Overview of Re-entry vehicles and Manned missions-Shuttle components -Orbiter Vehicle

(OV), solid rocket boosters (SRBs)-expendable external tank (ET) –Space shuttle disasters.
Saturn V – Apollo 11 - 1969
History of Space Shuttle
• Near the end of the Apollo space program, NASA officials were looking at the future of the
American space program.
• At that time, the rockets used to place astronauts and equipment in outer space were one-
shot disposable rockets.
• What they needed was a reliable, but less expensive, rocket, perhaps one that was
reusable.
• The idea of a reusable "space shuttle" that could launch like a rocket but deliver and land
like an airplane was appealing and would be a great technical achievement.
• In 1972, President Nixon announced that NASA would develop a reusable space shuttle or
space transportation system (STS).
• NASA decided that the shuttle would consist of an orbiter attached to solid rocket boosters
and an external fuel tank because this design was considered safer and more cost effective.
• NASA awarded the prime contract to Rockwell International.
 Space Shuttle Enterprise
Space Shuttle - Enterprise (Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-101)

• First orbiter of the Space Shuttle system.

• Rolled out on September 17, 1976.
• Built for NASA as part of the Space Shuttle program to perform
atmospheric test flights after being launched from a modified
Boeing 747.
• It was constructed without engines or a functional heat
shield, and was therefore not capable of spaceflight.
 Space Shuttle – An Overview
The Space Shuttle is the world's first reusable spacecraft, and the
first spacecraft in history that can carry large satellites both to
and from orbit. The Shuttle launches like a rocket, maneuvers in
Earth orbit like a spacecraft and lands like an airplane.

• Columbia – 1979, Kennedy Space Center, Fla (2003)

• Challenger – 1982, Kennedy Space Center, Fla (1986)
• Discovery - 1983
• Atlantis - 1985
• Endeavour - replacement for Challenger (1991).
Major components:
• Orbiter which houses the
crew;
• Large External Tank that
holds fuel for the main
engines
• Two Solid Rocket Boosters
which provide most of the
• All of the components are
reused except for the
external fuel tank, which
burns up in the atmosphere
after each launch.
Orthographic views
of space shuttle
SPACE SHUTTLE
A typical shuttle mission
A typical shuttle mission
• A typical shuttle mission lasts seven to eight days, but can extend to as much as 14 days
depending upon the objectives of the mission.
• Have to lift the 2.05 million kg shuttle from the pad to orbit 185 to 643 km above the Earth.
• SRBs provide most of the main force or thrust (71 percent) needed to lift the space shuttle off the
launch pad.
• Orbiter has three main engines located in the aft (back) fuselage (body of the spacecraft). Each
engine is 4.3 m long, 2.3 m in diameter at its widest point (the nozzle) and weighs about 3039 kg.
The main engines provide the remainder of the thrust (29 percent) to lift the shuttle off the pad
and into orbit.
• Engines burn liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, which are stored in the external fuel tank (ET), at
a ratio of 6:1
• Engines are mounted on gimbals (round bearings) that control the direction of the exhaust, which
controls the forward direction of the rocket.
 Contd….
• ET is 48 m long and has a diameter of 8.4 m.
• When empty, the ET weighs 35,425 kg. It holds about 719,000 kg of propellant with a
total volume of about 2 million litres.
• ET is made of aluminium and aluminium composite materials.
• It has two separate tanks inside, the forward tank for oxygen and the aft tank for
hydrogen, separated by an intertank region.
• Each tank has baffles to dampen the motion of fluid inside.
• Fluid flows from each tank through 43 cm diameter feed line out of the ET through an
umbilical line into the shuttle's main engines.
• Through these lines, oxygen can flow at a maximum rate of 66,600 litres/min and
hydrogen can flow at a maximum rate of 179,000 litres/min.
• Two orbital manoeuvring systems' (OMS) engines are located in pods on the aft section
of the orbiter, one on either side of the tail.
Contd….
 Contd….

• These engines are used to place the shuttle into final orbit, to change the shuttle's position
from one orbit to another, and to slow the shuttle down for re-entry.
• OMS engines burn monomethyl hydrazine fuel and nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer.
Interestingly, when these two substances come in contact, they ignite and burn
automatically (i.e., no spark required) in the absence of oxygen.
• The fuel and oxidizer are kept in separate tanks, each pressurized by helium. The helium is
used to push the fluids through the fuel lines (i.e., no mechanical pump required).
• Each OMS engine can produce 26,400 N of thrust. The OMS engines together can accelerate
the shuttle 0.6 m/s2.
• This acceleration can change the shuttle's velocity by as much as 305 m/s. To place into orbit
or to de-orbit takes about 31-153 m/s change in velocity.
Contd….
Contd….
 Contd….
• The longest the Shuttle has stayed in orbit on any
single mission is 17.5 days on mission STS-80 in
November 1996.
• The smallest crew ever to fly on the Shuttle
numbered two people on the first few missions.
• The largest crew numbered eight people.
Normally, crews may range in size from five to
seven people.
• Since 1981, it has boosted more than 1.36 million
kilograms of cargo into orbit.
• More than 600 crew members have flown on its
missions.
Orbiter Vehicle
 • “The cockpit, living quarters and experiment
Orbiter Vehicle operator's station are located in the forward
fuselage of the orbiter vehicle.
• Payloads are carried in the mid-fuselage payload
bay, and the orbiter's main engines and
manoeuvring thrusters are located in the aft
fuselage”.
 Contd….

• The Orbiter is both the brains and heart of the Space

Transportation System.
• About the same size and weight as a DC-9 aircraft,
the Orbiter contains the pressurized crew
compartment (which can normally carry up to
seven crew members), the huge cargo bay, and the
three main engines mounted on its aft end.

https://www.nasa.gov/returntoflight/system/system_Orbiter.html
Flight Deck

• The flight deck is designed in the usual pilot/copilot arrangement,

which permits the vehicle to be piloted from either seat and permits
one-man emergency return.
• Each seat has manual flight controls, including rotation and
translation hand controllers, rudder pedals and speed-brake
controllers. The flight deck seats four. The on-orbit displays and
controls are at the aft end of the flight deck/crew compartment.
• The displays and controls are for operating the orbiter, and handling
the payloads. More than 2,020 separate displays and controls are
located on the flight deck.
• Six pressure windshields, two overhead windows and two rear- STS-88 mission commander
viewing payload bay windows are located in the upper flight deck of and pilot in the flight deck of
the crew module, and a window is located in the crew entrance/exit the Endeavour
hatch located in the midsection, or deck, of the crew module.
Middeck

• The middeck contains provisions and stowage facilities for four

crew sleep stations.
• Stowage for the lithium hydroxide canisters and other gear, the
waste management system, the personal hygiene station and
the work/dining table is also provided in the middeck.
• The nominal maximum crew size is seven.
• The middeck can be reconfigured by adding three rescue seats
in place of the modular stowage and sleeping provisions.
• The seating capacity will then accommodate the rescue flight
crew of three and a maximum rescued crew of seven.

Astronaut Michael Foale floats in

the middeck performing mission
duties.
Solid Rocket Boosters
• The Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) operate in parallel
with the main engines for the first two minutes of flight
to provide the additional thrust needed for the Orbiter to
escape the gravitational pull of the Earth. At an altitude
of approximately 45 km (24 nautical miles), the
boosters separate from the orbiter/external tank,
descend on parachutes, and land in the Atlantic Ocean.
• They are recovered by ships, returned to land, and
refurbished for reuse. The boosters also assist in guiding the
entire vehicle during initial ascent. Thrust of both boosters is
equal to 5,300,000 lbs (2404040 kg)
• In addition to the solid rocket motor, the booster contains the structural, thrust vector control,
separation, recovery, and electrical and instrumentation subsystems.
• The solid rocket motor is the largest solid propellant motor ever developed for space flight and
the first built to be used on a manned craft.
• The huge motor is composed of a segmented motor case loaded with solid propellants, an
ignition system, a movable nozzle and the necessary instrumentation and integration hardware.
• Each solid rocket motor contains more than 450,000 kg of propellant. The propellant is mixed in
600 gallon bowls located in three different mixer buildings. The propellant is then taken to
special casting buildings and poured into the casting segments.
• Cured propellant looks and feels like a hard rubber typewriter eraser. The combined polymer and
its curing agent is a synthetic rubber.
• Flexibility of the propellant is controlled by the ratio of binder to curing agent and the solid
ingredients, namely oxidizer and aluminum.
• The solid fuel is actually powdered aluminum -- mixed with oxygen provided by a chemical
called ammonium perchlorate.
SRB Stats

Thrust at lift-off:
2,650,000 pounds
Propellant Properties:
16% Atomized aluminum powder (fuel)
69.8% Ammonium perchlorate (oxidizer)
.2% Iron oxide powder (catalyst )
12% Polybutadiene acrylic acid acrylonite (binder)
2% Epoxy curing agent
Weight
Empty: 193,000 pounds
Propellant:
1,107,000 pounds
Gross: 1,300,000 pounds
 First solid fuel motors to be used for primary propulsion on a vehicle
used for human spaceflight and provided the majority of the Space
Shuttle’s thrust during the first two minutes of flight.
 Most powerful solid rocket motors ever flown.
 Each provided a maximum of 13,800kN thrust
 With the combined mass of 11,80,000kg, comprised over half the mass
of shuttle stack at liftoff.
 Out of 270 SRBs launched over the shuttle program, all but 4 were
recovered- those from STS-4(due to parachute malfunction) and STS-
51-L(Challenger disaster).
 5000 parts were refurbished for reuse.
 Recovery also allowed post-flight examination of the boosters,
identification of anomalies, and incremental design improvements.
 4 hold-down posts that fit into support posts on the mobile launcher
platform.
 Held the SRB and launcher platform posts together.
 Each bolt has a nut at each end, top one being a frangible nut.
 The top nut has NASA standard detonators(NSD),which were ignited at
solid rocket motor ignition commands
 Due to tension in the bolts, they go downward and are decelerated by
the sand.
 Consist of orbiter-supplied main DC bus power to each SRB via SRB
buses labelled A,B,C.
 The orbiter main DC bus C supplied backup power to SRB buses A,B
and orbiter bus B supplied backup power to SRB bus C.
 All SRB buses remain powered.
 The nominal operating voltage was 28±4 volts DC
 There are 2 self contained, independent HPUs on each SRB.
 Components in HPU are:
 auxiliary power unit
 Fuel supply module
 Hydraulic pump
 Hydraulic reservoir
 Hydraulic fluid
 Contd.,
 APU is fueled by hydrazine and generated
mechanical shaft power to drive a hydraulic pump
that produced hydraulic pressure for the SRB
hydraulic system.
 Located on the aft end of each SRB between the
SRB nozzle and aft skirt
 Hydraulic system connected to rock and tilt actuators
 Each fuel supply module contain10kg of hydrazine.
 Fuel tank was pressurized with gaseous nitrogen at
2.8MPa,which provided the force to expel the fuel
from the tank to the fuel distribution line.
 SRB has 2 gimbal servoactuators, to move the nozzle
up, down, side to side.
 This provided thrust vectoring to help the vehicle in
all the axes.
 The ascent thrust controlled the thrust of three shuttle
main engines and 2 SRB nozzles for shuttle attitude.
 Commands from guidance system were transmitted
to ATVC(Ascent Thrust Vector Control) drivers.
 Servoactuator consists of servovalves which receives
signals from drivers.
 SRB contains 3 RGA containing one pitch and one
yaw gyro.
 Provide angular rates about pitch and yaw axes to the
orbiter computers, guidance and navigation.
 This occurs during first stage ascent flight until SRB
separation.
 The RGA’s are designed for 20 missions.
 The propellant mixture consists of:
- Ammonium Perchlorate (Oxidizer, 69.6%)
- Aluminium (Fuel, 16%)
- Iron Oxide (Catalyst, 0.4%)
- PBAN(Polybutadiene acrylonitrile)(Binder, also fuel 12.04%)
- Epoxy curing agent(1.96%)
 Aluminium is used as main fuel as it has specific energy density of about
31.0MJ/Kg
 Had 11 point star shaped perforation in forward motor segment and double
truncated cone perforation in each aft segment for easy and high thrust
 SRB is ignited only when a manual lock pin has been
removed during prelaunch activities.
 The solid rocket motor ignition commands are issued
when the Space Shuttle Main Engines are at or above
90% rated thrust.
 Commands sent by orbiter computers
 The hold down post relieve the asymmetric vehicle dynamic loads
caused by SSME ignition and thrust buildup.
 Without the bolts, the SSME will violently tip the flight stack over onto
the external tank.
 Prior to lift of the vehicle stack for lift off, the SRBs must
simultaneously ignite and pressurise their combustion chambers and
exhaust nozzles to produce a thrust derived, the net counter moment
exactly equal to the SSMEs rotating moment.
 Gimbal commands help in orientation.
 Provides for destruction of rocket or part of it with on-board explosives
by remote command if out of control in order to limit the danger of
crashing.
 Activated only once-during the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.
 Two RSS in each SRB capable of receiving messages from ground
station
 SRBs jettisoned after 2 minutes.
 Once back into the denser atmosphere, slowed by parachute system to
prevent damage.
 Command sent from the orbiter to the SRB before separation.
 A second command arms the 3 nose-cap thrusters-for deploying the
pilot and drogue parachute; the frustrum ring detonator- for main
parachute deployment; and the main parachute disconnect ordinance.
 EXTERNAL TANK
IN SPACE SHUTTLE
 INTRODUCTION
The Space Shuttle external tank (ET)

was the component of the Space

Shuttle launch vehicle that contained
the liquid hydrogen fuel and liquid
oxygen oxidizer. During lift-off and ascent it
supplied the fuel and oxidizer under
pressure to the three Space Shuttle Main
Engines (SSME) in the orbiter.
 Unlike the Solid Rocket Boosters,
external tanks were not re-used.

The ET was the largest element of the

space shuttle, and when loaded, it was
also the heaviest. It consisted of three
major components:

• the forward liquid oxygen (LOX) tank

• an unpressurized intertank that contains

most of the electrical components

• the aft liquid hydrogen (LH2) tank; this

was the largest part, but it was relatively
light, due to liquid hydrogen's very low
density.
The ET from STS-115 after separation from the
orbiter.
The scorch mark near the front end of the tank
is from the SRB separation motors.
The External Tank was painted From STS-3 on, it was left unpainted.
white for the first two Space
Shuttle launches.
 VERSIONS
STANDARD WEIGHT TANK
Fabricated from 2219, a high-strength aluminium-
copper alloy used for many aerospace applications.
The first two, used for STS-1 and STS-2, were painted
white to protect the tanks from ultraviolet light during
the extended time that the shuttle spends on the
launch pad prior to launch. Because this did not turn
out to be a problem, Lockheed Martin, reduced weight
by leaving the rust-colored spray-on insulation
unpainted beginning with STS-3, saving approximately
272 kg .
 LIGHT WEIGHT TANK
• Beginning with the STS-6 mission, a
lightweight ET , was introduced. This
tank was used for the majority of the
Shuttle flights, and was last used on the
ill-fated Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
• The weight reduction from the SWT
was accomplished by eliminating
portions of stringers using fewer
stiffener rings and by modifying major
frames in the hydrogen tank. Also,
significant portions of the tank
were milled differently so as to reduce
thickness by using a stronger, yet lighter
and less expensive titanium alloy.
 SUPER LIGHT WEIGHT TANK
• The Super Lightweight Tank was first flown
in 1998 on STS-91 .The SLWT had basically
the same design as the LWT except that it
used an aluminium-lithium alloy for a large
part of the tank structure. This alloy
provided a significant reduction in tank
weight over the LWT.
• Manufacture also included friction stir
welding technology. The SLWT provided 50%
of the performance increase required for the
shuttle to reach the International Space
Station.
• The reduction in weight allowed the Orbiter
to carry more payload to the highly inclined
orbit of the ISS.
 COMPONENTS
LIQUID OXYGEN TANK
• Top of the ET
• An ogive shape to reduce aerodynamic drag and
aerothermodynamic heating.
• Capped by a flat removable cover plate and a nose cone.
• The forward most element - cast aluminium lightning
rod.
• volume is 19,744 cu ft
• All loads except aerodynamic loads are transferred from
the LOX tank at a bolted, flange-joint interface with the
intertank.
 INTERTANK
• Joins both the LOX and LH2 tanks.
• Receive and distribute all thrust loads from the SRBs and
transfer loads between the tanks.
• The two SRB - 180° apart on the intertank structure.
• A beam is extended across the intertank structure .
• Adjoining the SRB attach fittings is a major ring frame. The
loads are transferred from the fittings to the major ring
frame which then distributes the tangential loads to the
intertank skin.
• The intertank also functions as a protective compartment for
housing the operational instrumentation.
 LIQUID HYDROGEN TANK
• Bottom portion of the ET.
• Four cylindrical barrel sections, a forward dome, and an
aft dome.
• The barrel sections - five major ring frames which
receive and distribute loads.
• The forward dome-to-barrel frame distributes the loads
applied through the intertank structure and is also the
flange for attaching the LH2 tank to the intertank.
• The aft major ring receives orbiter-induced loads from
the aft orbiter support struts and SRB-induced loads
from the aft SRB support struts.
• Loads from the frames are then distributed through the
barrel skin panels.
• The LH2 tank has a volume of 53,488 cubic feet.
• Ellipsoidal shape.
• The aft dome has a manhole fitting for access to the
LH2 feedline screen.
 THERMAL PROTECTION SYSTEM
• The ET thermal protection system consists
primarily of spray-on foam insulation , plus
preformed foam pieces and premolded ablator
materials.
• The system also includes the use
of phenolic thermal insulators to preclude air
liquefaction.
• Thermal isolators are required for liquid
hydrogen tank attachments to preclude the
liquefaction of air on exposed metal, and to
reduce heat flow into the liquid hydrogen.
• While the warmer liquid oxygen results in
fewer thermal requirements, the aluminum of
the liquid oxygen tank forward areas require
protection from aeroheating.
• The thermal protection system weighs
2,188 kg.
NASA Developed special types of Polyurethane Foam to protect and
insulate the external fuel tank of the space shuttle.The 1″ layer of foam
on the outside of the external fuel tank helps keep 395,000 gallons of
liquid hydrogen at a very cool -423 degrees Fahrenheit.
The space shuttle has jettisoned the external fuel tank
which is now falling back to earth in this picture.The
polyurethane foam is dark orange due to ultraviolet
light radiation from sunlight.
 SENSORS
• There are eight propellant-depletion sensors, four
each for fuel and oxidizer. The fuel-depletion
sensors are located in the bottom of the fuel tank.
• Normally, main engine cutoff is based on a
predetermined velocity; however, if any two of the
fuel or oxidizer sensors sense a dry condition, the
engines will be shut down.
• Four pressure transducers located at the top of
the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen tanks
monitor the ullage pressures.
• The ET also has two electrical umbilicals that carry
electrical power from the orbiter to the tank and
the two SRBs and provide information from the
SRBs and ET to the orbiter.
• The ET has external cameras mounted in the
brackets attached to the shuttle along with
transmitters that can continue to send video data
long after the shuttle and the ET have separated.
 On February 1,2003, the space shuttle Columbia disintegrated up on re-entering
earth’s atmosphere, killing all seven crew members.
 The disaster was the second fatal accident in the space shuttle program after
challenger ,which broke apart and killed the seven member crew 73 seconds after
liftoff in 1986.
 During the launch of STS-107,Columbia’s 28th mission , a piece of foam
insulation broke off from the space shuttle external tank and struck the left wing
of the orbiter. When Columbia re-entered the atmosphere of earth , the damage
allowed hot atmospheric gases to penetrate the heat shield and destroy the internal
wing structure , which caused the space craft to become unstable and break apart.
 After the disaster , space shuttle operations were suspended for more than two
years , as they had been after the challenger disaster. Construction of ISS
(International space station) was put on hold.
 Its first flight took place in April 1981, and it successfully completed 27 missions
before the disaster. On its 28th flight, Columbia, on mission STS-107, left Earth
for the last time on Jan. 16, 2003. At the time, the shuttle program was focused on
building the International Space Station. However, STS-107 stood apart as it
emphasized pure research
 The seven-member crew — Rick Husband, commander;
 Michael Anderson, payload commander;
 David Brown, mission specialist;
 Kalpana Chawla, mission specialist;
 Laurel Clark, mission specialist
 William McCool, pilot; and
 Ilan Ramon, payload specialist from the Israeli Space Agency — spent 24 hours a
day doing science experiments in two shifts. They performed around 80
experiments in life sciences, material sciences, fluid physics and other matters.
INVESTIGATION:

 The shuttle’s main fuel tank was covered in thermal insulation foam intended to
prevent ice from forming when the tank is full of liquid hydrogen and oxygen .
Such ice could damage the shuttle if shed during liftoff.
 Mission STS-107 was planned to begin on January 11,2001 ,the mission was
delayed 18times and eventually launched on January 16,2003. The Columbia
accident investigation board determined that this delay had nothing to do with the
catastrophic failure.
 During the crew's 16 days in space, however, NASA investigated a foam strike
that took place during launch. About 82 seconds after Columbia left the ground, a
piece of foam fell from a "bipod ramp" that was part of a structure that attached
the external tank to the shuttle. Video from the launch appeared to show the foam
striking Columbia's left wing.
 On Feb. 1, 2003, the shuttle made its usual landing approach to the Kennedy Space Center. Just
before 9 a.m. EST, however, abnormal readings showed up at Mission Control. Temperature
readings from sensors located on the left wing were lost. Then, tire pressure readings from the
left side of the shuttle also vanished.
 The Capcom, or spacecraft communicator, called up to Columbia to discuss the tire pressure
readings. At 8:59:32 a.m., Husband called back from Columbia: "Roger," followed by a word
that was cut off in mid-sentence.
 At that point, Columbia was near Dallas, travelling 18 times the speed of sound and still 200,700
feet (61,170 meters) above the ground. Mission Control made several attempts to get in touch
with the astronauts, with no success.
 It was later found that a hole on the left wing allowed atmospheric gases to bleed into the
shuttle as it went through its fiery re-entry, leading to the loss of the sensors and eventually,
Columbia itself.
 Twelve minutes later, when Columbia should have been making its final approach to
the runway, a mission controller received a phone call. NASA declared a space shuttle
"contingency" and sent search and rescue teams to the suspected debris sites in Texas
and later, Louisiana. Later that day, NASA declared the astronauts lost.
 The search for debris took weeks, as it was shed over a zone of some 2,000 square
miles (5,180 square kilometers) in east Texas alone. NASA eventually recovered
84,000 pieces, representing nearly 40 percent of Columbia. Among them were the
crew remains, which were identified with DNA.
 Much later, in 2008, NASA released a crew survival report detailing the Columbia
crew's last few minutes. The astronauts probably survived the initial breakup of
Columbia, but lost consciousness in seconds after the cabin lost pressure. The
crew died as the shuttle disintegrated.
SAFETY MEASURES:

 The shuttle's external tank was redesigned.

 NASA also had more camera views of the shuttle during liftoff to better monitor
foam shedding.
 The ISS was also viewed as a safe haven for astronauts to shelter in case of
another foam malfunction during launch.