity (hydrogen).
•Most of wrought series, 1xxx, 3xxx, 5xxx, 6xxx, and medium
strength 7xxx can be fusion welded by TIG, MIG while 2xxx
and high strength 7xxx are not readily welded due to liquation
and solidification cracking.

Cracks

Porosity

www.mig-welding.co.u
Cracks inkaluminium welds
Porosity observed in aluminium welded specimen
after fractured.
 Weldability
Copper and copper alloys •Weldability of copper depends on
chemical composition of the alloy.
•High thermal conductivity required
Copper preheating to counteract heat sink effect.
•Can be TIG or MIG welded.
•Volatilization (toxic) of zinc is the main problem,
Brasses reducing weldability.
•Low zinc content brass can be TIG or MIG welded.
•Most are weldable, except gun metal or phosphor
bronzes.
Bronzes
•Require careful cleaning and deoxidization to avoid
porosity.
•Silicon improves weldability due to its deoxidizing and fluxing actions.
•Oxygen causes porosity and reduce strength of welds.
•Tin increases hot-cracked susceptibility during welding.
•Precipitation hardened alloys should be welded in the annealed condition, and
then precipitation hardening treatment.
 Weldability
•Weldability of titanium depends
Titanium alloys on chemical composition of
the alloy.
•Titanium alloys with low amounts of alloying elements are more readily welded.
For example: CP titanium alloys, α, α+β titanium alloys.
•Highly stabilise to segregat
• special precaution.
•ttleness.
•Welding processes: TIG, MIG, PAW, LBW, EBW, FW, RW.
•Shielding gases: Ar, He or the mixture of the two (avoid contact with oxygen).
•Filler metal grades should match the alloys being welded, normally with lower
yield strength to retain ductility. (used unalloyed with lower β content to avoid
martensite transformation and with minimised O, N, H contents).
•Thoriated tungsten electrodes (EWTh-1 or EWTh-2) are used for TIG welding.
 Weldability
•Weldability of titanium depends
Magnesium alloys
on chemical composition of
the alloy.
•Welding processes: Arc welding, RW as well as oxyacetylene
welding, brazing. TIG and MIG are recommended.
•Strength of the weld joint is lowered in the base metal, in the
work hardened condition, due to recrystallisation and grain
growth in the HAZ.
•Similar to welding of aluminium, magnesium has low melting
point, high thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, oxide
surface coating.
•In Mg-Al-Zn alloys (AZxx), Al >10% improves weldability by
refining grain structure, while Zn > 1% increases hot shortness.
•Filler metals are selected by the composition of the base
metals.
 Defects in weldments
•It is unusual for the weldments to be completely sound.
•They normally contain small defects such as porosity, slag, oxide
inclusions, lack of fusion, undercut, crack, distortion, etc.

Understand
the cause

Solve/prevent
the problem

•Furthermore, different metals have

different weldability so we need to
understand the nature of the metal to be
welded.
Cross sections of welds containing typical defects
 Defects in weldments
Incomplete fusion

Root and joint penetrations

Groove welds and

various defects
 Residual stresses in weldment
Residual stresses (internal
stresses) are stresses that would
exist in a body after removing all
external loads (normally due to non
uniform temperature change during
welding in this case).
•Weld metal and adjacent base
metal are restrained by the
areas further away from the
weld metal due to expansion
and contraction.
Weld metal and Residual
adjacent base tensile
metal stresses
Areas further Residual
away from compressiv
weld metal e stresses
Thermally induced residual stresses in weld.
 Changes in temperature and stresses during welding

•Zero temperature and stress

distribution at A-A.
•Small compressive in the
weld zone and small tensile in
the base metal at B-B during
melting of the weld metal.
•Developing of tensile stress in
the weld centre and
compressive in the area further
away at C-C during cooling.
•Further contraction of the weld
metal producing higher tensile
stress in the weld centre and
compressive in the base metal
at D-D.
Changes in temperature and stresses during welding
 Typical residual stress distribution in weldment
(longitudinal)
•Residual stress distribution across the weld shows tensile in the
weld metal and the adjacent base metal and then goes
compressive in the area further away from the weld metal.
•Residual tensile stresses are not
desirable, which can cause problems
such as hydrogen induced cracking
and stress corrosion cracking.
Tensio
Remedies n zone

•Post weld heat treatment is often

used to reduce residual stresses.
•Other techniques : preheating,
peening, vibration have also
been used for stress relief.
Typical residual stress (longitudinal)
distribution in weldment
 Effect of temperature and time on
stress relief of steel welds

Stress relief % Relief of initial

temperature stress
Typical thermal treatments for stress relieving
weldments
 Distortion
•Weld distortion is due to solidification shrinkage and thermal
contraction of the weld metal during welding.

Distortion in welded structure

 Angular distortion
Thin
plates
Single-pass-single-V groove butt joint Inside fillet
corner joint

Thick
plates Fabricated beam
Multiple-pass-single-V groove butt joint
•Upward angular distortion
usually occurs when the weld
is made from the top of the
workpiece alone.
•The weld tends to be wider at
the top than the bottom,
causing more solidification
shrinkage and thermal
contraction. Distortion in fillet welding of T joint
Remedies for angular distortion
There are several techniques used to
reduce angular distortion.

• Reducing volume of weld metal

• Using double-V joint and alternate welding
• Placing welds around neutral axis
• Controlling weld distortion

Reducing volume of weld metal and

Placing weld around neutral axis by using single-pass deep
penetration welding.
 Remedies for angular distortion
•Balancing the angular weld
distortion on either side of the
double V joint.
(a) Symmetrical
double V (b) Asymmetrical
double V

(c) Single U

•Double V-joints balance the shrinkage

Using double-V joint and weld
alternately on either side of joint.
Suranaree University of
Technology
almost same amount of contraction on
each side (a).
•Asymetrical double V : The first weld always
produces more angular distortion the
second side is larger too pull back the
distortion when the first weld is made (b).
•A single UTapany
joint gives a uniform weld with
Sep-Dec 2007
Udomphol
through the section (c).
 Remedies for angular distortion
Methods for controlling weld distortion:
• Presetting: by compensating the amount of distortion to occur in
welding.
• Elastic prespringing can reduce angular changes after restraint is
removed.
• Preheating and post weld treatment

(a) Preseting

(b) Springing (c) Perheating

 Longitudinal distortion
•Heating and cooling cycles along the joint during welding
build up a cumulative effect of longitudinal bowing.
Remedies
•Welding short lengths on a planned or
random distribution are used to controlled
this problem.
•Mechanical methods : straightening
press, jacks, clamps
•Thermal methods : local heating to relieve
stresses (using torches) but cannot be
used for highly conductive metal such as
Al and Cu.
Sequences for
welding short
lengths of a joint to
Longitudinal bowing of
reduce longitudinal
distortion in a butt joint bowing
 Longitudinal distortion
•Angular distortion and longitudinal bowing can also be
observed in joints made with fillet welds such as fillet-welded
T joint.
Remedies
•Back-step technique is also used.
Each small increment will have its
own shrinkage pattern which then
becomes insignificant to the whole
pattern of weldment. (But time
consuming)
•Using the smallest possible weld
size.

Longitudinal bowing in a fillet-

welded T joint

Back step technique

Suranaree University of Tapany Sep-Dec
Technology Udomphol 2007
Weld metal chemical
inhomogeneities

• Micro segregation
• Macro segregation
• Banding
• Inclusions and gas porosity.
 Micro segregation

•Lack of solid state diffusion might cause micro segregation in

weldments.

EX: Solid state diffusion in a

more closely packed FCC
structure (austenite) is more
difficult than a more open
BCC structure (ferrite).

Microsegregation across columnar

dendrite near quenched weld pool in a
martensitic stainless steel.
Banding

•Banding occurs due to fluctuations in welding speed and

power input.

Banding and rippling near centreline of as-welded top surface of

a 304 stainless steel YAG laser welded.
 Inclusions and gas porosity
•Gas-metal and slag-metal reactions produce slag inclusion and gas
porosity.
•Incomplete slag removal in multipass welding can cause slag
inclusions trapped within the weld.

Slag
inclusion

Gas porosity and inclusions in multipass welding.

Radiograph of a weld showing

a large slag inclusion.
 Macro segregation
•Weld pool macro segregation occur by lack of weld pool mixing (by
convection) especially in welding of dissimilar metals, or some
special types of rapidly solidified power metallurgy alloys.
•if the weld pool mixing is incomplete in single pass welding
(greater extent) and even in multipass welding.

Ex: macro segregation in

some powder metallurgy
alloys
•Switching from AC to DCEN
making the weld pool mixed
better.

Powder metallurgy Al-10Fe-5Ce GTA

welded with Al-5Si filler metal (a) AC,
(b) DCEN
 Remedies for macro segregation
•Applying magnetic weld pool stirring to give a better mixing
in the weld pool.
•For GTAW, using DCEN for a deeper weld penetration
and mixing.
•Using proper filler metals.
•Give enough time for the weld pool to be melt. Ex: EBW
with a high welding speed might not give enough time for
weld pool mixing in welding of dissimilar metals.

Effect of weld pool stirring

 Weld
cracking
There are various types of weld
cracking

• Solidification cracking (hot cracking)

• Hydrogen cracking (cold cracking)
• Liquation cracking
• Lamellar Tearing
 Solidification cracking
•Similar to casting, solidification cracking can also occur in welding.
•It happens at the terminal stage of solidification due to
contraction of solidifying metal and thermal contraction.
(Intergranular crack)
•Solidification cracking is intensified if the base metal is attached
on to non moving parts (building up tensile stresses).
•The less ductile the weld metal is, the more likely solidification
cracking to occur.

Solidification crack
(intergranular)

Solidification crack

Weld

Base metal
Solidification cracking in a GMAW Solidification cracking in an autogenous weld of
of 6061 aluminium 7075 aluminium at high magnification.
 Factors affecting solidification cracking
Grain structure Contraction stresses
•Coarse columnar grains •Contraction stresses can be due to
are more susceptible to thermal contraction, solidification
solidification cracking than shrinkage.
equiaxed grains. Ex: Austenitic stainless steels (high
Centreline thermal expansion) susceptible to
cracking solidification cracking.
Restraining
•The weldment is restrained after
the first weld, causing solidification
cracking in the second weld in T
joints.
Solidification
Centreline cracking in a coarse-grained cracking
stainless steel weld

Solidification
cracking in steel weld Second weld First weld
 Remedies for solidification cracking
•Controlling composition of the metal to be welded.
•Using filler metal with proper composition.
•Controlling Mn and S content in carbon and low alloy steels.
•Controlling solidification structure: grain refining, arc oscillation, arc pulsation, etc.
•Controlling weld geometry: concave fillet weld suffers higher tensile stress on the
face than the convex fillet weld, deep weld is more susceptible to solidification
cracking.
 Hydrogen cracking (Cold cracking)

Hydrogen cracking occurs when

•Hydrogen in the weld metal sources: moisture from metal surface, tools,
atmosphere, flux,
•High stresses
•Susceptible microstructure : martensite (HAZ of carbon steels due to lower
diffusion coefficient of hydrogen in austenite than in ferrite), combination of
hydrogen + martensite promotes hydrogen cracking.
•Relatively low temperature. (-100-200oC) cold cracking or delayed cracking.

Hydrogen
cracking in a fillet
weld of 1040
Underbeaded crack in a low-alloy steel.
steel HAZ.
 Remedies for hydrogen cracking

•Controlling welding parameters: proper preheat and

interpass temperature
•Postweld treatment: stress relief.
•Use proper welding processes and Materials
(consumables), low strength filler metals.
Liquation cracking

Segregation in PMZ liquation cracking

 Remedies for liquation cracking

•Use proper filler metal.

•Reducing the heat input to lower the size of PMZ.
•Reducing the degree of restraint, lowering the level of tensile stresses.
•Controlling impurities, suppressing micro segregation at grain boundaries.
•Smaller grain size is better (less concentration of impurities on grain boundaries.
Also control grain orientation.
Lamellar Tearing
•Lamellar tearing occurs when tensile stresses are acting
on fibred structure (stringers of nonmetallic materials),
causing decohesion of nonmetallic inclusions.

Lamellar tearing in steel Lamellar tearing near a C-Mn steel weld

Remedies

•Avoid tensile stresses acting on transverse direction of

the sample.
Weld defects
Weld defects
Weld defects
Weld defects
Weld defects
Weld defects
Weld defects
 References
•edition, 1995,
Edward Arnold,
ISBN 0 340 61399
8.
•Cary, H.B., Modern welding technology, 4th edition, 1998,
Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-241803-7.
•http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldability
•www.staff.ncl.ac.uk
•http://www.key-to-metals.com