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California
Infant/Toddler
Curriculum Framework
California Department of Education

Sacramento, 2012
California
Infant/Toddler
Curriculum Framework
California Department of Education

Sacramento, 2012
Publishing Information
The California Infant/Toddler Curriculum Framework was developed by

the California Department of Education/Child Development Division
(CDE/CDD). The publication was edited by John McLean, working in
cooperation with Tom Cole and Lisa Duerr, Consultants, Child Develop-
ment Division. It was prepared for printing by the staff of CDE Press, with
the cover and interior design created by Juan D. Sanchez. The document
was published by the California Department of Education, 1430 N Street,
Sacramento, CA 95814-5901. It was distributed under the provisions of
the Library Distribution Act and Government Code Section 11096.
© 2012 by the California Department of Education

All rights reserved
ISBN: 978-0-8011-1723-7
Ordering Information
Copies of this publication are available for purchase from the California
Department of Education (CDE). For prices and ordering information, visit
http://www.cde.ca.gov/re/pn/rc/ or call the CDE Press sales office at
1-800-995-4099.
Notice
The guidance in the California Infant/Toddler Curriculum Framework is
not binding on local educational agencies or other entities. Except for
statutes, regulations, and court decisions referenced herein, the docu-
ment is exemplary, and compliance with it is not mandatory. (See Educa-
tion Code Section 33308.5.)
Contents
A Message from the State Superintendent of Public Instruction v
Acknowledgments vi
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework 1

California’s Infants and Toddlers 1
Overarching Principles 4
Organization of the Infant/Toddler Curriculum Framework 9
Dual-Language Development and Learning in All Domains 10
Universal Design for Learning 11
Program Features That Support Effective Infant/Toddler Curriculum 12
The Infant/Toddler Learning Process: The Starting Point 12
Curriculum Planning 19
Reflections on Observation, Documentation, Assessment, and Planning 32
Implementation of a Plan 44
Endnotes 48
Bibliography 49
Chapter 2: The California Early Learning and Development System 53

Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Foundations 54
Infant/Toddler Curriculum Framework 55
Desired Results Assessment System—Desired Results Developmental
Profile (DRDP) 56
Program Guidelines and Other Resources 59
Professional Development 60
In-Depth Understanding and Planning for Children’s Integrated Learning 60
Bibliography 61
Chapter 3: Social–Emotional Development 63

Guiding Principles 64
Summary of the Foundations 67
Environments and Materials 67
Interactions 69
Engaging Families 75
Questions for Reflection 76
Concluding Thoughts 77
Map of the Foundations 78
Teacher Resources 78
Endnotes 79
Bibliography 81
iii
Chapter 4: Language Development 83
Interactions 89
Endnotes 98
Bibliography 98
Chapter 5: Cognitive Development 101

Interactions 110
Endnotes 120
Bibliography 121
Chapter 6: Perceptual and Motor Development 123

Interactions 132
Endnotes 143
Bibliography 145
Appendix: Resources for Teachers of Children with Disabilities

or Other Special Needs 147
iv
A Message from the
State Superintendent of Public
Instruction
I
am pleased to present the California Attention is given to the importance of
Infant/Toddler Curriculum Frame- responsive, individualized care that is
work. Infancy is a distinctive period grounded in children’s secure relation-
in a child’s life that calls for unique ships with their parents and primary
responses from adults. In the past caregivers. Seen as part of a compre-
20 years, research has told us much hensive system, the infant/toddler
about brain development, how children curriculum framework supports effec-
learn, and how best to facilitate that tive planning and the ongoing cycle
learning. We now know that from the of observing, documenting, reflecting,
moment of birth, infants are ready to and implementing appropriate curricu-
learn and are able to absorb informa- lum.
tion rapidly to understand the world The California Infant/Toddler Cur-
around them. riculum Framework speaks to infant/
Created as a companion publication toddler care professionals, program
to the California Infant/Toddler Learn- directors, faculty of higher education,
ing and Development Foundations, this and families. By understanding the
framework supports caregivers as they development and learning process of
strive to make teaching responsive and infants and toddlers, early childhood
meaningful for infants and toddlers. professionals can effectively support
It presents strategies and informa- early learning, program directors can
tion to enrich learning and develop- create high-quality learning environ-
ment opportunities and provides a ments, and faculty can better prepare
structure that infant/toddler providers tomorrow’s infant care teachers. Fam-
and administrators can use to make ily members can better share their
informed decisions as they plan learn- knowledge of their children and work
ing environments and experiences for as partners with caregivers to support
our youngest children. Like the infant/ infants’ and toddlers’ active explora-
toddler foundations, the framework tion and learning. I hope this resource
is based on current research on how helps every adult understand how
infants and toddlers learn and develop to create a strong foundation for the
in four domains: (1) social–emotional, child’s well-being and long-term
(2) language, (3) cognitive, and (4) per- success.
ceptual and motor development.
The framework emphasizes both the
central role of the family in a young
child’s learning and development and Tom Torlakson
the diversity of California’s families. State Superintendent of Public Instruction
v
Acknowledgments
T
he development of the Califor- Chapter 3: Social–Emotional
nia Infant/Toddler Curriculum Development
Framework involved many Min Chen, WestEd
people. We gratefully acknowledge Deborah Greenwald, WestEd
each of the following contributors to Janis Keyser, Cabrillo College
this publication. Peter Mangione, WestEd
Margie Perez-Sesser, Consultant
Project Leader Charlotte Tilson, WestEd
Peter Mangione, WestEd Cathy Tsao, WestEd
Elita Amini Virmani, WestEd
Panel of Experts Chapter 4: Language Development
Marc Bornstein, National Institute of Min Chen, WestEd
Health and Human Development Deborah Greenwald, WestEd
Vera Gutierrez-Clellen, San Diego State Peter Mangione, WestEd
University Margie Perez-Sesser, Consultant
Jeree Pawl, Clinical Psychologist Charlotte Tilson, WestEd
Ross Thompson, University of Califor- Cathy Tsao, WestEd
nia, Davis Elita Amini Virmani, WestEd
Marlene Zepeda, California State Univer-
sity, Los Angeles Chapter 5: Cognitive Development
Min Chen, WestEd
Writers Deborah Greenwald, WestEd
Mary Jane Maguire-Fong, American
Chapter 1: Introduction to the River College
Framework Peter Mangione, WestEd
J. Ronald Lally, WestEd Margie Perez-Sesser, Consultant
Mary Jane Maguire-Fong, American Charlotte Tilson, WestEd
River College Cathy Tsao, WestEd
Peter Mangione, WestEd Elita Amini Virmani, WestEd
Chapter 2: The California Early Chapter 6: Perceptual and Motor
Learning and Development System Development
Jenna Bilmes, WestEd Min Chen, WestEd
Melinda Brookshire, WestEd Deborah Greenwald, WestEd
Jan Davis, WestEd Peter Mangione, WestEd
Peter Mangione, WestEd Alice Nakahata, Consultant
Charlotte Tilson, WestEd Margie Perez-Sesser, Consultant
vi
Charlotte Tilson, WestEd Focus Groups (Public Input)
Cathy Tsao, WestEd Thank you to the focus-group par-
Elita Amini Virmani, WestEd ticipants who offered valuable feedback
Appendix: Resources for Teachers of and suggestions.
Children with Disabilities or Other
Special Needs Photographer
Kai Kaiser, WestEd Sara Webb-Schmitz, WestEd
Photographs
Universal Design Advisers
Many thanks to the following pro-
Linda Brault, WestEd grams for graciously allowing us to
Kai Kaiser, WestEd photograph their staff members, chil-
dren, and families:
WestEd Center for Child and
Associated Students, Inc., Children’s
Family Studies—Project Staff and
Center, California State University,
Advisers Sacramento
Eva Gorman Associated Students, Inc., Children’s
J. Ronald Lally Center, San Francisco State Univer-
Peter Mangione sity
Katie Monahan Blue Skies for Children
Amy Schustz-Alvarez The Cameron School
Charlotte Tilson Contra Costa Community College Early
Cathy Tsao Learning Center
Sara Webb-Schmitz Covina Child Development Center
Little Munchkins Academy
California Department of Marin Head Start, 5th Avenue Early
Education Head Start
Lupita Cortez Alcalá, Deputy Super- Marin Head Start, Hamilton Campus
intendent, Instruction and Learning Marin Head Start, Indian Valley Campus
Support Branch Marin Head Start, Meadow Park Campus
Camille Maben, Director, Child Develop- Merced College Child Development
ment Division Center
Cecelia Fisher-Dahms, Administrator, Solano Community College Children’s
Quality Improvement Office, Child Programs
Development Division University of California, Los Angeles,
Tom Cole, Consultant, Child Develop- Infant Development Program
ment Division Willow Street School House
Lisa Duerr, Consultant, Child Develop- Yerba Buena Gardens Child Develop-
ment Division ment Center
Mary Smithberger, Former Consultant,
Child Development Division
Note: The names, titles, and affiliations of the peo-
Gwen Stephens, Former Assistant Direc- ple listed in these acknowledgments were current at
tor, Child Development Division the time the publication was developed.
vii
Chapter I
Introduction to the
Framework
T
he purpose of the California curriculum framework accurately
Infant/Toddler Curriculum reflects current research, theory,
Framework is to provide early and widely accepted practices in the
childhood professionals with a struc- infant/toddler field. The framework is
ture they can use to make informed intended to be consistent with a broad
decisions about curriculum practices. range of curricula or specific curricu-
The framework is based on current lar approaches. It includes a sampling
research on how infants and toddlers of strategies for building on children’s
learn and develop in four domains: competencies and interests in four
social–emotional, language, cognitive, major developmental domains and
and perceptual and motor develop- describes the types of environments
ment. It presents principles for sup- and materials that engage young chil-
porting early learning, a planning pro- dren in learning.
cess, and strategies to assist infant/ The primary audience for this frame-
toddler care teachers* in their efforts to work is infant/toddler care teachers
support children’s learning from birth (who work in centers or family child
to age three. care programs) and infant/toddler pro-
This document presents general gram directors and supervisors. Par-
guidance on planning learning envi- ents, early childhood faculty in higher
ronments and experiences for young education, and trainers may also find
children. The California Department the framework useful.
of Education (CDE) brought together
leading experts in developmental
California’s Infants
theory and research, and sought input
from early childhood professionals
and Toddlers
throughout California, to ensure this A fundamental consideration in
planning curriculum for individual
*The term infant/toddler care teachers is used
throughout this publication to describe early child- children is being responsive to the
hood professionals who work directly with young chil- competencies, experiences, inter-
dren, ages zero to three, by providing emotional and
social support while also addressing the intellectual,
ests, and needs each child brings to
language, and perceptual and motor development of the preschool classroom. California’s
the children. The abbreviated word teachers is often
infant/toddler population includes
used in place of the longer term.
1
2
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework
children who are culturally diverse, and assistance, children in inclusive

linguistically diverse, diverse in ability, environments achieve more than chil-
and from diverse socioeconomic back- dren in segregated environments.1
grounds. Partnering with families is an As the following information sug-
important strategy for being responsive gests, the diversity of young children
to individual children and for making means that every infant/toddler pro-
curriculum individually and culturally gram needs a flexible approach to cur-
relevant. riculum in order to be responsive to all
An increasingly prominent factor in children who enter its doors.
the diversity of the state’s children is
their early experiences with language. Diversity
Language and literacy development Compared with most other states,
contributes to young children’s learn- California has an extraordinarily
ing and long-range success in many diverse population of children, particu-
different ways. Children who enter an larly those under the age of five. More
infant/toddler program with emerging than six million children were enrolled
competence in a language other than in California’s K–12 schools in 2008–
English rely on their home language to 09; 49 percent were Latino/Hispanic,
learn. Continuing to build competence 27.9 percent were white, 8.4 percent
in their home language allows children were Asian, 7.3 percent were African
to draw on all of their knowledge and American, and 2.7 percent were Fili-
skills as they continue to engage in pino.2 Similarly, among the 3.2 million
learning. children from birth to age five living
Socioeconomic diversity is another in California during 2008, 51 percent
trend that merits attention. The were Latino, 30 percent were white,
percentage of children living in low- 10 percent were Asian, and 7 percent
income homes is high. At the same were African American.3 These trends
time, the benefits of high-quality care are anticipated to continue over the
and education are more pronounced next several decades.
for children from low-income back-
grounds than for other population Dual-Language Learners
subgroups. Children from diverse
Data for the 2008–09 school year
socioeconomic backgrounds are more
indicate that in California, there are
likely to benefit from high-quality care
more children who are dual-language
and education when the curriculum is
learners enrolled in younger grades
attuned to their learning strengths and
than in older grades.4 In its California
needs.
Report Card 2010, Children Now esti-
Children with disabilities or other
mates that 40 percent of children in
special needs are another part of Cali-
California’s kindergarten classrooms
fornia’s population of young children.
are dual-language learners.5 In an ear-
Children with disabilities or other
lier report (from 2004), Children Now
special needs benefit from learning
and Preschool California indicated that
in inclusive environments with typi-
young children living in linguistically
cally developing children. Studies have
isolated homes are less likely to be
shown that with appropriate support
enrolled in preschool programs.6
3

The broad range of languages spo- well as in English, while supporting
ken by children in the state is clearly a the children’s continuing development
significant factor in developing curric- of their families’ language.
ulum for infants and toddlers. During
the 2008–09 school year, 84.8 percent Socioeconomic Status
of California children in kindergarten The National Center for Children
through grade twelve who were learn- in Poverty (NCCP) documented that
ing English spoke Spanish, followed in 2008, approximately 45 percent of
by Vietnamese (2.4 percent), Filipino children in California under the age
(1.5 percent), Cantonese (1.4 percent), of six lived in a low-income family.
Hmong (1.2 percent), and Korean (1.0 Compared with other states, California
percent).7 Many families come from the ranks 20th in the nation for the num-
same geographic regions outside the ber of children under age eighteen who
United States, but those families do are living in poverty.9 According to the
not necessarily speak the same lan- NCCP, younger children (birth to age
guage.8 In many infant/toddler pro- six) are more likely to live in a low-
grams, children whose families speak income household.10 Young children
a different language at home may be of immigrant parents are 20 percent
experiencing English for the first time. more likely to live in a low-income
It is important to support children’s family than children with native-born
development of their home language parents. Young African American,
as they start to learn English. Compe- Latino, and Native American children
tence in two languages will allow chil- in California are also more likely than
dren to become adults who can con- white children to live in low-income
tribute to both the global economy and families.11
their local communities. Infant/toddler
programs in which English is spoken Children with Special Needs
can best support young children by
In 2008, over 77,000 children from
being responsive to the children’s com-
birth to age five with identified disabili-
munication in their home language as
4
ties attended preschool in California.12 The family is at the center of

This number does not include children a young child’s learning and
at risk of a disability or developmental development
challenges. Children with disabilities California’s infant/toddler learning
represent the diversity of California’s and development program guidelines
entire early childhood population and describe the family’s influence on early
necessitate unique care and educa- learning and development in the fol-
tional considerations in infant/toddler lowing way:
settings. Children under the age of
three with identified disabilities have Family relationships have more influ-
individualized family service plans ence on a child’s learning and devel-
(IFSPs) that reflect the CDE’s infant/ opment than any other relationships
toddler learning and development he has. Family members know him
foundations. better than anyone else. They know
his usual way of approaching things,
his interests, how he likes to inter-
Overarching Principles act, how he is comforted, and how he
learns. Family members understand
The infant/toddler curriculum
his strengths, and they have learned
framework rests on the following prin-
how to help him with any special
ciples:
needs he may have. Just as impor-
• The family is at the core of a young tant, the child’s relationships with
child’s learning and development. family members shape the way he
experiences relationships outside the
• Infant/toddler learning and develop-
home.13
ment is grounded in relationships.
• Emotions drive early learning and In light of the family’s central role in
development. a child’s early experience and develop-
ment, programs need to partner with
• Responsiveness to children’s self-
family members in all aspects of cur-
initiated exploration fosters learning.
riculum planning. Strong partnerships
• Individualized teaching and care with families grow from respecting
benefits all children. and valuing diverse views, expecta-
• Responsiveness to culture and lan- tions, goals, and understandings
guage supports children’s learning. families have for their children. Pro-
grams demonstrate respect for fami-
• Intentional teaching and care
lies by exchanging information about
enriches children’s learning experi-
their children’s learning and develop-
ences.
ment and sharing ideas about how to
• Time for reflection and planning support learning at home and in the
enhances teaching and care. infant/toddler program. Partnerships
with families extend to the commu-
These principles have guided the
nity in which the families live, come
development of this framework. The
together, and support one another.
rationales for the principles follow.
Building connections to the surround-
ing community allows a program
to become known and to make use
5

of community resources. Getting to Emotions drive early learning
know the community also gives teach- and development
ers insights into the learning experi-
A child’s emotional state drives early
ences and competencies that children
learning and greatly influences learn-
bring to the infant/toddler setting and
ing in other domains. The pleasure
informs efforts to make infant/tod-
an infant experiences when receiving
dler care and teaching responsive and
a positive response from a nurtur-
meaningful for children.
ing adult or when making a discov-
ery motivates the child to continue
Infant/toddler learning and
engaging in positive interactions and
development is grounded in
exploration. For infants and toddlers,
relationships
learning always has an emotional
Relationships provide infants and component. They are highly sensitive
toddlers a secure emotional base from to the emotional cues of other people
which they can explore and learn. and are emotionally expressive in every
Much of the cognitive, language, situation. In light of the integral nature
social, and physical learning a child of emotions in early learning, adults
experiences occurs while interacting who plan curriculum for infants and
with an adult. In fact, relationships toddlers must always consider the
with others are at the center of young emotional impact of the environment
children’s lives. Caring relationships and experiences on the child.14
with close family members provide the
base for young children to engage with
others, to explore with confidence, to
seek support when needed, and to view
interactions with others as likely to be
positive and interesting. Recognizing
the power of early relationships,
infant/toddler care teachers and pro-
grams build strong relationships with
children and families. Just as impor-
tant, infant/toddler care teachers
nurture the social–emotional devel-
opment of young children through
relationships. Research shows that
healthy social–emotional development
helps young children learn—for
example, to sustain attention more
easily, to make and maintain friend-
ships, and to communicate needs and
ideas. A climate of caring and respect
that promotes nurturing relationships
between children and within the com-
munity of families supports children’s
learning in all domains.
6
During the infancy period, children Toddler Care (PITC) guide Infant/Tod-
simultaneously exhibit both emotional dler Caregiving: A Guide to Cognitive
vulnerability and learning compe- Development and Learning, Bornstein
tence. Infants are utterly dependent offers the following summary:
on adult nurturance for survival. They One group of infants had mothers
rely on adults to get their needs met who, during the middle of the child’s
and can become emotionally secure or first year, were responsive to their
insecure depending on the responses child’s nondistress signals (such as
they receive from adults. They relate vocalization, facial expression, and
to adults as wise elders who can help movements). At thirteen months,
them cope with difficult moments and those infants tended to show an
guide them in their interactions with advantage in language and play. A
others. At the same time, infants and second group consisted of four-year-
old children whose mothers had been
toddlers are amazingly competent.
responsive when the children were
They are curious, motivated learners
infants. Those children tended to
who actively explore the world of peo- solve problems more efficiently and
ple and things. Infants’ and toddlers’ scored higher on a standardized intel-
active engagement in learning propels ligence test than did their peers with
their learning in all domains. The opti- less responsive mothers.16
mal context for their lively engagement
in learning is relationships in which Aligned with the approach recom-
their competence is respected and mended in this curriculum framework,
encouraged and their emotional vul- the PITC provides guidance to infant/
nerability is regulated through predict-
able, positive nurturance.
Responsiveness to children’s
self-initiated exploration fosters
learning
Research shows that responsive care
and nurturance not only promotes the
development of emotional security in
children, but learning and develop-
ment in general. For example, when
compared with young infants who
receive nonresponsive care, young
infants who receive consistent, appro-
priate, and prompt responses cry less
often when they are older.15 Being
responsive to nondistress cues from
children also has an impact. In a chap-
ter titled “Caregiver Responsiveness
and Cognitive Development in Infants
and Toddlers: Theory and Research,”
published in the Program for Infant/
7

toddler care teachers on how to create ing to an individual child may mean
responsive relationships with infants modifying the learning environment
and toddlers. In essence, observation to “increase a child’s access, potential
and reflection are at the heart of being and availability for learning through
responsive to the interests and needs thoughtful organization of materials
of infants and toddlers. and space.”17 Specifically designed
professional support and develop-
Individualized teaching and ment opportunities, as well as special-
care benefits all children ized instructional strategies, can help
Each child is unique. Infant/toddler teachers deliver individualized educa-
care teachers use their understanding tion and care to meet the needs of all
of each child’s blend of temperament, the children in a program.
family and cultural experiences, lan-
guage experiences, personal strengths, Responsiveness to culture and
interests, abilities, and dispositions language supports children’s
to support the child’s learning and learning
development. Through recognizing Responsive infant/toddler programs
and adapting to each child’s individual create a climate of respect for each
development, teachers are able to offer child’s culture and language. Teachers
learning experiences that are respon- and other program staff members part-
sive, meaningful, and developmentally ner and regularly communicate with
attuned to each child. Providing inter- family members to get to know the
actions, experiences, and an environ- cultural strengths each child brings to
ment that meet the individual needs the program. An essential part of being
of children with disabilities or other culturally and linguistically responsive
special needs can enrich the experi- is to value and support each child’s
ences of all children in the program.* use of home language, as “continued
A classroom environment in which all use and development of the child’s
children are supported and feel wel- home language will benefit the child as
come creates rich learning experiences he or she acquires English.”18 Equally
for everyone. important are nurturing interactions
When children with disabilities or with children and their families in
other special needs are included, the which “teachers attempt, as much as
partnership with families is especially possible, to learn about the history,
important. The family is the primary beliefs, and practices of the children
bridge between the preschool staff and families they serve.”19 In addition
and special services the child may be to being responsive to the cultural his-
receiving. The family, teacher, and tory, beliefs, values, ways of commu-
other program staff members can work nicating, and practices of children and
together and include other special- families, teachers create learning envi-
ists in the preschool setting. Adapt- ronments that include resources such
as pictures, displays, and books that
*An additional resource for supporting your work
with children with special needs is Inclusion Works! are culturally rich and supportive of
Creating Child Care Programs That Promote Belong- diversity, particularly the cultures and
ing for Children with Special Needs, a publication of
the California Department of Education. The book is languages of the children and families
listed in the bibliography at the end of this chapter. in their infant/toddler care setting.20, 21
8
Intentional teaching and care to organize learning experiences for

enriches children’s learning children; when an unexpected situ-
experiences ation arises . . . they can recognize a
teaching opportunity and are able to
Effective curriculum planning take advantage of it, too.22
occurs when teachers are mindful of
children’s learning and are intentional With an understanding of early
in their efforts to support it. In The learning and development, the teacher
Intentional Teacher, a publication of the supports learning in areas identified
National Association for the Educa- by California’s infant/toddler learn-
tion of Young Children (NAEYC), Ann ing and development foundations. The
Epstein offers the following descrip- intentional teacher is flexible in order
tion: to accommodate differences in chil-
[T]he intentional teacher . . . acts dren’s learning strengths and needs.
with knowledge and purpose to Reflective, intentional teaching strate-
ensure that young children acquire gies include the planning of learning
the knowledge and skills (content) environments, experiences, and rou-
they need to succeed in school and tines as well as spontaneous responses
in life. Intentional teachers use their suggested by the moment-to-moment
knowledge, judgment, and expertise focus of the children.
9

Time for reflection and planning demonstrate with appropriate support
enhances teaching and care in the following four domains:
Infant/toddler care teachers are • Social–Emotional Development
professionals who serve an impor-
• Language Development, which
tant role in society. In nurturing the
includes Early Literacy Development
development of infants and toddlers,
teachers engage in an ongoing process • Cognitive Development
of observation, documentation and • Perceptual and Motor Development
assessment, reflection and planning,
and implementation of strategies in This introductory chapter presents
order to provide individualized and the general considerations upon which
small-group learning experiences. As the infant/toddler curriculum frame-
increasing numbers of children with work is built, including information
diverse backgrounds, including chil- on California’s diverse infant/toddler
dren with disabilities, participate in population, overarching principles,
infant/toddler programs, collabora- dual-language development and learn-
tion, teaming, and communication ing, universal design, program features
are essential to extending the benefits that support effective infant/toddler
of high-quality infant/toddler care curriculum, how infants and toddlers
to all children. Curriculum planning learn, and curriculum planning and
requires time for teachers to reflect on implementation.
children’s learning and plan strategies Chapter 2 describes the California
that foster children’s progress in build- Early Learning and Development Sys-
ing knowledge and mastering skills. tem, which includes the state’s infant/
Infant/toddler programs that support toddler learning and development
intentional teaching and care allocate foundations, this curriculum frame-
time in teachers’ schedules for both work, the Desired Results assessment
individual and team reflection and system, the infant/toddler learning
planning. With appropriate support, and development program guidelines,
teachers are able to grow profession- other related resources, and profes-
ally through a continuous process of sional development. Each of these
learning together and exploring ways resources is defined, and the chapter
to be responsive to young children’s presents an overview of how these dif-
learning interests and needs. ferent resources form an integrated
system that promotes high-quality
learning environments and experiences
Organization of the for infants and toddlers.
Infant/Toddler Curriculum Chapters 3 through 6 focus on the
Framework four domains in the infant/toddler
As stated previously, the infant/tod- foundations. Each chapter covers one
dler curriculum framework builds on domain and presents guiding princi-
the California infant/toddler learning ples; a summary of the foundations for
and development foundations, which the domain; descriptions of environ-
describe the learning and development ments, materials, and interactions that
that infants and toddlers typically support learning and development in
10
that domain; questions for reflection; vary greatly in the level of proficiency
and resources for teachers. in their first language, which, in turn,
influences their progress in English-
language development.
Dual-Language
In an integrated curriculum, the key
Development and Learning to supporting all children is to plan
in All Domains learning environments and experi-
The progress that infants and tod- ences based on an ongoing under-
dlers make as they learn either one standing of each child’s interests,
language or two languages varies needs, and family and cultural expe-
greatly from child to child. Some chil- riences. For young children who are
dren enter a program as young infants dual-language learners, this approach
who rely primarily on nonverbal com- requires focused attention to each
munication. Some children enter a child’s experiences in acquiring a sec-
program with experience in a language ond language and an understanding of
other than English. Other children how to use a child’s first language to
may have some experience with Eng- help him or her understand a second
lish but mainly rely on their home language. In applying an integrated
language to communicate. And there approach, teachers take advantage of
may be older toddlers who are learn- every moment to provide children with
ing English as a second language and opportunities to communicate with
may be fairly sophisticated in their greater understanding and skill. There
understanding and use of English. are several key considerations for sup-
Infants and toddlers who are learning porting infants and toddlers’ learning
English while they are also develop- of their home language and English in
ing their home-language abilities use infant/toddler care settings, including
their knowledge and skills in their first these:
language to continue to make prog- • Children who are learning English
ress in all other domains. Children as a second language possess a
who are dual-language learners also
11

home language upon which effective apply to caring for infants and tod-
support can be based. dlers. In particular, this resource high-
• Children who are learning English lights the importance of a climate of
as a second language may demon- acceptance and belonging as the start-
strate language knowledge and skills ing point for giving additional support
in their home language before they to children who are learning English
demonstrate the same knowledge as a second language. In effective pro-
and skills in English. grams, intentional efforts:
• Children who are learning Eng- • focus on the children’s sense of

lish as a second language may belonging and need to communicate;
need additional support and time • allow children to participate volun-
to engage in communication that tarily;
includes English knowledge and • create opportunities for interaction
skills; infant/toddler care teachers and play with peers.
need to scaffold children’s learning
experiences and use multiple modes While learning and trying to use
of communication, particularly non- English, children need to feel comfort-
verbal cues. able with everyone in the infant/tod-
• In an integrated approach to cur- dler care setting, with the use of their
riculum in early care and education home language, and with nonverbal
settings, an intentional focus on ways to express themselves.
the process of learning English as a
second language is necessary at all Universal Design
times. for Learning
The level of additional support and This infant/toddler curriculum
time that dual-language learners need framework applies to all young chil-
to demonstrate the knowledge and dren in California, including children
skills described by the foundations with disabilities or other special needs.
in the social–emotional development, In some cases, children with disabili-
cognitive development, and perceptual ties or other special needs demonstrate
and motor development domains will their developmental progress in diverse
be influenced by the children’s devel- ways. Recognizing that children fol-
opment in both their first language low different pathways to learning,
and English. The language the child this framework incorporates a concept
speaks at home, as well as the amount known as universal design for learn-
and variety of experience the child has ing.
in the home language, will likely affect Universal design provides for mul-
the amount and type of support the tiple means of representation, expres-
child needs. sion, and engagement.23 Multiple
Although focused on preschool means of representation refers to
children, the California Department of providing information in a variety of
Education’s DVD titled A World Full of ways so the learning needs of all the
Language: Supporting Preschool English children are met. Multiple means of
Learners offers recommendations that expression refers to allowing children
12
to use alternative ways to communi- accommodations and support for

cate or demonstrate what they know or children with disabilities or other
what they are feeling. Multiple means special needs.
of engagement refers to providing
choices within the setting or program More comprehensive descriptions
that facilitate learning by building on of these recommended program poli-
children’s interests. The information in cies can be found in the 2006 CDE
this curriculum framework has been publication Infant/Toddler Learning
worded to incorporate multiple means and Development Program Guidelines,
of representation, expression, and a companion document to California’s
engagement. Infant/Toddler Learning and Develop-
ment Foundations publication and this
curriculum framework.
Program Features That
Support Effective Infant/
Toddler Curriculum
The impact of curriculum is either
enhanced or dampened by the context
in which it is implemented. Creating a
strong programmatic context for cur-
riculum implementation is very impor-
tant. Program policies set the stage for
infant/toddler learning and develop-
ment. Program policies that support
effective infant/toddler curriculum
planning and implementation include
these elements:
• Primary Care—assigning a primary
infant care teacher to each child and
family
• Small Groups—creating small
groups of children and caregivers
• Continuity—maintaining consistent
teacher assignments and groups
over time
• Personalized Care—responding
to individual needs, abilities, and The Infant/Toddler Learning
schedules Process: The Starting Point
• Cultural Continuity—maintaining In the past 20 years, research has
cultural consistency between home uncovered a vast amount of informa-
and program through dialogue and tion about how young children learn
collaboration with families and how that learning is best facili-
• Inclusion of Children with Spe- tated. Research has shown that infants
cial Needs—providing appropriate are ready to learn from birth; they are
13

able to absorb information from the Soon after birth, basic sensory,
sights, sounds, and scents around social, and emotional experiences are
them, to store it, to sort it out, and to essential for optimizing the archi-
use it.24 This information helps infants tecture of low-level circuits. At later
ages, more sophisticated kinds of
understand the world and the people
experiences are critical for shaping
around them.
higher-level circuits. When adults
Research has also shown that
or communities expect young chil-
infants and toddlers are quite depen- dren to master skills for which the
dent on primary relationships for their necessary brain circuits have not
physical and emotional needs to be yet been formed, they waste time
met. Aware of this need, teachers plan and resources, and may even impair
their interactions with infants and healthy brain development by induc-
toddlers to address both the vulner- ing excessive stress in the child.25
ability and the competence of children.
In doing so, teachers simultaneously Four major aspects of infant/toddler
attend to the children’s need for close, development illuminate the kinds of
consistent relationships with nurturing “basic sensory, social, and emotional
adults and to the children’s curiosity experiences” that are “essential for
and motivation to learn. optimizing the architecture of low-level
circuits” in the brain.26 The following
Infant and Toddler Development four aspects of infant/toddler devel-
and Its Facilitation opment call for a special approach to
planning and supporting their learn-
Because everything is new to infants ing:
and toddlers, and their brains are
developing rapidly, infancy is a unique 1. Infants follow their own learning
period of life that calls for unique agenda.
responses from adults. The ways 2. Infants learn holistically.
infants and toddlers think, feel, and 3. Infants experience major devel-
function differ somewhat from the opmental transitions in their first
ways children in the developmental three years.
periods of preschool, middle child-
hood, and adolescence think, feel, and 4. Infants are in the process of
function. Synapse formation in dif- developing their first sense of
ferent developmental areas peaks at self.
different times from birth to age three. The following overview describes
The National Scientific Council on the these distinct aspects of infant/toddler
Developing Child characterizes the learning and development.
development during infancy in the fol-
lowing way: 1. Infants follow their own
Because low-level circuits mature learning agenda
early and high-level circuits mature
All humans are internally driven to
later, different kinds of experiences
learn and develop, but this internal
are critical at different ages for opti-
drive functions in slightly different
mal brain development, a concept
called age-appropriate experience. ways and degrees at different points
in life. With regard to the content of
14
learning, the infant’s learning agenda agenda. In fact, part of their learn-
is much more focused on fundamen- ing agenda is to interact with adults
tal competencies than an older child’s to have essential relationship experi-
agenda is. The foundations for later ences. Understanding this learning
learning in all domains are set during agenda helps adults interact with
infancy. For example, infants and tod- infants and toddlers in ways that best
dlers are primed to: facilitate the children’s learning and
• seek and form relationships with development.
people who will nurture and protect The California Infant/Toddler Learn-
them; ing and Development Foundations
reflect the birth-to-three learning
• learn language for the first time in agenda. Most babies are predisposed
order to communicate; to seek out relationships and develop
• construct knowledge of basic con- the skills that will help them survive
cepts such as the relationship and prosper in their early months and
between cause and effect and how years. Typically developing infants are
things move and fit in space; internally driven to communicate with
• master rudimentary small-muscle others, to move, to explore and manip-
and large-muscle skills. ulate objects, and to solve problems.
Thus, for adults to introduce their own
Infants actively engage in mastering learning agenda to infants is inappro-
different components of these com- priate. For infants, there is no strong
petencies at relatively similar times need for adults to present specific top-
in their development. The common ics for mastery or to provide the moti-
path of learning and development vation to learn. Rather, infants focus
that infants are on, however, com- on the topics of greatest importance
pletely depends on ongoing interaction without prompting from adults. What
with adults. Without adults, infants infants need from adults are interac-
are unable to pursue their learning tions and experiences that closely
15

match the birth-to-age-three learning their lessons according to distinct
agenda. topics. For the infant or toddler, nar-
rowing the focus to the adult’s interest
2. Infants learn holistically or goal does not match how the child
Infants and toddlers take in informa- engages in learning. The child’s focus
tion continuously, naturally, and flu- may switch to the part of the interac-
idly. Although they often focus on one tion that is personally more important,
thing at a time, that focus can change such as the texture of the materials
quickly. From their actions, interac- used to display color, the movement
tions, and observations, they pick up of the wrist to transfer the color from
all kinds of information that they use brush to paper, the emotional tone
to build knowledge and skills. A single used in the interaction, or the social
interaction can lead to learning about style the adult uses to introduce the
many things in many areas. Although activity. From the perspective of the
a child may start an experience by infant or toddler, the lesson (or les-
focusing on something of interest in sons) learned may end up having noth-
one domain, the physical, emotional, ing to do with colors. Thus, adults can
intellectual, social, and language com- better facilitate learning by attending
ponents of that experience are
processed almost simultane-
ously. The infant mines each
interaction for all its informa-
tion.
Because infants and tod-
dlers learn in a holistic way,
they may not always focus
on the content area that an
adult may wish to emphasize.
If adults structure interaction
with the purpose of creating
specific outcomes in a particu-
lar content area—for example,
language or shapes—they will
often miss the child’s larger
learning experience. Thus,
plans to help with infant learn-
ing are best created in ways
that reflect the child’s open-
ness to all aspects of an expe-
rience.
For example, a teacher may
think that crafting a special
lesson on colors will result in
specific learning about color,
but infants do not separate
16
to the many learning possibilities that their immediate environment through

exist for an infant or toddler in a par- the use of their senses and through
ticular experience. their ever-expanding ability to move.
With the growing awareness that they
3. Infants experience major are dependent on adults for care, they
developmental transitions in begin to appreciate that they are indi-
their first three years viduals with separate identities.
During the first three years of Adults who provide care for young
life, much of a child’s life is orga- infants need to be especially attentive
nized around issues related to secu- to the children’s need to feel secure.
rity, exploration, and identity. While Physical comfort, and responsive care
children attend to all three issues that helps young infants regulate
throughout infancy, each of these themselves, will build the infants’ con-
issues generally takes center stage at fidence in self and in the care provided
different points in development. As an by others.
issue becomes more or less prominent,
developmental transitions occur. The Exploration
child’s behavior starts to change and Infants’ focus on security during the
reflects a new way of organizing expe- first eight months of life leads to orga-
riences. Infant/toddler care teachers’ nized relationship behavior. During the
understanding of these developmental months that follow, infants increas-
changes helps them adapt to the chil- ingly use close relationships as secure
dren’s learning processes. bases for exploration. They use their
growing mental and physical capaci-
Security ties for exploration. Captivated by the
From birth until the age of about exciting world in front of them, they
eight months, most infants organize explore through movement, manipula-
their attention and behavior around tion, and visual inspection. The infant/
developing a sense of security. In the toddler “Relationships with Adults”
California Infant/Toddler Learning and foundation describes the infant at
Development Foundations publication, approximately 18 months of age in the
the “Relationships with Adults” following way: “At around 18 months
foundation describes the child
at around eight months of age
in the following way:
[C]hildren seek a special rela-
tionship with one (or a few)
familiar adult(s) by initiating
interactions and seeking prox-
imity, especially when dis-
tressed.27
During the first eight months

of life, infants concentrate on
seeking security, nurturance,
and protection. They explore
17

of age, children feel secure explor- They interpret their sense of secu-
ing the environment in the presence rity and their explorations through
of important adults with whom they this new lens. Infants now explore
have developed a relationship over an not only the environment around
extended period of time.”28 them, but also their power to change
Infants from eight to 18 months of it. Frequently, they resist those who
age come to see themselves as active have been providing them emotional
explorers—on their own for brief security to see how far they can go on
periods of time and no longer physi- their own and be separate. They are
cally bound to the trusted adult. Still consumed with exploring and making
needing security, they check in with choices, and they start to learn about
their secure base as they explore. taking responsibility for actions that
They seem to be practicing indepen- result from their choices.
dence, motivated by a powerful urge The foundation “Identity of Self in
to explore, but still quite dependent Relation to Others” characterizes this
on the trusted adult to be there when shift in development in the following
needed. At this age, children look to way:
their teachers to validate their explor- At around 36 months of age, children
ative bursts and to show confidence in identify their feelings, needs, and
their developing competence. interests, and identify themselves and
As children actively explore during others as members of one or more
this age period, adults need to adjust groups by referring to categories.29
the ways in which they care
for the infant, provide security,
and relate to the child’s growing
sense of self. Children of this
age prosper when they have a
safe, secure environment and
are allowed to use the teacher
as a base of security from which
they can journey back and forth
for emotional refueling, main-
taining a connection with the
teacher through eye contact and
vocal communication.
Identity
Children from 18 to 36 months of To assist children’s growth toward
age change their main focus to iden- a sense of self in relation to oth-
tity. They concentrate on issues of me ers, the adult needs to switch to
and mine, notions of good and not so supporting children’s exploration
good, and concepts of self and other. of identity. Teachers help older
Interactions with others lead to learn- toddlers with security and explo-
ing about themselves as independent, ration by setting boundaries that
dependent, and interdependent beings. guide children in learning rules of
18
social behavior and by letting each adults treat them or what adults allow
child know that a trusted adult and expect them to do, but rather use
will be emotionally available dur- adults’ responses to them to build a
ing stressful moments. first “opinion” of self. Although adults
These developmental transitions can still have a profound influence on
be challenging for an infant/toddler four-year-old children’s sense of self,
teacher because the type of care has older children already have some sense
to shift as children go through rapid of themselves as individuals and can
changes during the first three years assert themselves and express how
of life. To orient curriculum planning, they see things. For example, they
the foundations have been organized may resist eating food they do not like
around the three major transitions. and judge someone who tries to make
The teacher can be mindful of the them eat such food as mean or unfair.
children’s major focus during each Even when infants resist eating cer-
developmental period (security, explo- tain foods, they do not consciously
ration, or identity) while planning to judge the person trying to feed them.
support learning and development in Instead, they take in the ways they
areas such as empathy, impulse con- are treated as examples of how things
trol, literacy, number sense, and large are. They come to expect: “This is the
motor skills. way people feed me”; “This is the way
people express emotions”; “These are
4. Infants are in the process things that cause people to get yelled
of developing their first sense at”; “These are the ways to approach
of self people”; and “This is how my curiosity
One way infants build their first is accepted.” Thus, creating a warm,
sense of self is through experiences of caring, personal relationship with the
how others treat them. They receive infant is more than a nice thing to do;
important messages from others: “I it significantly contributes to a child’s
am a person who is liked, encouraged, positive sense of self.
given choice, protected, listened to, or I
am not.” Infancy is when one’s identity What the distinct aspects of
is first defined. The distinction between infant/toddler development mean
the infant developing a first sense of for teaching and care
self and the older child continuing to The four aspects of infant develop-
define a sense of self first established ment call for teaching and care that
during infancy has many implications is individually adapted to who infants
for care. Infant/toddler care teachers and toddlers are and who they are
influence a baby’s first sense of self. becoming. Because infants move
They contribute to shaping the way through distinct developmental periods
babies see themselves. so rapidly, adults need to respect and
Young babies are completely trusting be responsive to each child’s learn-
and open, eagerly taking in messages ing agenda. Because early learning
from the adults who provide care for is holistic, plans to facilitate infants’
them. Babies do not judge as appropri- learning should reflect consideration
ate or inappropriate the ways in which of all the domains of development that
19

may be influenced by an experience. knowledge, skills, abilities, interests,
Because infants relate to security, and needs?
exploration, and identity formation
differently at different times dur-
Curriculum Planning
ing development, adults can be most
effective when their responses to each Infants and toddlers have an amaz-
child fit with the child’s developmental ing capacity to engage in learning and
level. And finally, because infants are organize vast amounts of new infor-
in the early stages of becoming aware mation. Clearly, an infant or toddler
of themselves as individuals and do who is exploring how something works
not yet judge the appropriateness of or interacting with an adult or other
messages they receive from others, children reveals an active mind that
adults need to be particularly sensitive is discovering and making sense of
to their role in shaping each infant’s the surrounding world of people and
sense of self. An understanding of the things.
uniqueness of infancy leads to the Infants and toddlers experience the
following question: Based on what is world and build knowledge holistically
known about infant and toddler devel- during simple moments of play, explo-
opment, how can curriculum planning ration, and interaction with objects
optimally meet the children’s emerging and with other people. They constantly
20
gather new information and make these experiences through thoughtful

sense of it. Their minds actively take in curriculum planning. This curriculum
sounds, words, patterns of movement, framework guides teachers in planning
and the actions and reactions of peo- curriculum that connects with chil-
ple, creatures, and objects. They inte- dren’s development of emerging con-
grate new information into an increas- cepts and skills.
ingly complex system of knowledge. Planning infant and toddler curricu-
As infants expand their encounters lum requires that teachers understand
with objects and people, they try out and respect how infants and tod-
emerging skills, discover new actions, dlers learn. As described previously,
and experience feelings in new ways. infants and toddlers have an inborn
In moments of play, they experiment, drive to seek information and experi-
investigate, and invent solutions, try- ence. When they play, they often initi-
ing to figure out how things work. ate learning, actively building skills,
Just about every waking moment, concepts, and connections between
infants and toddlers are busy develop- ideas. The development of thoughts
ing fundamental competencies upon into new concepts and actions, feel-
which a lifetime of learning will rest. ings into a sense of identity, and words
These fundamental competencies are and phrases into representations of
described in the California infant/tod- thoughts, ideas, and feelings often
dler learning and development founda- occurs simultaneously. As infants
tions. As stated earlier, during the first actively engage in such holistic learn-
years of life, children begin to develop ing, the teacher’s role is to provide
their identity, understand and regu- possibilities for them to encounter,
late their emotions, and build social explore, and investigate.
knowledge and skills. Concepts at the
core of science, mathematics, social Contexts for Infant/Toddler
studies, language, literature, and the Curriculum
arts also have their roots in the funda- In planning curriculum for the
mental competencies developed dur- birth-to-age-three period, teachers
ing infancy. For example, as infants must be aware of what infants and
explore how things fill up, fit in, and toddlers do in play, both when they
move in space, they build concepts act on objects and when they interact
that relate to physics. As infants put with adults and peers. In essence, play
one block into a basket, and then is the “work” of infants and toddlers.
another, they develop number sense. When teachers are mindful of the
As they delight in imitating the expres- ways in which each infant experiences
sions and actions of a friend while a moment of play, that child’s learn-
playing, they build concepts related to ing agenda reveals itself. In response,
social science. As they share a book teachers are able to plan curriculum
with a teacher, pointing to the photo that aligns with the infant’s inborn
of a dog and saying “Dah,” followed by learning agenda.
another “Dah,” they expand their com- In developing curriculum for infants
prehension of language and interest and toddlers, teachers plan for three
in books, the roots of literacy. Infant learning contexts:
care teachers can support each of
21

1. The play environment as cur- deepen their relationship experi-
riculum. Curriculum plans ences and open up possibilities
include the selection of play for building emerging skills and
materials that add interest and concepts.
complexity to distinct areas
where infants and toddlers freely The following section describes how
play. A thoughtful selection of infant care teachers can effectively
materials invites infants and tod- plan curriculum for each learning con-
dlers to explore experiences that text.
challenge their emerging skills,
concepts, and ideas.
1. The Play Environment as
Curriculum
2. Interactions and conversa-
Interest areas to support child-
tions as curriculum. Curricu-
initiated learning through play
lum plans address ways of being
with infants and toddlers during Curriculum for infants and toddlers
interaction, including nonverbal includes ways in which teachers plan
interaction, conversations, coop- the indoor and outdoor physical envi-
eration, conflicts, and times when ronments to support play and learn-
infants express strong feelings ing. Intentionally designed play spaces
such as delight, sadness, anger, for children are like a studio for an art-
or frustration. ist or a laboratory for a scientist. When
3. Caregiving routines as curricu- the physical environment is planned
lum. Curriculum plans include with children’s self-initiated learn-
care routines, particularly meal- ing in mind, they encounter places
times, diaper changes, and where they can freely explore what
naptimes. Intentional teaching things are like and how things work.
invites infants and toddlers to In such an environment, children
participate in care routines that investigate, invent, and experiment. To
support children’s self-initiated play
22
and holistic learning, teachers create The following vignette illustrates

environments with a network of inter- how a group of infants around eight
est areas, each with a distinct focus months of age use different inter-
and predictable inventory of materials, est areas in the care environment. It
and each used by teachers to extend includes considerations for curriculum
children’s active search for knowledge. planning.
Interest areas are designed to offer a Jaylen and Amira, along with two
basic inventory of materials with which other crawlers, are on a large sheet
children can apply emerging skills extended over the ground in the out-
and develop concepts while they play. door yard. In one corner, the teachers
Some examples of interest areas in an have placed several low, wide bas-
infant/toddler environment are: kets, each holding a variety of objects.
Their intent is to create an area with
• a cozy area for books and stories;
toys to grasp and discover. Jaylen
• a small-muscle area; crawls to the edge of one of the bas-
kets and pauses. He peers inside and
• a sensory perception area;
sees a variety of small rings—some
• an active-movement area; metal, some smooth wood. There are
• a creative expression area. also two round baskets, identical in all
ways except color. One is blue,
one is green. Jaylen reaches into
the basket and grabs one of the
wooden rings. He waves it up
and down, watching it move,
and then rolls up onto his side
and mouths the smooth edge. He
turns his gaze back to the bas-
ket. He rolls back onto his stom-
ach, drops the ring, and reaches
for one of the other rings in the
basket—the metal canning-jar
ring. He repeats a similar series
of actions with this ring. He then
turns his gaze to search for the
first ring, and as he does so,
he drops the one he has been
As teachers plan curriculum, they mouthing. He crawls over to retrieve
consider ways to augment or add new the first ring.
items to the basic inventory of materi-
In the other corner of this outdoor play
als in an area. Curriculum plans that
space, Amira, who has been crawling
focus on the play environment extend for several weeks, crawls in the direc-
or add complexity to the children’s tion of a low cushion, placed near a
play. With the same intent, teachers low, hollow cube that is just the right
consider what adaptations should be size for crawling through. (The teach-
made to provide greater access for chil- ers have prepared this interest area
dren with disabilities or other special as an active-movement area.) Amira
needs. places one hand and then the other
on the cushion and begins to pull up
23

onto the soft surface. She inches her note individual children’s developmen-
body forward in rhythmic bursts of tal progress. Such notes are often use-
movement and, little by little, makes ful when teachers complete the Califor-
it over the cushion and back down. nia Department of Education’s Desired
She smiles, turns in a full circle, and Results Developmental Profile (DRDP).
moves up once again onto the cushion,
The following vignette illustrates the
this time from the opposite side.
value to both infant and teacher of
This vignette shows two distinct uninterrupted play in thoughtfully cre-
kinds of outdoor play areas set up for ated interest areas.
infants who are about eight months of Teacher Angelica watches as nine-
age. In one corner of the outdoor play month-old Jacob plays with a small
area, teachers have prepared an array basket, which he has pulled from a
of objects, carefully selected to offer collection of small baskets in a cor-
distinct yet similar physical proper- ner of the room. As Angelica observes
ties and features that engage infants’ Jacob’s play, she is struck by how
emerging pincer grasp. In another cor- intently he is exploring this basket
and how he seems to experiment with
ner, the teachers have created a space
it in play. She continues to watch and
that provides a variety of low surfaces
then pulls out her notebook, which she
to challenge infants to crawl in new keeps in her pocket. She writes the
ways. Just as the indoor environment following:
can be taken outdoors easily, the out-
Observation. Jacob, lying on his
door environment can be taken indoors
stomach, holds a round, plastic, open-
easily. Both indoor and outdoor envi-
weave basket. He waves it with a
ronments offer opportunities to create stiff arm. He drops it to the ground
interest areas that extend children’s and watches as it lands upright and
play, exploration, and “meaning mak- wobbles on its circular bottom. Jacob
ing” in multiple ways. watches as the wobbling basket slows
and then stops. With his open palm,
Uninterrupted time for exploration he taps the edge of the basket with
and play in the environment enough force to set the basket wob-
To take full advantage of learning bling again. He watches as it settles
possibilities offered by interest areas, to a stop. Again he taps the edge, but
children need long blocks of uninter- this time much harder. The basket
rupted time for self-initiated play. flips over. Jacob’s eyes widen as he
Teachers facilitate infants’ self-initi- inspects the now upside-down bas-
ated learning by thoughtfully creating ket lying perfectly still on the floor.
interest areas and then following the Jacob slaps his hand onto the basket
children’s lead. Infants and toddlers and moves it from side to side with
his hand. As he does so, the basket
thrive when they have opportunities
makes a scraping sound against
to explore and manipulate materials
the floor. He smiles and laughs. He
in ways of their own choosing, with-
pushes the basket again and laughs
out interruption. Such moments of as he makes the same scraping
active infant play and exploration allow sound.
teachers to observe the children’s play
Later in the day, Angelica retrieves
to discover what engages each infant’s
the anecdotal note she wrote about
interest. In doing so, teachers also
24
Jacob’s play with the basket. She 2. Interactions and Conversa-

wants to read it to Jacob’s father tions as Curriculum
when he arrives to pick up Jacob
at the end of the day. She invites Caring for infants and toddlers in
Jacob’s father to hear about Jacob’s small groups allows teachers to inter-
little experiment with physics—with act with children in ways that foster
how things move in space. (Note: By the children’s exploration of ideas and
reflecting on her observation, Angel- experiences and expands their learn-
ica has already begun to interpret it ing. Through verbal and nonverbal
as an experiment with physics.) After interaction, teachers act as guides,
Jacob and his father leave, Angelica listeners, and “problem-posers” for
adds the following to the written anec- infants and toddlers. Sometimes,
dote and puts it in Jacob’s portfolio of
based on ongoing observation, a
observations.
teacher spontaneously initiates the
Interpretation. Angelica wrote: Jacob interaction or the play. For example, a
appears to be gathering information teacher might imitate a young infant’s
about what the basket is like and coo, sing a song, or do a finger play
how it moves. He discovers that he
with one child or with a small group of
can make it move in some predictable
children.
ways. He uses what he finds
out about this basket to create
a little experiment. It is as if he
asks, “What happens when I
push down on the edge of this
basket?” Then he expresses
excitement as he continues to
explore. He seems to be express-
ing to himself: “Wow! It wobbles
back and forth! Oh, that was fun
to watch! Can I make it happen
again? Oh, I didn’t expect that!”
The basket had flipped over. His
facial expression and actions
suggest he is asking: “What
happens when I push down on
the edge of the basket now?”
And then his face and body move- Of course, right from the start of life,
ments express surprise, as if he were infants initiate interaction with the
expressing: “Hmm. That wasn’t what adults who nurture them. As infants
I expected. I thought it would wobble and toddlers develop, they initiate
back and forth like it did before, but increasingly complex verbal interac-
it is still. I’ll try that again. Hmm. A tions or conversations and experiences
noise . . . I like that! Let’s see if I can such as looking at a book with an
make that again.” In this little experi-
adult, doing a finger play, or singing a
ment, Jacob is building knowledge of
song. Whether teachers or children ini-
cause-and-effect. He is also exploring
how things move in space.
tiate interactive play, in both instances
the teacher’s role is to observe chil-
25

dren’s responses in the moment and to the red patch. Lucila steps onto
to watch and listen for their ideas, the red patch and laughs with excite-
which may come through gestures, ment. “It made red!” she says. “Yes!”
other body movements, facial expres- says teacher Joette, “Will yours make
sions, sounds, or words. By observing a color on the floor, too? You want to
and listening, the teacher may then try?” Lucila holds her frame to the
sun, sees a blue spot, and says, “Yes,
responsively engage in interaction with
I made blue!”
the child or children. Sometimes the
teacher may provide individual chil-
3. Caregiving Routines as
dren with scaffolds, such as supportive
Curriculum
language, ideas, or movements that
will draw a child into exploring a more Curriculum includes ways to involve
complex idea, concept, or movement. infants and toddlers in caregiving rou-
For example, an open-ended question tines and to make routines an impor-
is a scaffold that prompts children to tant context for learning. Daily rou-
extend or expand their ideas and facili- tines provide natural opportunities for
tates new and more complex thinking children to apply emerging knowledge
or exploration. The following vignette and skills. Teachers integrate engaging
illustrates how a teacher initiates an learning opportunities into the every-
interest in labeling colors while being day rituals of arrivals, departures,
responsive to the child’s self-initiated mealtimes, naptimes, diaper changes,
exploration. handwashing, and setup and cleanup,
both indoors and outdoors. Young
During a moment of play in the art
area, infant teacher Joette watches as
two-year-old Lucila picks up a wooden
frame that encloses two sheets of
blue plexi-glass. Lucila puts her eyes
up close to the plexi-glass and peers
through. She holds the frame out to
Joette, gesturing for her to take it.
Joette responds, “You want me to see
what you saw, don’t you? I’d love to!”
Joette looks through and exclaims, “I
see everything blue! Here, your turn,
Lucila.” Lucila looks through the block
again. Another child walks up and
reaches for a different frame, this
one with yellow plexi-glass inside.
The two children laugh together as
they move the frames back and forth
in front of their eyes. Teacher Joette
watches and then picks up a third
frame, which has red plastic sheets.
She holds it near the window and a
red patch appears on the floor. She
gestures to the two toddlers and says,
“Oh, look what’s over here!” They rush
26
infants usually take an active interest his hand and manages to empty the
in daily routines and respond posi- measuring cup. He looks up at the
tively when encouraged to participate. teacher and smiles. The teacher smiles
in response, saying, “You poured your
For example, when invited to choose
milk, Stephan! You know how to do
between two outfits, a 10-month-old
it!” The toddler seated next to Stephan
may look at one outfit and then the
reaches for the empty measuring cup.
other several times before excitedly The teacher says, “And now you can
pointing at one of them. Older tod- pour milk into your glass, Alexi. I’ll put
dlers enthusiastically apply emerging the milk in the measuring cup first.”
skills during daily routines. Toddlers,
for example, enjoy putting cups on the Planning the Infant/Toddler
table for a meal or clearing used dishes Curriculum
from the meal table. As the following
Planning infant/toddler curricu-
vignette illustrates, daily routines offer
lum begins with teachers discovering,
opportunities for children to build lan-
through careful listening and observa-
guage skills, learn the rituals of shar-
tion, each child’s development. Obser-
ing time with others, and relate one
vation is an essential teaching skill.
action in a sequence to another.
When teachers mindfully observe,
Four toddlers are seated at a low they find out how individual children
table for lunch. Their primary care make discoveries and make meaning
teacher sits with them at the table. To
within everyday moments of play and
his right, on a low bench, the teacher
interactions. Observing for the pur-
has a bin that holds everything he
pose of assessing individual children’s
needs for the meal. He pulls out bibs
for the toddlers and helps each tod- learning means carefully watching and
dler put one on. Each toddler finds a listening with thought and reflection.
cube chair to sit in. The teacher puts In doing so, teachers find evidence
an empty bowl in front of the toddler of individual children’s meaning-
on his left. He offers this toddler a pair making—how a child expresses or
of small plastic tongs, holds a plate of shows feelings, how a child responds
small sandwiches, and asks, “Would to others’ feelings, and how a child
you like to take a sandwich?” The responds to the impact of his actions
toddler grabs the tongs and, after a on the objects he encounters or the
few trials, manages to pick up one of people with whom he interacts. When
the sandwiches and drop it onto his
teachers observe infants’ play and
plate. Later, after each toddler has
interactions, they gather evidence that
taken a sandwich, the teacher pulls
pertains to individual children’s social–
from the bin a clear, plastic measuring
cup, on which a red line is drawn at emotional, language, cognitive, and
the one-cup mark. He fills the measur- perceptual and motor development.
ing cup to the red line. He places an An observation can help teachers see,
empty glass in front of a toddler and, describe, and understand how an
offering the toddler the measuring cup, infant organizes feelings, ideas, skills,
says, “Would you like to pour?” The and concepts. Sometimes, teachers
toddler wraps his hand around the may choose to write down what they
handle and tips the cup over his glass. observe in a note. They may also take
He spills a bit at first, but adjusts a photo, or, with older toddlers, they
27

may keep a sample of each child’s They collect farm-animal puppets and
work. In doing so, teachers collect put them in a basket in this interest
observational data that provide clear, area, and they add a selection of other
vivid evidence of children’s develop- cardboard books about farms or farm
ment. Observing how children explore animals. Before the teachers finish
adding materials, they discuss how
and play with newly introduced mate-
these additional possibilities for play
rials or ideas often makes it possible
and explorations might help the chil-
for teachers to track children’s devel- dren build some of the foundational
opmental progress on various mea- competencies for this age—for exam-
sures of the DRDP, as the following ple, in the areas of language develop-
vignette illustrates. ment, social play, number, space and
Li is an 18-month-old toddler. Each size, classification and matching, and
day, she brings her teacher, Carol, interest in books, stories, songs, and
a favorite book about farm animals. recognition of symbols. In a review of
Li’s mother had told Carol how much the recently completed infant/toddler
Li loved that particular book, and DRDPs, which provided profiles of
Carol placed a copy in the book inter- individual children’s progress in dif-
est area. Carol begins to wonder how ferent foundational competencies, the
she might support Li’s interest and teachers agreed that their curriculum
build on it to add increasingly com- ideas might offer a way to observe
plex play encounters for Li and the the toddlers’ emerging competencies
other young toddlers in the room. She that relate to some of the infant/tod-
and her co-teachers discuss possible dler DRDP measures for which they
materials to add to the interest areas. wished to collect additional evidence.
They decide to take Li’s favorite book,
which has a photo of a farm animal
As teachers observe children’s play,
on each page, make a color copy of exploration, and interactions, they
each page, laminate the copies, and discover ways to support children’s
attach self-sticking fabric (e.g., Velcro) learning. Ideas for the next steps in
to the back of each copy. They put curriculum planning emerge as teach-
these photos in a basket near a felt ers reflect on how they might extend or
board, which is on the back of a shelf expand children’s exploration, problem
divider in the Building and Balancing solving, thinking, interactions, and
interest area. They place a play barn, language. Observation, reflection, and
with plastic farm animals, nearby. documentation in the moment simul-
They also borrow plastic animals from taneously launch an ongoing assess-
other rooms in order to have a varied
ment of each child’s progress in learn-
selection of animals, some that are
ing as well as the curriculum planning
similar and some that are identical in
all features except size and so forth.
cycle.
28
The Curriculum
Planning Cycle
Observe, reflect
Observing and reflect-
ing on each moment means
being present with children
and attentive as they inter-
act with others and the
environment. This mindful
presence is different from
participating in children’s
play or directing their play.
Whether for one minute or
15, an attentive, mindful can use anecdotal notes and other
presence means watching and wait- evidence to deepen their understand-
ing to see what happens, moment by ing of children and to support periodic
moment, as infants and toddlers play. assessment of each child’s progress
By watching, wondering, and reflect- (as measured by the infant/toddler
ing, teachers gain an increasingly DRDP). Second, documentation guides
complete picture of children’s explora- teachers as they determine next steps
tion and discovery. When observing in ongoing, day-to-day curriculum
children mindfully, a teacher will dis- planning to expand and make more
cover small scientists at work—gather-
ing information, comparing, making
assumptions, evaluating assumptions
through their actions, experimenting,
and, over time, building mastery of a
wide range of concepts and skills.
Document, reflect
Documenting means gathering and
holding evidence of children’s explo-
ration and interests for future use.
A common form of documentation in
early care settings is a written note,
often referred to as an observation
anecdote. Other forms of documenta-
tion include photos, video recordings,
and work samples (for older toddlers).
Documentation serves a dual purpose.
First, it holds memories of teachers’
observations of children’s learning—
the children’s expressions of feelings,
ideas, concepts, and skills. Teachers
29

complex possibilities for infant and ences interest area. They also plan to
toddler learning. continue to offer toddlers a chance to
serve themselves during meals and
Reflect, discuss, plan to observe how the toddlers’ skills
develop.
As teachers reflect on infants’ and
toddlers’ exploration and interactions, Implement, reflect
they discover possibilities to sustain,
extend, and help children make their Once a plan is written, teachers
play more complex, and thereby sup- implement it. While implementing a
port the children’s continuing learning. plan, teachers observe, reflect, and
Teachers review ideas for possible next document. The curriculum plan-
steps in the curriculum. These steps ning cycle begins again (or continues)
might include adding materials to as teachers watch to discover how
interest areas to offer new experiences children respond to the planned cur-
or experiences that challenge emerg- riculum and how children show evi-
ing competencies; expanding infants’ dence of their development during the
participation in care routines; or being planned learning encounters. Teach-
intentional about engaging infants in ers often approach this step with a
conversations about certain topics. sense of wonder, for they may be sur-
Teachers include in such plans ways prised and amazed by the children’s
to support the learning of individual responses. To hold the responses in
children, always adapting the experi- memory, teachers may record notes,
ences to ensure full participation of take photos, or label, date, and keep
children who have special developmen- track of older toddlers’ work samples,
tal needs. The following vignette is an all of which can be reviewed at a later
example of how one teacher and her time. In such reviews, teachers assess
co-teachers devise a plan. the impact of the curriculum plans
to come up with additional ideas for
Sylvia, a teacher of young toddlers,
supporting the children’s learning. At
decides it is time to invite her group of
the same time, they assess individual
children to begin using serving uten-
sils and small pitchers during meals.
children’s learning. For example,
When she does so, she notices that the teachers might reflect on the following
children struggle a bit but are genu- questions:
inely interested in using these tools. • Are children responding as we had
Sylvia and her co-teachers, Sandra predicted, or were there surprises?
and Tatyana, reflect on the toddlers’
strong interest but still-emerging • What do the children’s responses
skills in using these tools. The teach- reveal? How might the children’s
ers discuss ways to add simple interests or intentions be described?
tools to the interest areas in order to What concepts and ideas are the
expand opportunities for the toddlers children forming within their play?
to use them. They collect a variety of
• Are children showing evidence of
simple tongs, spoons with fairly short
progress on any of the measures of
handles, bowls, cups, and spatulas.
the DRDP?
They place the new objects in several
baskets in the Math and Physical Sci-
30
The following vignette describes how to incorporate Leah’s ways of taking

Sandra, Sylvia, and Tatyana reflected meals? Working with the parents, the
on their observation and documenta- teachers decided to find a cloth doll
tion of an idea they implemented. and sew onto the doll’s stomach a
patch consisting of self-sticking fabric,
At their next planning meeting, San- so that the toddlers could attach to it
dra, Sylvia, and Tatyana gathered to a pretend feeding tube and pretend
share the observational notes each syringe. The teachers also wondered
had written in response to adding the about ways to include kitchen uten-
new utensils. Sylvia noticed Germaine sils made of materials other than
moving the large spoon inside one of plastic, such as bamboo or metal, to
the tall, hollow cylinders in the Build- expand the toddlers’ exposure to the
ing and Balance interest area, as if he physical properties of these materi-
were mixing something. Sylvia decided als. They also decided to post near the
to put this observation in Germaine’s sign-in area a brief photo document of
portfolio, in the section on cognition. the toddlers’ utensil play, in order to
The teachers wondered about ways invite the children’s families to bring
to include Leah, a toddler who uses a in safe utensils for the play—and they
feeding tube, in the experience. They planned to make a special request for
met with Leah’s parents to explore the utensils that might be typical of each
following question: Are there ways family’s home culture.
The Reflective Curriculum Planning Process
Observe
Document
DOCUMENT
OBSERVE
Implement Plan
Implement Plan
Reflection
Implement
Plan
PLAN
IMPLEMENT
Observe Document
Observe Document
31

Partnering with families in gram, the children encounter familiar
planning curriculum concepts, language, and materials in
the program. This familiarity creates
As several vignettes in this chap-
fertile ground for meaning-making
ter illustrate, curriculum planning
and helps infants and toddlers explore
involves three partners: the infant,
with comfort and ease. Connecting the
who actively pursues her or his own
experiences at home with those in the
learning agenda; the infant’s family
infant center also brings coherence to
members, who provide the primary
the infant’s or toddler’s moment-by-
relationship experiences for the infant
moment experiences of meaning-mak-
and are the first teachers that sup-
ing. Just as important, connections
port the child’s learning and develop-
between the home and the program
ment; and the infant care teacher, who
also support children emotionally and
forms relationships with the infant
socially. This emotional support helps
and family, learns from them, and
infants feel secure and allows them
offers insight and guidance that brings
to explore and experiment with new
the partnership together. Each has
objects and take on and solve prob-
a unique perspective in shaping the
lems in a new setting. The key is to
design and the direction of the curricu-
get to know the families well to find
lum, and each relies on the other to
out which connections are meaningful
implement the curriculum effectively.
for each individual child. When teach-
Teachers find it particularly helpful
ers discover what may be personally
to share documentation of children’s
meaningful for a child, there is a good
learning with the children’s family
chance of fully engaging that child in
members. When families and teach-
meaning-making and learning.
ers reflect together on documentation
of children’s exploration and learning,
family members offer insights into the
children’s behavior and ideas, as well
as share expectations of their children
at home or in the community. Teach-
ers and families together discover ways
to connect the children’s experiences
in the infant/toddler program with
their experiences at home and in the
community.
Infants’ and toddlers’ experiences
at home and in their communities
are a powerful source of connections
for them. Teachers nurture children’s The following sections examine
appetites for learning and meaning- components of the curriculum plan-
making by building upon the knowl- ning process in greater depth. Strate-
edge children bring to the infant/ gies for observation, reflection, docu-
toddler setting. When teachers embed mentation, assessment, planning,
elements of the children’s home and and implementation are considered in
community in the infant care pro- more detail and in the broader context
32
of the teaching–learning relationship. as they observe, take notes, reflect

The focused look at each of these parts on, and interpret children’s behavior.
of curriculum planning gives insights They constantly ask themselves what
into the teacher’s role. At the same the children’s actions mean in order to
time, it is important to keep in mind better understand each child, to plan
that all of these parts work together curriculum, and to share observations
simultaneously. with the children’s families. Observa-
tion also focuses on relationships in
the infant/toddler program, reveal-
Reflections on Observation,
ing valuable information about child–
Documentation, Assess- teacher, child–child, teacher–teacher,
ment, and Planning child–family member, teacher–family
member, and teacher–child–group rela-
Observation and Documentation tionships.
Observation and documentation Mindfully observing while still
serve many purposes. Together they actively participating in a child’s care
offer a way to gain a better under- may be described as participatory
standing of an infant’s or toddler’s observation. It is different from tra-
developmental progress, thereby ditional observational child study in
informing how to support learning which the observer sits quietly and
and providing a base for curriculum unobtrusively, stays physically and
planning. From observation and docu- psychologically separate from the chil-
mentation, teachers gain insights into dren, records observations in a factual
ways to adapt the environment, adjust manner, and avoids making assump-
to a particular child’s way of interact- tions, predictions, or interpretations.
ing, and expand on a child’s interests. In contrast, when infant care teachers
Observational records also serve as observe, they actively participate in
a valuable history of the child, which care, remaining emotionally and physi-
teachers and the child’s family may cally available to the children. They are
enjoy. responsive to children, interact with
When observation and documenta- children, and still provide care while
tion are part of a curriculum planning observing. As they observe, they give
process, teachers mindfully watch full attention to what is going on with
infants while actively engaging with the infants. This mindful presence
them. In so doing, teachers discover enables teachers to gather informa-
the children’s interests, abilities, feel- tion about the infants that is useful in
ings, and needs. They can see what understanding the children’s develop-
occupies infants’ minds and bodies. ment and in supporting their learning.
Infants’ gestures, looks, sounds, and When observing, infant/toddler care
actions convey what interests them teachers note both verbal and nonver-
and what they are trying to figure bal aspects of the child’s behavior as
out. Teachers selectively take notes to well as the context for the behavior—
document things that they find mean- namely, the actions of nearby adults,
ingful. This approach to observation is other children near the child who is
active and participatory. Teachers use being observed, aspects of the environ-
their knowledge and all of their senses ment, time of day, and so on. Some-
33

times teachers make a mental note • signs of vulnerability and compe-
when they are caring for infants or tence of each child
interacting with them. Later, teachers • nonverbal and verbal interactions
may write down what they observed each child has with other children
earlier. Other teachers may routinely and adults
carry a notepad so that when they see
something noteworthy, they can jot • ways in which the small group of
it down as soon as possible. In some infants functions
instances, one member of an infant/ • each child’s explorations of materials
toddler care teacher team will observe and places in the environment
while the other member of the team
As they observe, teachers pose vari-
interacts with the children. Above all,
ous questions in their minds. These
infant/toddler care teachers make sure
questions may include the following:
that the need to observe for curricu-
lum planning does not interfere with • What is each infant noticing, sens-
nurturing the children. In all cases, ing, feeling, experiencing, under-
teachers should place greatest priority standing?
on being responsive to the immediate • What meaning is each child making?
needs and interests of the children.
• What ideas or hypotheses is each
Mindful observation occurs through-
child exploring?
out the day—during caregiving rou-
tines; at drop-off and pickup times; • What do the children experience as
during cleanup times and transitions; a small group primarily cared for by
and while children spontaneously one or two teachers?
engage in play, exploration, and inter- • How are the teachers influencing
actions. Infant care teachers may each situation?
choose to focus on particular aspects
• What might a family member like to
of development or exploration, such as
know about the child or the group?
these:
• individual attributes and tempera- The type of observation that informs
mental traits of each child curriculum planning focuses on all
34
aspects of the teacher’s experiences Observation and Documentation

with infants and toddlers. The teacher and the PITC Responsive Process
focuses first on the child’s interests In the Program for Infant/Toddler
but is open to everything that occurs. Care (PITC) approach to infant/toddler
For instance, a teacher may see that a care, responsive teachers are always
child watches, reaches for, and eventu- observing children. “Watch,” or obser-
ally approaches shiny things, such as vation, is the first step of the PITC’s
a necklace, metal bell, or chrome water three-step responsive process. Obser-
faucet. When the child picks up a vation enables teachers to read infants’
shiny bell, the bell makes a noise—and cues and meet their needs moment
the child quickly learns how to repeat by moment. One of the central prac-
the noise many times by shaking the tices of the PITC is helping babies to
bell. In exploring this object, the child establish secure bases for exploration
has made a discovery about cause- and learning. The moment-by-moment
and-effect relationships. The teacher monitoring of babies’ messages and
then stores in memory (notes and the prompt, contingent responses that
holds in memory) observations such as stem from observation strengthen
this one, which will help in planning relationships between infants and their
how to assist the child with exploration teachers and lead to the development
and making discoveries about other of secure bases.
objects. PITC’s “Watch, Ask, and Adapt” pro-
However, during the same obser- cess works hand in hand with curricu-
vation the teacher may also notice lum planning that includes observa-
and address barriers to learning. For tion, documentation, and assessment.
example, the teacher may see that the Infant/toddler care teachers observe in
child is unable to hear the soft ring of order to be responsive and build rela-
the bell when there are loud sounds tionships with infants. In this process,
nearby, such as the crying of a baby teachers also observe and document,
or tumbling block towers. Information which helps them to deepen their
about such barriers feeds directly into understanding of children’s learning
planning how to facilitate learning. In and development and discover ways to
this example, the environment may support it.
need to be adapted to limit background
noises.
35

The Responsive Process*
Step One:
WATCH
Begin by just watching, not rushing to do things for the

baby.
Watch for both verbal and nonverbal cues.
Step Two:
ASK
Ask yourself: What message is the child sending?

What are the emotional, social, intellectual, and physical
parts to the message?
Does the child want something from me at this moment?
If so, ask the child: What is it that you want?
Step Three:
ADAPT
Adapt your actions according to what you believe to be

the child’s desires.
Watch how the child responds to your actions.
Modify your actions according to the child’s response and
watch, ask, and adapt again.
*Adapted from the WestEd Program for Infant/Toddler Care Trainer’s Manual:
Module I, Social–Emotional Growth and Socialization (Sacramento: California
Department of Education, 1995), pp. 41–43.
36
Observing While Participating tines. Observations from teachers who

One of the key challenges for infant are involved with children on a daily
care teachers is to be able to observe basis are the most useful because the
and record their observations while teacher understands the child’s con-
providing early care and education. text, everything from how the child
Learning how to address this challenge slept the night before to his current
takes time and a good support system. interests. Infant care teachers who
Teachers can develop plans together observe regularly are better able to
for observing and recording behavior provide care and education that con-
within the context of daily routines nects with each child in the group.30
and events. Some teachers take turns;
others have systems such as cameras
Observing and Listening
and note cards placed around the By observing and listening to chil-
indoor and outdoor areas so they can dren with care and attention, we
take quick notes or photos “on the fly.” can discover a way of truly see-
There are many ways to participate ing and getting to know them. By
and observe at the same time. Chil- doing so we also become able to
dren become accustomed to teachers respect them for who they are and
who take notes and photos; the pro- what they would like to commu-
cess of observing and recording behav- nicate to us. We know that to an
ior becomes a regular part of daily rou- attentive eye and ear, infants com-
municate a great deal about them-
selves long before they can speak.
Already at this stage, observing
and listening is a reciprocal expe-
rience, because in observing how
the children learn, we learn.
— L. Gandini and J. Goldhaber, in
Bambini: The Italian Approach to
Infant/Toddler Care 31
Tools for Documenting

Observations
Documentation tools include note-
pads (both paper and electronic
devices), audio-recording devices,
video or DVD recorders, and cameras.
Teachers also include in their docu-
mentation items produced by older
children such as drawings.
Each documentation method yields
different information. By using mul-
tiple types of documentation tools
rather than just a single tool, teachers
can often gain a more complete picture
of a child’s learning and development.
37

For example, video recordings do not while continuing to practice at about
necessarily capture complete informa- the same level of competency in
tion, because a significant action may another domain.
occur outside the focus of the camera. • Teachers may review multiple pieces
For this reason, it may be helpful to of documentation (video recordings,
make notes after using a video camera notes, photographs, and so forth) to
to create a more complete record. deepen their understanding of an
individual child.
Analysis, Interpretation, and Use
of Documentation There are myriad possibilities for
When teachers review anecdotal increasing one’s appreciation of early
notes, photos, video or DVD record- learning and development through
ings, and samples, they piece together the study and interpretation of anec-
stories that portray the development of dotal observations, photos, and work
the infants and toddlers in their care. samples. Such documentation has the
For example: potential of serving multiple purposes.
For example:
• Teachers may gain insights by
watching the same video-recorded • Notes, photos, and videos may be
interaction several times. This type used to make visible a learning focus
of review may lead to editing video of a child. For example, a teacher
clips to create a sequence of key may document over several days a
moments. The edited video material child’s interest in naming objects.
might illuminate how one learning The documentation may include
experience connects with another. notes on new words the child has
Notes about the context for a child’s recently learned, photos of the
behavior can add new meaning to a child’s pointing behavior, and notes
video record. on the types of things that particu-
larly interest the child.
• Teachers may put a set of pho-
tographs side by side to show a • Photos of the pretend play of older
sequence of actions or learning toddlers may be organized for dis-
experiences. This technique can
shed light on a wide range of
learning (for example, a child’s
understanding of routines or
a child’s fine motor develop-
ment).
• Teachers may compare obser-
vation notes several weeks
after completing an observa-
tional assessment of a child’s
developmental and learning
progress. The observation
notes may clarify why a child
is making rapid progress in
one developmental domain
38
play in the room. The children may insights deepen teachers’ understand-
look at the photos of their play and ing of each child’s development, which
use ideas suggested by the photos to can be shared with the child’s family
continue exploring pretend play. as well as guide planning to facilitate
• Teachers who team together in a the child’s next steps in learning and
room may plan based on observa- discovery.
tion and documentation. They may
reflect on documentation taken over The Context for Observation and
several days that shows children’s Documentation
cruising behavior. In studying and Teachers need support, time, and
discussing the documentation, the equipment to collect and piece together
teachers may decide to add a new documentation. Observation and docu-
piece of equipment in the room to mentation take place within a context
provide the children with an oppor- of primary care and often during a
tunity to explore their newly devel- moment of care (e.g., when diapering,
oping motor skills. feeding a young infant, or comforting
• Teachers may combine photos with an upset child). Ongoing observation,
notes to create a book of a child’s reflection, and documentation help
learning experiences to share with teachers get to know each child and,
the child’s family. They can look at when done well, make each teacher’s
each child’s book with family mem- job easier and more enjoyable. Teach-
bers to share the child’s joy of learners who team together often organize
ing. their work schedules to allow one or
the other to spend some time collect-
• Notes, photos, and other items col- ing and reviewing documentation. With
lected by a teacher can be used as increased emphasis on learning from
documentation for a DRDP measure. observational records, infant/toddler
This documentation may provide program leaders allocate time in teach-
justification for rating a child at a ers’ work schedules for the purpose
certain level of a measure (“Respond- of documenting, reflecting as a team,
ing with Reflexes”; “Expanding assessing development, and plan-
Responses”; “Acting with Purpose”; ning for individual children’s learning.
“Discovering Ideas”; “Developing Program leaders also support teachers
Ideas”; or “Connecting Ideas”). For with equipment to record observations
example, a set of photos that show and make infant/toddler development
a child’s exploration of how things visible.
fit and move in space may be used
to support a rating on the “Under- Observation and Documentation
standing Space” measure of the and the California Infant/Toddler
DRDP and also be included in a Learning and Development
book that is shared with the child’s Foundations
family.
Observation and documentation are
Based on ongoing observation and a crucial first step in curriculum plan-
reflection, documentation continually ning. To be truly useful, observation
gives insights into each child. These and documentation must be informed
39

by an accurate understanding of learn- The infant teacher documented his
ing and development. For that reason, observation of Kaysha’s play with a
studying the California infant/toddler clear, descriptive anecdote. He made
learning and development foundations no assumptions about why Kaysha
supports preparation for observation, did what she did. For example, he did
documentation, and curriculum plan- not assume that Kaysha was happy
ning. Knowledge of the foundations or frustrated. Nor did he analyze the
gives teachers insights into the funda- learning within the play. Instead, the
mental competencies that infants and teacher’s focus was on accurately cap-
toddlers develop. By observing infants turing a vivid image of the play.
with the foundations in mind, teachers With this observation available as
see and understand so much more of a written anecdote—a brief story of
what is happening during this fasci- what he observed—the infant care
nating period of a child’s life. teacher is able to return to it later to
When teachers observe, and reflect reflect on what he observed and inter-
on what they observe, they can use the pret the meaning of Kaysha’s play.
foundations to interpret what might With an accurate record that holds the
be the focus of the infant’s explora- memory of Kaysha’s play, the teacher
tion and learning. In this way teach- can easily share the anecdotal note
ers apply what they know about infant and reflect on it with colleagues. When
development to the infants’ moment- teachers discuss together such writ-
by-moment play and interactions. Con- ten documentation, they collaborate to
sider the following vignette, in which better understand the child’s progress
the infant care teacher observes an in learning and to develop curriculum
episode of toddler play. ideas that might expand her discover-
Observation. Kaysha, a toddler, holds ies. In the case of Kaysha’s discoveries
an empty cup under a slow stream with water, what emerged from such
of water that flows from a hose. The reflection and discussion was the fol-
hose rests on a rock pathway, where lowing written interpretation of her
tiny plants have grown between the observed play:
flat rocks. Kaysha pours the water she Interpretation. It seems like Kaysha
gathered in the cup onto the rocks and might be thinking, “So what happens
watches as it soaks into the plants when I fill this empty cup with water
and disappears. Her gaze shifts to a and then pour it over the rocks?” And
trickle of water that meanders down a then she gets really excited when she
sloped patch of dirt and darkens the sees that the rocks change color. So
dry dirt. She bends down to touch the she appears to want to make it hap-
wet dirt. She fills the cup again. This pen again and repeats her actions. It
time, she pours the water over the dirt, is like a little experiment. But when
watching the ground absorb it. She she pours the water on the dirt, the
fills her cup again and pours the water water disappears into the dirt, and
onto the dirt. She repeats this three she appears to be confused by this. It
more times. Each time the water pools is as if she is saying to herself, “Where
on the surface of the dirt, she emits did the water go?” But then she seems
a long, excited “Yeah!” but becomes to be looking at the dirt and how it
quiet when the water seeps into the now looks different—a shade darker
dirt. in color. When she pours water on the
40
dirt, it is as if she has moved on to a and learning opens the door to further
new experiment, namely, whether she interpretation of the teacher’s observa-
can make the dirt change color, possi- tion, as the vignette about Kaysha’s
bly the way she made the rock change play suggests.
color. She seems to get excited for a
Later, in conversation with his co-
moment by the little pools of water she
teachers, the teacher read his obser-
makes. But her excitement seems to
vational anecdote. The teachers
fade when the pools disappear into
discussed the child’s actions. They
the ground. Maybe, in repeating her
interpreted what occurred, trying
actions over and over, she is trying
to piece together how the child was
to make the pools not go away. Her
making meaning in the moment. They
actions get more rapid. Maybe she is
also reflected on concepts from the
thinking, “I’ll try pouring lots of water
California infant/toddler learning and
really fast to see if I can make the little
development foundations to identify
pools stay.” It appears that Kaysha is
and describe what they interpreted to
discovering how water affects objects
be the child’s learning.
and changes them. She is also experi-
menting with amounts of water and Kaysha’s primary care teacher
the force of water. decided to put the observational
anecdote in Kaysha’s portfolio. He
In this vignette, the teacher observed inserted it into a section where he had
mindfully and reflected on what he put earlier documentation of Kaysha’s
saw and heard. He then documented play and interactions. This observa-
his observations. tion of Kaysha’s exploration of water
served as useful evidence in tracking
The teacher decided to write down
her cognitive skills. A few weeks later,
a brief anecdote in order to hold in
the teacher completed Kaysha’s DRDP,
memory the observed play as accu-
and this documentation helped him
rately as possible. He tucked the note
assess accurately the level at which
away, knowing that he wanted to
Kaysha was working.
spend more time thinking about what
he had just observed and share the Written anecdotes, photos, and sam-
note with the infant’s family and his
ples of work make it possible for teach-
teaching team.
ers to keep track of each child’s inter-
A written anecdote allows a teacher ests, feelings, concepts, and skills. As
to remember an observation in a much the above vignette illustrates, teachers
more reliable way than simply depend- can track each child’s ways of learn-
ing on one’s memory of what occurred ing and their progress in development
in the moment. Without documenta- through portfolios, with each child
tion to support an observation, the having a portfolio of anecdotes, photos,
memory of a moment can easily be and samples. When a teacher deter-
clouded by the viewer’s beliefs about mines that an observation provides a
what is important and what is not, good description of a child’s learning
which, in turn, can lead to an empha- and development, he or she adds it to
sis on some aspects of what was the child’s portfolio to keep evidence of
observed and the omission of others. the child’s developmental progress.
Documentation that gives a complete Using observation and documenta-
picture of a child’s engagement in play tion in an integrated way helps teach-
41

ers to expand their understanding of special attention to the forms. Over
each child’s learning and development time, teachers collect information
on a day-to-day basis. It also allows about each child—for example, inter-
them to gather evidence for assess- actions they have observed, problems
ments that may occur at a later time. solved by the children, or how children
participated in a care routine. Anec-
Assessment Based on dotal notes are placed in each child’s
Observation and Documentation portfolio. These observational notes
Teachers regularly add anecdotes, provide evidence that teachers can use
photos, or samples to a child’s portfo- when filling out a DRDP.
lio, which provides a basis to assess
each infant’s or toddler’s develop-
mental progress. Teachers use such
evidence to complete formal assess-
ments according to a regular schedule,
such as every four months or every six
months. Periodic assessments produce
profiles of every child’s developmental
progress in each teacher’s small, pri-
mary group of children. These assess-
ment profiles give the teacher a general
orientation for supporting each infant
or toddler over a period of weeks and
months; they help the teacher be sen-
sitive to the next steps in each child’s
development.
Observations that teachers make
while interacting with infants inform
the assessment process. For instance,
a teacher may observe and note that
when she brings out a clean diaper
during a diaper change, a child stops
moving and points at the diaper until
the teacher says the word “diaper,”
When completing the DRDP infant/
and then the child smiles and makes
toddler assessment instrument, teach-
the sound “di.” This observation could
ers also use observational anecdotes,
be used as the teacher determines
notes, and information from the fam-
whether the child is at the “Acting
ily and other teachers to determine
with Purpose” developmental level
the child’s level of progress in each
of the DRDP’s “Communication and
developmental domain. For each child,
Language” measures. As teachers
the resulting developmental profile
gain familiarity with the DRDP, they
shows developmental progress in
often find that they can use their daily
each domain and whether the child
observations to complete it and not
needs additional support in particular
have to take time out of their day for
domains.
42
Planning Based on Observation, individually and with colleagues and

Documentation, and Assessment family members. Taking time to slow
down, review, and think about each
Teachers use observation, reflec- child’s behavior, temperament, learn-
tion, documentation, and assessment ing interests, developmental profile,
to plan effective curriculum to support and needs helps teachers deepen
children’s learning. When teachers their understanding and appreciation
make written records of infant/toddler of each child and gives them ideas
play and interactions, they document on how to continue to support that
children’s learning. As stated earlier, child’s learning and development.32
to document means to intentionally
record various aspects of children’s Documentation based on observa-
experiences in the infant/toddler tion helps teachers plan for the next
environment. Through documentation, steps in the child’s learning. It informs
teachers make visible the ways infants curriculum plans, as teachers are able
and toddlers learn. Anecdotal notes or to predict what each child is likely to
photos make it possible to reflect with focus on over the next days or weeks.
others on a child’s (or a small group For example, if a teacher has docu-
of children’s) learning experiences. mented with a photo and a note that
In doing so, teachers and parents a child has begun to stand up with
together are able to appreciate and support, the next step for that child’s
assess children’s learning and devel- motor development will be cruis-
opmental progress. Such observational ing—moving from place to place while
evidence supports teachers in their standing and holding on to something
planning of how to extend, expand, for support. Knowing this, the teacher
and add complexity to children’s learn- can modify the active-movement inter-
ing through effective curriculum. est area to include supports on which
the child might pull up to a standing
Infant care teachers study their
position and begin to cruise around
observation records, documentation,
the play area from place to place. As
and assessment information both
teachers observe, reflect, and docu-
43

ment, they become more attentive and tion ensures that the curriculum will
responsive to each child’s ongoing engage the children’s emerging inter-
development. ests, concepts, and skills. Moreover,
In addition, teachers’ reflections on when planning curriculum with the
observations of an individual child may California infant/toddler learning and
lead to further reflection on the emerg- development foundations in mind,
ing interests, concepts, and skills of teachers build on infants’ interests and
other children in the small group. The support their developing foundational
vignette about Kaysha’s exploration of competencies simultaneously.
water illustrates how one child’s learn- Based on insights from reflection,
ing focus may expand to other chil- the infant care teacher develops ideas
dren. for next steps to support each child’s
While discussing observations of Kay- learning and development, including
sha’s exploration of water, the teach- possible adaptations to interactions,
ers began to wonder whether other environments, activities, and routines.
children around Kaysha’s age might The California infant/toddler learning
be interested in water and where it and development program guidelines
goes when poured on dirt or on the describe the process in the following
hard cement or rocks. The teachers way:
brainstormed ideas on how to include
This important part of the process
experiences with pouring water in the
can be exciting and invigorating for
sand/dirt area and on the cement
teachers as they come up with ideas
surfaces in the yard. They noted that
and think about how they might
such experiences might be rich in
adapt the environment or routines or
opportunities to present problems to
introduce a new routine or material
the toddlers that might engage their
based on observations, notes, DRDP-
emerging interest in cause-and-effect
R information, reflection, and discus-
and might help them experience how
sion. Part of the planning process
the different surfaces influence how
includes reducing the list of ideas to
the water moves. They also wondered
one or two that relate directly to the
whether they would observe how the
interests and abilities of a child or a
toddlers might work together in such
small group of children. Once teach-
play. They reflected on both famil-
ers have a plan for the next step in
iar and new vocabulary that might
supporting a child’s learning and
become a part of the children’s explo-
development, they then introduce the
ration of water.
adaptation or change in a way that
When teachers use observation and allows the child to make choices and
documentation to plan curriculum, interact freely and creatively with the
new material, environmental set-up
they interpret children’s play as a way
or experience.33
to generate curriculum experiences
that will relate to various developmen- The teacher may plan to extend or
tal domains and that will add com- support learning in particular areas,
plexity to the learning of individual depending on the results of her review
children and small groups of children. of the child’s information during the
In other words, planning curriculum reflection phase. DRDP results per-
based on observation and documenta- tinent to the child’s developmental
44
level in different areas may inform result of adaptations made in the child
a plan. Plans can be brief and flex- care program. Sharing plans can be a
ible, because the general principle of way for teachers and families to come
responsiveness to the child’s moment- together, enhancing their sense of
to-moment interests and needs applies partnership in the special experience
to this part of the curriculum planning of watching children grow and develop.
process just as it does to other parts of
the process.
Implementation of a Plan
A plan allows a teacher to experi-
ment and thereby learn more about Each day, infant care teachers
the child and about oneself as a introduce or implement possibilities
teacher. The implementation of a plan for expanding children’s learning and
may produce an unexpected or sur- development. Once the children in care
prising result. A surprise, in turn, have been observed, and their experi-
may lead to new insights: a chance to ences documented, teachers try out
fine-tune understanding of the child their plans by making changes in the
through observation or communication environment, introducing materials,
with family members or colleagues. relating to and interacting with the
Thus it is recommended that programs children in new ways, and highlighting
“support teachers to implement plans objects or concepts for selective focus.
in the spirit of experimentation: each However, this implementation process
time a plan works or does not work, should not be seen as an end point
teachers can learn and grow from the in the curriculum planning process.
experience.”34 Each child’s unique thoughts, feelings,
Plans also present an opportu- needs, and interests in reaction to the
nity for strengthening relationships plan or a strategy should influence
between programs and families and for the way implementation occurs. How
fostering family engagement in their each infant or toddler will respond to a
children’s care. Through the planning teacher’s suggestions is unpredictable.
phase, teachers can communicate Once a possibility or suggestion is
and collaborate with parents. In cen- introduced, the teacher follows along,
ter programs, partnering can extend observes what each child does, and
to fellow teachers and other staff is responsive to individual children’s
members. Plans are shared to provide ongoing engagement in learning.
information about changes and to Like every other step in the curricu-
strengthen relationships with families lum planning process, implementa-
and colleagues. Changes in routines tion includes observation, reflection,
may be a particularly important focus documentation, and interpretation.
of communication with parents and Teachers note both their approach
colleagues. Communication about to implementation and the children’s
plans can enhance parents’ feelings responses (or lack of response) to it. As
of inclusion in the program and pro- teachers try out their plans with the
vide them with opportunities to com- children, observation and documen-
municate about their child. Parents tation have an additional focus; the
may also be interested in watching for ongoing study leads to further curricu-
changes in their child’s behavior as a lum ideas to plan and implement.
45
Once an interaction with a child or cesses and come into play constantly
small group of children begins, teach- during the implementation process.
ers have to be ready to adapt their
plans and actions to the momentary The Overall Approach to
and often changing needs and inter- Implementation
ests of each child. Adaptation and The activities, environments, and
change are critical parts of both chil- interaction opportunities that are
dren’s and teachers’ learning pro-
46
introduced should reflect respect for The teacher’s interaction strategies

(1) the competencies that infants and are complemented by a supportive
toddlers bring to each interaction and environment that offers:
(2) the children’s need for relation- • a safe and interesting place for
ship-based experiences. To work well, learning;
implementation should adapt to the
infant’s changing interests and needs • a variety of materials that are appro-
during each day. In this way, the cur- priate for the individual needs and
riculum will be responsive to what the interests of infants and toddlers in
infants bring to early experiences and the group;
to what the children seek from those • organization of learning and care in
experiences. Implementation should: small groups;
• orient the infant care teacher to the • adherence to policies that maximize
role of facilitator of learning; each child’s sense of security in care
• help the teacher read the cues of and continuity of relationship with
each infant in the small group; the teachers;
• address the whole learning experi- • optimization of program connections

ence of the children, including the with the child’s family.
learning environment and the pro- For example, a teacher may have
gram policies that contribute to the observed over several days that a small
learning climate; group of older toddlers is becoming
• spark each infant’s interest and fascinated with pretend play. Among
encourage and support exploration; the reasons that the teacher may be
• reflect consideration for developmen- attuned to this interest is its connec-
tal stages but also allow for indi- tion to several infant/toddler learn-
vidual variations in temperament, ing and development foundations,
approach, and pace; most notably, symbolic play. Through
reflection on observations and docu-
• be broad enough in scope to enable mentation of the children’s emerging
the teacher to respond to all devel- interests, the teacher may decide to
opmental domains simultaneously. place additional puppets in the envi-
ronment. The teacher may won-
der whether the puppets would
motivate the children to con-
tinue to build their interest in
pretend play. Rather than draw-
ing attention to the puppets, the
teacher may simply decide to
place the puppets in the dra-
matic play area in the room. The
teacher may also add to the out-
side play area some new props
related to gardening. Then,
curious about what the children
47

will do with the new play materials, the learning may start out the same way,
teacher would wait to see what hap- the path each child takes with the
pens next. Anything could happen; the new possibility will require the teacher
children may not be interested in the to make adaptations. As soon as an
new materials, or they may begin to interaction with an infant begins, the
engage in lively pretend play that sug- curriculum planning process and the
gests new possibilities to the teacher. PITC responsive process (Watch, Ask,
The above example of supporting Adapt) work hand in hand. For a strat-
older toddlers’ pretend play is one of egy or plan based on prior observation,
countless possible ideas teachers may documentation, and reflection to be
try out with infants as part of a reflec- effective, the teacher has to follow each
tive, responsive approach to imple- child’s lead and create with the child a
mentation. In addition to modifying the learning experience that is personally
environment and introducing equip- meaningful and responsive, moment
ment and play materials, teachers by moment.
adapt their interaction strategies with
children based on what they discover Tools to Support Implementation:
through observation, documentation, The Program for Infant/Toddler
and reflection. Care (PITC) and the Infant/
In another instance, a teacher may Toddler Learning and Develop-
realize that the children are starting ment Program Guidelines
to explore the environment in a new Workbook
way. With insights about the children’s The PITC offers a great deal of infor-
ongoing development, the teacher may mation to help teachers implement
step back when the children move curriculum plans responsively and
out into the environment. When relat- respectfully. At the heart of the PITC
ing to the infants from a distance, the is a family-oriented approach that
teacher may discover that one child emphasizes close relationships with
may enjoy making contact from a dis- infants and toddlers as the starting
tance, while another child may need point for facilitating early learning and
to stay close and often seeks physical development. The PITC’s responsive
contact. process enables teachers to interact
The same teacher may observe that with an infant spontaneously while
some of the children have an emerging observing the child, searching for a
interest in joint attention or looking at response that meets the child’s inter-
things together with the teacher. As a ests or needs, and then adapting by
result, the teacher may make a point trying out a response to the child’s
of looking at books more frequently cues. The PITC works hand in hand
with children who want to look at with other resources in the Califor-
things with an adult. When sharing nia Early Learning and Development
books with children, the teacher may System, particularly the CDE publi-
notice that two of the children spend a cation Infant/Toddler Learning and
long time looking at each picture, while Development Program Guidelines: The
another child prefers to turn the pages Workbook. This resource contains
quickly. Although implementing an many useful suggestions for imple-
interaction strategy to support infants’
48
mentation, as well as activities that a Disability: Statewide Report (Sacramento,

2008).
teacher can incorporate individually
or with a group of teachers. The work- 13. California Department of Education,
book is available for purchase from Infant/Toddler Learning and Development
Program Guidelines (Sacramento, 2006), p.
CDE Press. For more information, visit 10.
http://www.cde.ca.gov/re/pn/rc/ or
call 1-800-995-4099. 14. S. Greenspan and N. T. Greenspan, First
Feelings: Milestones in the Emotional Devel-
opment of Your Baby and Child (New York:
Endnotes Penguin Books, 1985).
15. S. M. Bell and M. D. Salter Ainsworth,

1. M.J. Guralnick, Early Childhood Inclusion: “Infant Crying and Maternal Responsive-
Focus on Change (Baltimore, MD: Paul H. ness,” Child Development 43, no. 4 (Dec
Brookes Publishing, 2001). 1972).
2. California Department of Education, 16. California Department of Education and
Students by Ethnicity, State of California, WestEd, Infant/Toddler Caregiving: A
2008–09 (Sacramento, 2009). Guide to Cognitive Development and Learn-
ing, pp.15–16 (Sacramento, 1995).
3. Children Now, California Report Card 2010:
Setting the Agenda for Children. 17. California Department of Education, Pre-
kindergarten Learning and Development
4. California Department of Education, Guidelines (Sacramento, 2000), p. 39.
Number of English Learners by Language,
2008–09 (Sacramento, 2009). 18. California Department of Education,
Preschool English Learners: Principles and
5. Children Now, California Report Card 2010: Practices to Promote Language, Literacy,
Setting the Agenda for Children. and Learning, 2nd ed. (Sacramento, 2009),
p. 43.
6. Preschool California, Kids Can’t Wait to
Learn: Achieving Voluntary Preschool for All 19. California Department of Education, Pre-
in California (Oakland, CA, 2004). kindergarten Learning and Development
Guidelines (Sacramento, 2000), p. 45.
7. California Department of Education,
Number of English Learners by Language, 20. J. E. Hale-Benson, Black Children: Their
2008–09 (Sacramento, 2009). Roots, Culture, and Learning Styles, rev.
ed. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press, 1986).
Preschool English Learners: Principles and
Practices to Promote Language, Literacy, 21. B. Y. Terrell and J. E. Hale, “Serving a
and Learning, 2nd ed. (Sacramento, 2009). Multicultural Population: Different Learn-
ing Styles,” American Journal of Speech-
9. U.S. Census Bureau, 2006 American Com-
Language Pathology 1 (1992).
munity Survey: United States and States—
R1704. Percent of Children Under 18 Years 22. A. S. Epstein, The Intentional Teacher:
Below Poverty Level in the Past 12 months. Choosing the Best Strategies for Young Chil-
dren’s Learning (Washington, DC: NAEYC,
10. A. Douglas-Hall and M. Chau, Basic Facts
2007), p. 1.
About Low-Income Children: Birth to Age 6
(New York: National Center for Children in 23. Center for Applied Special Technology
Poverty, 2007). (CAST), Universal Design for Learning
(2007).
11. Children Now, California Report Card
2006–2007: The State of the State’s Chil- 24. National Research Council and Institute of
dren. Medicine, From Neurons to Neighborhoods:
The Science of Early Childhood Develop-
ment (Washington, DC: National Academies
Special Education Enrollment by Age and
Press, 2000).
49

25. National Scientific Council on the Develop- Bibliography
ing Child, The Timing and Quality of Early
Experiences Combine to Shape Brain Archi-
tecture: Working Paper No. 5 (2008), p. 4. Bell, Sylvia M., and Mary D. Salter Ainsworth.
“Infant Crying and Maternal Responsive-
26. Ibid. ness.” Child Development 43, no. 4 (Dec
1972): 1171–90.
27. California Department of Education, Cali-
fornia Infant/Toddler Learning and Devel- California Department of Education. California
opment Foundations (Sacramento, 2009), Infant/Toddler Learning and Develop-
p. 16. ment Foundations. Sacramento: California
Department of Education, 2009.
28. Ibid.
———. Infant/Toddler Learning and Develop-
29. Ibid, p. 21. ment Program Guidelines. Sacramento:
California Department of Education, 2006.
Infant/Toddler Learning and Development ———. Inclusion Works! Creating Child Care Pro-
Program Guidelines (Sacramento, 2006), grams That Promote Belonging for Children
p. 101. with Special Needs. Sacramento: California
31. L. Gandini and J. Goldhaber, “Two Reflec-
tions About Documentation: Documenta- ———. Number of English Learners by Lan-
tion as a Tool for Promoting the Construc- guage, 2008–09. Sacramento: California
tion of Respectful Learning” (New York: Department of Education, 2009. http://
Teachers College Press, 2001), p. 126. dq.cde.ca.gov/dataquest/LEPbyLang1.
asp?cChoice=LepbyLang1&cYear=2008-
32. California Department of Education, 09&cLevel=State&cTopic=LC&myTime
Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Frame=S&submit1=Submit (accessed
Program Guidelines (Sacramento, 2006), p. October 18, 2010).
39.
———. Prekindergarten Learning and Develop-
33. Ibid, pp. 39–40. ment Guidelines. Sacramento: California
34. Ibid, p. 107.
50
———. Preschool English Learners: Principles Gandini, L., and J. Goldhaber. “Two Reflections
and Practices to Promote Language, Lit- About Documentation: Documentation
eracy, and Learning. 2nd ed. Sacramento: as a Tool for Promoting the Construc-
California Department of Education, 2009. tion of Respectful Learning,” in Bambini:
The Italian Approach to Infant/Toddler
———. Special Education Enrollment by Care. Edited by L. Gandini and C. Pope
Age and Disability: Statewide Report. Edwards. New York: Teachers College
Sacramento: California Department Press, 2001.
of Education, 2008. http://dq.cde.
ca.gov/dataquest/SpecEd/SpecEd1. Greenspan, S., and N. T. Greenspan. First Feel-
asp?cChoice=SpecEd1&cYear=2008- ings: Milestones in the Emotional Develop-
09&cLevel=State&cTopic=SpecEd&myTime ment of Your Baby and Child. New York:
Frame=S&submit1=Submit&ReptCycle= Penguin Books, 1985.
December (accessed October 26, 2010).
Guralnick, M.J. Early Childhood Inclusion:
———. Students by Ethnicity, State of Cali- Focus on Change. Baltimore, MD: Paul H.
fornia, 2008–09. Sacramento: California Brookes Publishing Company, 2001.
Hale-Benson, J. E. Black Children: Their Roots,
Culture, and Learning Styles. Rev. ed.
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1986.
———. A World Full of Language: Supporting
Preschool English Learners. DVD. Sacra- National Center for Children in Poverty (NCCP).
mento: California Department of Educa- California Early Childhood Profile. 2009.
tion, 2007. http://www.nccp.org/profiles/pdf/profile_
early_childhood_CA.pdf (accessed October
California Department of Education and 18, 2010).
WestEd. Infant/Toddler Caregiving: A
Guide to Cognitive Development and Learn- National Research Council and Institute of
ing. Sacramento: California Department of Medicine. From Neurons to Neighborhoods:
Education, 1995. The Science of Early Childhood Develop-
ment. Committee on Integrating the Sci-
Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST). ence of Early Childhood Development.
Universal Design for Learning. 2007. Edited by J. P. Shonkoff and D. A. Phillips.
http://www.cast.org/udl (accessed Board on Children, Youth, and Families
October 26, 2010). National Research Council and Institute of
Medicine. Washington, DC: National Acad-
Children Now. California Report Card 2006– emies Press, 2000.
2007: The State of the State’s Children.
2007. (accessed October 26, 2010). National Scientific Council on the Developing
Child. The Timing and Quality of Early
Experiences Combine to Shape Brain Archi-
tecture: Working Paper No. 5, 2008. http://
———. California Report Card 2010: Setting the developingchild.harvard.edu/index.php/
Agenda for Children. 2010. (accessed resources/reports_and_working_papers/
October 18, working_papers/wp5/ (accessed October
27, 2010).
2010).
Preschool California. Kids Can’t Wait to Learn:
Douglas-Hall, A., and M. Chau. Basic Facts Achieving Voluntary Preschool for All in
About Low-Income Children: Birth to Age 6. California. Oakland, CA: Preschool Califor-
New York: National Center for Children in nia, 2004.
Poverty, 2007.
Terrell, Brenda Y., and Janice E. Hale, “Serv-
Epstein, A. S. The Intentional Teacher: ing a Multicultural Population: Different
Choosing the Best Strategies for Young Learning Styles.” American Journal of
Children’s Learning. Washington, DC: Speech-Language Pathology 1 (1992): 5–8.
National Association for the Education
of Young Children (NAEYC), 2007.
51

U.S. Census Bureau. 2006 American Commu- WestEd, Program for Infant/Toddler Care.
nity Survey: United States and States— Trainer’s Manual, Module 1: Social–Emo-
R1704. Percent of Children Under 18 Years tional Growth and Socialization. Sacra-
Below Poverty Level in the Past 12 months. mento: California Department of Educa-
2006. http://factfinder2.census.gov/ tion, 1995.
faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/
productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_06_
EST_R1704.US01PRF&prodType=table
(accessed January 25, 2012).
Chapter 2
The California Early

Learning and
Development System
C
hapter 1 highlights how infants • Learning and development program
and toddlers actively engage in guidelines
learning through interaction • Desired Results Developmental
with others and through exploration Profile (DRDP)—part of the Desired
of their environment. Research on Results assessment system
high-quality infant/toddler care con-
firms the essential role that sensitive, • Program for Infant/Toddler Care
responsive infant/toddler care teach- (PITC) training system
ers play in early learning and develop- • Curriculum framework
ment. Teachers need to be knowledge-
The infant/toddler curriculum
able about how infants and toddlers
framework highlights other com-
learn and be skillful at nurturing
ponents of the Early Learning and
infants’ self-initiated engagement in
Development System and includes
learning. This curriculum framework
recommendations on how to use them.
is a component of the California Early
For example, chapter 1 refers to the
Learning and Development System,
infant/toddler learning and develop-
which is designed to foster the devel-
ment foundations, and the strategies
opment of early care and education
presented in chapters 3 through 6
professionals. Each component has a
are organized around the founda-
specific focus. Together, the compo-
tions. Guidance is given on how to
nents provide a comprehensive system
use the content of the foundations,
of support for early childhood profes-
which identify three major transition
sionals and infant/toddler programs
points during the infancy period—at
in their work with children and fami-
around eight months, at around 18
lies. The system includes the following
months, and at around 36 months.
infant/toddler components:
Similarly, chapter 1 includes excerpts
• Learning and development founda- from the infant/toddler learning and
tions development program guidelines and
53
54
California’s
Early Learning and Development System
Program
Curriculum
Guidelines and
Frameworks
Resources
Learning and
Development
Foundations
Desired Results
Professional
Assessment
Development
System
Chapter 2: The California Early Learning
California Department of Education, Child Development Division

and Development System
highlights the DRDP. The curriculum Results Developmental Profile (DRDP),

planning process described in this is described in greater detail than the
framework will help early childhood others. The DRDP allows teachers to
educators use the other four compo- assess children’s progress in key areas
nents of the system, which, in turn, of learning, which is integral to curric-
are designed to enrich the use of the ulum planning. A description of each
curriculum framework. component area follows.
To support infant/toddler care
teachers, the California Early Learn-
Infant/Toddler Learning and
ing and Development System was built
with state-of-the-art information on
Development Foundations
early learning and development and California’s infant/toddler learning
features best practices in early care and development foundations are cen-
and education. Each component area tral to the state’s Early Learning and
of the system provides resources that Development System. The foundations
focus on a different aspect of support- describe competencies—knowledge
ing infant/toddler care teachers and and skills—that all young children typ-
is linked to the resources provided in ically learn with appropriate support.
every other component of the system. They also present infant/toddler learn-
This chapter provides an overview of ing and development as an integrated
the component areas and some of the process that includes social–emotional
resources. One resource, the Desired development, language development,
55
cognitive development, and perceptual DVD clips bring the foundations to life,
and motor development. The foun- illustrating the behavior described in
dations give a comprehensive view the foundations through the behavior
of what infants and toddlers learn of a variety of children. This three-DVD
through child-initiated exploration and set includes an introduction to the
discovery, teacher-facilitated experi- foundations, commentary on the foun-
ences, and planned environments, dations, and domain introductions as
offering rich background information well as extended scenes (with optional
for teachers to consider as they plan commentary) that show the integrated
for children. nature of early learning.
The foundations identify key areas of The foundations are central to
learning and development. While mov- the other components of the Early
ing in the direction identified by each Learning and Development System—
foundation, every child will progress namely, program guidelines, other
along a unique path that reflects his resources, and professional develop-
or her individuality and cultural and ment. The program guidelines and
linguistic experiences. The founda- other resources cover a broad range of
tions help teachers understand chil- policies and practices that influence
dren’s learning and can give focus to program quality, such as the design

intentional teaching. Other resources of indoor and outdoor learning envi-
that support intentional teaching are ronments, partnerships with families,
organized around the foundations. As cultural diversity, inclusion of children
explained in chapter 1 of this frame- with special needs, and professional
work, strategies for fostering children’s ethics. In implementing recommended

learning in each area are organized by policies and practices, program direc-
the domains specified in the founda- tors and teachers set the stage for
tions. In addition, the DRDP is aligned intentional curriculum planning that
with the foundations, and that align- aligns with the infant/toddler learning
ment fosters an integrated image of and development foundations. With
each child. Unlike a developmental regard to professional development,
profile with a large number of indica- the CDE has initiated a multifaceted
tors, the fully aligned DRDP provides a strategy of training and technical
profile of individual children’s progress assistance that is aligned with the
in each domain. With developmen- infant/toddler learning foundations to
tal profile information focused on the support the use of all resources in the
domain areas, teachers will be able to early learning system.
use the curriculum framework to sup-
port each child’s learning in various
Infant/Toddler Curriculum
domains in an integrated way.
To support professional development
Framework
focused on the foundations, the Cali- Ongoing classroom planning is an
fornia Department of Education (CDE) integral part of intentional teaching.
developed the California Infant/Toddler The infant/toddler curriculum frame-
Learning and Development Foundations work is the resource in the early learn-
DVD Series. Filmed at diverse infant/ ing system that focuses on planning
toddler programs around the state, the for children’s learning. The framework
56
includes principles, concepts, and learning from the curriculum frame-

practices that reflect a developmen- work, but neither of those resources
tally appropriate approach to planning informs teachers about individual
learning environments, interactions, children’s learning and developmental
experiences, and daily routines for progress. The Desired Results Devel-
young children. Designed to foster opmental Profile (DRDP) infant/tod-
respect for the diversity of infants and dler instrument, a component of the
toddlers, families, teachers, commu- CDE’s Desired Results system, is the
nities, and programs in California, resource in the early learning system
the framework is flexible; it does not that assists teachers with document-
prescribe activities that teachers are ing individual children’s progress. The
expected to follow. Rather, it encour- DRDP is an observational assessment
ages teachers to adapt to individual, instrument that is aligned with the
cultural, and linguistic diversity foundations. It provides teachers with
as they support children’s ongoing a developmental profile of each child’s
engagement in exploration and discov- progress. In addition, teachers can
ery. look at the individual profiles for an
As mentioned previously, chap- entire classroom to see the extent to
ters 3 through 6 of the curriculum which all children in a group are mak-
framework are closely aligned with ing progress and benefiting from the
the infant/toddler learning and devel- teachers’ classroom planning.
opment foundations. Each of these Information gained from the DRDP
chapters focuses on a specific domain helps teachers plan for individual
presented in the foundations: social– children and for small groups of
emotional development (chapter 3); children. As described in chapter 1,

language development (chapter 4); teachers review individual children’s
cognitive development (chapter 5); and developmental profiles for any emerg-
perceptual and motor development ing knowledge and skills that might
(chapter 6). The framework is meant to be supported. In one example, the
support young children’s learning in teacher noted that a child was making
all of these domains. It offers an in- progress toward pulling up to a stand-
depth look at ways to help infants and ing position with support and toward
toddlers acquire knowledge and skills cruising. The information from the
in specific areas, always within the child’s DRDP led the teacher to check
context of an integrated approach to the environment to make sure it pro-
supporting learning. vided furnishings that would facilitate
that kind of movement.
It is important for teachers to docu-
Desired Results Assessment
ment individual children’s learning.
System—Desired Results By doing so, they can deepen their
Developmental Profile understanding of how to support each
(DRDP) child’s learning and development. As
Teachers gain general knowledge teachers observe and document what
of young children’s learning from the engages children in learning, especially
foundations, and ideas for supporting during child-initiated play, they simul-
taneously reflect on what they observe,
57
document significant aspects by taking ent from the other levels. Brief descrip-
notes or photos, and begin to appreci- tions of infant and toddler behavior at
ate each child’s creation of meaning. each level follow:
Ongoing observation, reflection, and Responding with Reflexes. Chil-
documentation occur throughout each dren at this level produce basic
day. Teachers continually gain insights responses, such as the Moro Reflex,
and find new ways to connect with turning the head, looking in their
the children’s developing competen- immediate visual field, and cooing.
cies, expand children’s thinking, and Expanding Responses. Over time,
encourage further exploration of an as infants interact with people who
emerging idea or ability. The day-to- care for them and explore objects in
day documentation of children’s learn- their immediate physical environment,
ing experiences becomes the source and gain some rudimentary motor
for periodic assessment of children’s control, they move to the next level on
developmental progress. the continuum. They add to their basic
Teachers use documentation gath- responses; for example, they start to
ered over time to complete a DRDP for make new sounds, gain control over
each child. These assessment instru- head movements, reach for objects,
ments produce developmental pro- and smile in response to pleasurable

files for each child across the major experiences.
domains of learning and development, Acting with Purpose. Children at
such as social–emotional development, this level begin to organize responses
language development and emerging to accomplish goals, solve problems,
literacy, cognitive development, and strengthen their sense of emotional

perceptual and motor development. security, communicate, explore the
The resulting developmental profile environment, coordinate simple
for each child shows the domains in actions with others’ actions, and
which the child has made progress attend to the routine actions of others.
and whether there are any domains in Discovering Ideas. Children at this
which he or she needs additional sup- level explore and express simple con-
port. As discussed in chapter 1, teach- cepts about self, others, and things;
ers use information from the DRDP to maintain attention for increasingly
provide each child with an appropriate extended periods of time; begin to
level of challenge in specific knowledge engage in cooperative interaction, such
and skill areas as children engage in as playing a simple game; and follow
an integrated learning experience. guidance from others.
To facilitate curriculum planning, Developing Ideas. Children at this
the DRDP infant/toddler instru- level anticipate situations by preparing
ment summarizes children’s prog- self and taking action ahead of time;
ress in each learning area along a use increasingly complex language
continuum of either five or six levels: to describe self, others, routines, and
Responding with Reflexes, Expand- events; engage in simple play around
ing Responses, Acting with Purpose, a common idea; initiate and follow
Discovering Ideas, Developing Ideas, through with actions; respond to
and Connecting Ideas. Each level on increasingly complex requests; rely on
this continuum is qualitatively differ- past guidance; and engage in interac-
58
user guide and training

information provide guid-
ance to teachers on how to
document and assess com-
petencies dual-language
learners demonstrate using
their home language.*
Families play an essen-
tial role in their children’s
learning. They know their
children better than anyone
else and are able to provide
insights and ideas that add
to teachers’ understanding
of children. Reflecting with
tions to share thoughts, feelings, and family members on documentation
experiences to solve problems and and an infant’s or toddler’s individual
make plans. profile of developmental progress
Connecting Ideas. Children at strengthens the curriculum planning
this level combine words, phrases, or process. Partnering with families in

actions to express themselves, play, this process honors their role in their
and solve problems; follow increasingly children’s learning and communicates
complex sequences of actions, such respect. Together, teachers and fami-
as the meaning of simple stories; and lies can generate ideas and activities to
communicate about future events. foster children’s development of knowl-

At all times, young children’s learn- edge and skills at school and home.
ing is integrated. Every experience The DRDP is part of the Desired
offers them an opportunity to develop Results assessment system, which,
a wide range of knowledge and skills. in turn, is part of the larger Califor-
Likewise, every experience typically nia Early Learning and Development
involves more than a single compe- System. In addition to the DRDP, the
tency as children learn. One of the Desired Results system includes the
most important competencies that Desired Results Parent Survey and
infants and toddlers develop is lan- the Environment Rating Scale (ERS).
guage. As described in chapter 1, Information collected with the Desired
children who are dual-language learn- Results assessment tools allows early
ers use both languages as they learn childhood educators to review, evalu-
in all domains. Because dual-language ate, and reflect on:
learners may use their home language • the strengths of their program (for
to show understanding of specific dis- example, a program may already
coveries (e.g., cause-and-effect rela- provide a rich collection of age-
tionships or how things fit and move appropriate books);
in space), teachers often document
and assess the extent to which a child
demonstrates knowledge and skills in *
The DRDP user guide is available at http://www.
wested.org/desiredresults/training/index.htm.
his or her home language. The DRDP
59
• ways to increase the quality of their quality of the interactions, the space,
program (for example, a program the schedule, and the materials they
may discover a need to partner with provide to their group of children. The
the children’s families to increase ERS is completed, summarized, ana-
the variety of activities and interac- lyzed, and then considered in program
tions it offers in support of children’s improvement plans once a year. Teach-
perceptual and motor development, ers combine information gained from
both in the infant/toddler care set- the ERS with other sources to engage
ting and at home); in long-term planning and continuous
• the effectiveness of their program’s program improvement.
curriculum (for example, informa-
tion on the children’s current prog- Program Guidelines and
ress in engaging in emotion regula- Other Resources
tion would help teachers focus their
curriculum planning on the area of Infant/Toddler Learning and
social–emotional development). Development Program Guidelines
Descriptions of the Desired Results The infant/toddler learning and
Parent Survey and the ERS follow. development program guidelines rec-

ommend policies and practices that
Desired Results Parent Survey
enhance the quality of infant/tod-
The Desired Results Parent Survey is dler programs. In addition to giving
used (1) to assess parent satisfaction an overview of infants’ and toddlers’
with the early childhood program, and learning and development and cur-

(2) to gain an understanding of fami- riculum planning, the guidelines cover
lies’ strengths and needs in supporting a broad range of topics that contribute
their children’s learning and develop- to program quality, particularly the fol-
ment and in achieving their goals. Pro- lowing:
grams conduct this survey annually as
• Providing family-oriented programs
part of their self-review.
Teachers reflect on responses to • Providing relationship-based care
the parent survey to understand • Ensuring health and safety
other information they have gathered
• Creating and maintaining environ-
about the children and the program,
ments for infants and toddlers
to identify program strengths, and
to determine ways to facilitate family • Engaging in program development
participation in the program and help and commitment to continuous
family members build their capacity improvement
for supporting their children’s learning • Helping teachers continue to grow
and development. professionally
Environment Rating Scale (ERS) • Understanding that learning and
development are integrated across
The ERS assesses the quality of the
domains
learning environment.* Specifically,
teachers use the ERS to assess the • Implementing an infant/toddler cur-
*
riculum process
See Harms, Clifford, and Cryer 2005, p. 92.
60
As stated earlier in this chapter, the Professional Development

recommendations in the infant/toddler
Professional development makes the
learning and development program
California Early Learning and Develop-
guidelines set the stage for intentional
ment System come alive for teachers
teaching and curriculum planning
and program directors. The CDE has
centered on the infant/toddler learning
adopted a multifaceted approach to
and development foundations.
promoting the use of the early learning
The program guidelines are com-
system in professional development.
plemented by two resources that
Initiatives include the preparation
are intended to help educators and
and ongoing professional develop-
trainers in their professional develop-
ment of infant/toddler teachers in
ment work with infant/toddler care
two- and four-year colleges. In addi-
teachers. A workbook—officially titled
tion, a network has been created to
Infant/Toddler Learning and Develop-
support the continuing development
ment Program Guidelines: The Work-
of current infant/toddler care teach-
book—consists of active learning expe-
ers. To guide and foster professional
riences for each section of the program
development, the CDE partnered with
guidelines. The learning experiences
First 5 California to develop Early
promote understanding of the guide-
Childhood Educator (ECE) Competen-

lines and advise how to implement rec-
cies that are aligned with the infant/
ommended policies and practices. The
toddler learning foundations and all
workbook supports the development
other resources in the early learning
of a learning community in which
system.† These competencies describe
current infant/toddler care teachers,
the knowledge, skills, and dispositions

and individuals who are preparing to
of early childhood educators and will
become infant/toddler care teachers,
become the CDE’s cornerstone for pro-
have multiple opportunities to explore
fessional development, training, and
recommended program policies and
technical assistance.
practices and learn from one another.
The Infant/Toddler Learning and
Development Program Guidelines DVD In-Depth Understanding
Series presents a subset of the learn- and Planning for Children’s
ing activities from the program guide- Integrated Learning
lines workbook. In the DVD clips,
The different resources and activi-
practitioners who have completed a
ties that make up the California Early
workbook activity discuss their experi-
Learning and Development System
ence and reflect on what they learned
offer infant/toddler program direc-
from it. Thus the workbook and DVDs
tors and teachers opportunities for
are designed to complement each
in-depth exploration of a wide variety
other; the workbook activities allow
of topics. As part of the system, this
teachers to explore ideas firsthand,
curriculum framework invites teach-
while the DVDs augment the active
learning experiences by showing teach-
†
ers in discussions about the insights Visit the CDE’s Child Development Web site (http://
www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/) to access the ECE Com-
and understanding they gained from petencies and other California Early Learning and
the activities. Development System resources.
61
ers to explore the details of curricu- ———. Infant/Toddler Learning and Develop-
ment Program Guidelines. Sacramento:
lum planning in each domain. At the
California Department of Education, 2006.
same time, rather than being isolated
from learning in other domains, the ———. Infant/Toddler Learning and Develop-
ment Program Guidelines, DVD Series.
strategies presented for one domain
DVD. Sacramento: California Department
are connected with learning in other of Education, 2009.
domains. By deepening their under-
———. Infant/Toddler Learning and Develop-
standing of each domain, teachers can ment Program Guidelines: The Workbook.
see new possibilities for integrating Sacramento: California Department of
curriculum planning and connecting Education, 2009.
children’s learning experiences. The Harms, T., R. M. Clifford, and D. Cryer. Early
chapters that follow explore in detail Childhood Environment Rating Scale. Rev.
the domains of social–emotional devel- ed. New York: Teachers College Press,
2005.
opment, language development, cogni-
tive development, and perceptual and
motor development. As the vignettes
in chapter 1 illustrate, teachers draw
on their comprehensive understand-
ing of children’s learning in different

domains. As teachers observe, reflect
on, and document each child’s engage-
ment in exploration and discovery,
their knowledge of strategies that
support learning in various domains

helps them use an integrated approach
when planning curriculum. With in-
depth knowledge of how to support
knowledge and skill development in
every domain, teachers can more eas-
ily focus on a specific area of learning
while being responsive to each child’s
whole learning experience.
Bibliography
California Department of Education. California
Infant/Toddler Learning and Develop-
ment Foundations. Sacramento: California
———. California Infant/Toddler Learning and

Development Foundations, DVD Series.
DVD. Sacramento: California Department
of Education, 2009.
Chapter 3
Social–Emotional
Development
S
ocial–emotional development efits of social support, which is critical
includes the child’s experience, to healthy human development and
expression, and management of functioning.
emotions and the ability to establish Healthy social–emotional develop-
positive and rewarding relationships ment for infants and toddlers unfolds
with others.1 It encompasses both in an interpersonal context, namely
intra- and interpersonal processes. that of positive ongoing relationships
with familiar, nurturing adults. Young
The core features of emotional devel-
children are particularly attuned to
opment include the ability to identify
social and emotional stimulation, and
and understand one’s own feelings,
to accurately read and comprehend newborns appear to be more attentive
emotional states in others, to manage to stimuli that resemble faces.3 They
strong emotions and their expression also prefer their mothers’ voices to the
in a constructive manner, to regulate voices of other women.4 Through nur-
one’s own behavior, to develop empa- turance, adults support the infants’
thy for others, and to establish and earliest experiences of emotion regula-
maintain relationships.2 tion.5, 6
Responsive caregiving helps infants
Infants experience, express, and per-
begin to regulate their emotions and
ceive emotions before they fully under-
to develop a sense of predictability,
stand them. In learning to recognize,
safety, and security in their social
label, manage, and communicate their
environments. In the early years of a
emotions and to perceive and attempt
child’s life, relationships are so impor-
to understand the emotions of oth-
tant that experts have concluded,
ers, children build skills that connect
“nurturing, stable and consistent
them with family, peers, teachers, and
relationships are the key to healthy
the community. These growing capaci-
growth, development and learning.”7 In
ties help young children to become
other words, high-quality relationships
competent in negotiating increasingly
increase the likelihood of positive out-
complex social interactions, to partici-
comes for young children.8 Experiences
pate effectively in relationships and
with family members and teachers
group activities, and to reap the ben-
63
64
provide an opportunity for young adjustment are more likely to have

children to learn about social relation- good academic performance in elemen-
ships and emotions through explo- tary school.14, 15 The sharp distinction
ration and predictable interactions. between cognition and emotion that
Professionals working in child care has historically been made may be
settings can support the social– more of an artifact of scholarship than
emotional development of infants and it is representative of the way these
toddlers in various ways—for example, processes occur in the brain.16 This
by interacting directly with young recent research strengthens the view
children, communicating with families, that early childhood programs sup-
arranging the physical space in the port later positive learning outcomes
care environment, and planning and in all domains by focusing on the
implementing curriculum. promotion of healthy social–emotional
Brain research indicates that emo- development.17, 18, 19 In light of current
tion and cognition are profoundly research, social–emotional experience
interrelated processes. Specifically, needs to be at the center of infant/tod-
“recent cognitive neuroscience findings dler curriculum planning.
suggest that the neural mechanisms
underlying emotion regulation may be
Guiding Principles
the same as those underlying cogni-
tive processes.”9 Emotion and cogni- Learn from the family about
tion work together, jointly informing
the child’s social–emotional
the child’s impressions of situations
development
and influencing behavior. Most learn-
ing in the early years occurs in the Infants’ social–emotional develop-
context of emotional supports.10 And, ment begins at home. They begin to
in the words of J. Panksepp, “[t]he learn how adults respond to cues,
rich interpenetrations of emotions and such as crying, smiling, and cooing.
cognitions establish the major psychic Their first experiences with reciprocal
scripts for each child’s life.”11 Fur- interactions, language and commu-
thermore, cognitive processes, such nication, and care routines are with
as decision making, are
affected by emotion.12 Brain
structures involved in the
neural circuitry of cognition
influence emotion, and vice
Chapter 3: Social–Emotional Development
versa.13 Emotions and social

behaviors affect the young
child’s ability to persist in
goal-oriented activity, to
seek help when it is needed,
and to participate in and
benefit from relationships.
Young children who
exhibit healthy social,
emotional, and behavioral
65
family members. Through these early sive to a child’s needs, recognize a

relationship experiences, infants start child’s accomplishments, show interest
to form expectations about how people in a child’s exploration and discovery,
treat them, and family members gain make suggestions that help children
deep understanding of their child. In solve problems, engage in back-and-
light of the family’s experiences with forth interaction, and provide a secure
their infant, teachers have much to base for children’s exploration and
learn about the child from the family. learning.
Through partnerships with families,
teachers can gain important informa- Read and respond to children’s
tion on how to support infants’ social– emotional cues
emotional development and find ways As stated in chapter 1, emotions
to build on the children’s learning and drive early learning. Infants and tod-
development at home. dlers are active, curious learners who
experience pleasure when receiving
Place relationships at the center a positive response from a nurturing
of curriculum planning adult or when making a discovery. The
The most fundamental need of pleasure children experience motivates
infants and toddlers is to have close, them to continue engaging in positive
nurturing relationships that help interactions, exploring, and learning.
them build a sense of emotional secu- The emotional responses of infants
rity. Chapter 1 of this curriculum and toddlers express their interests
framework states, “Relationships and needs. It is important for teachers
provide infants and toddlers a secure to read the children’s cues to pick up
emotional base from which they can on learning interests and meet needs.
explore and learn. Much of the cogni- By reading emotional cues, teachers
tive, language, social, and physical determine whether to engage in inter-
learning a child experiences occurs action with a child or to wait quietly to
while interacting with an adult.” see what the child will do next. Emo-
Because relationships are at the core tional cues let teachers know if chil-
of infant/toddler learning and devel- dren are ready for more interaction,
opment, teachers start curriculum want more complexity added to their
planning by considering how to facili- play, or are tired and need quiet time.
tate positive relationship experiences. Responsiveness to a child’s emotional
Teachers look for ways in which the cues strengthens the teacher–child
learning environment can be arranged relationship and opens up new pos-
to facilitate their interactions with chil- sibilities for the child’s learning in the
dren and the interactions that children social–emotional domain and in all
have with each other. Teachers provide other developmental domains.
enough play materials so that children
are more likely to engage in positive Attend to the environment’s
play rather than struggle for control of impact on children’s social–
an insufficient number of materials. As emotional development
teachers observe children in play, they The child care environment affects
watch for opportunities to be respon- the social–emotional development of
66
infants and toddlers in various ways. dren and teachers to focus on explor-
If the environment is set up to make ing and learning together.
it easy for children and teachers to
make eye contact and communicate Understand and respect
with each other, teachers can be emo- individuality
tionally and physically available to Each infant or toddler is unique.
children, and the children can develop Temperament, family experiences,
a secure base for learning. Children culture, language, and other biologi-
need comfortable places where they cal and environmental factors blend
can be close to a teacher to look at a together to influence each child’s
book, do a finger play, or have a quiet development. Another consideration is
conversation. Care routines are more whether a child has a physical dis-
emotionally satisfying in environments ability, sensory impairment, or other
that are arranged for interaction and special needs. Uniqueness may be
the children’s participation. Addition- reflected in a child’s approaches to
ally, group size is an important factor learning, rate of development, and
that influences the impact of the envi- ways of relating to others. The fol-
ronment; a learning environment with lowing statement from the California
a small number of children will keep Department of Education publication
the amount of stimulation at a man- Infant/Toddler Learning and Develop-
ageable level for both the children and
ment Program Guidelines summarizes

the teachers. The environment also how teachers can support a child’s
influences everyone’s mood—children social–emotional development in par-
and teachers alike—and the amount ticular and his or her learning and
of stress experienced in the child care development in general:
setting. An environment with ample
fresh air, peaceful colors, different Each child will approach and explore
kinds of lighting, places to move freely, his or her environment and relation-
and easy access to play materials pro- ships differently. Some children need
specialized support from an attentive
motes a sense of calm that allows chil-
adult to help them actively explore
67
their worlds and build relationships 10. Impulse Control

with other people. Other children
11. Social Understanding
naturally seek out these experiences
through self-discovery and activity. Please refer to the map of the social–
Although most children generally emotional development foundations on
follow a fairly similar developmental
page 78 for a visual explanation of the
path, some children have differences
terminology used in the infant/toddler
in their development due to their dis-
learning and development foundations.
ability, experiences, or inborn traits.
Understanding each child’s develop-
ment is part of the joy and respon- Environments and Materials
sibility of the teacher. If the child’s
development varies from the expected
Environments that support the
path, the teacher needs to monitor social–emotional development of
it, communicate with the family, and infants and toddlers have small
determine how best to support the groups, primary and consistent care-
child.20 givers, individualized scheduling,
appropriate teacher-to-child ratios,
To be emotionally responsive to each and culturally responsive, family-ori-
child, a teacher needs to form close, ented care. Such environments allow
respectful relationships with the child children to (1) learn about themselves
and the child’s family. The teacher can and others, (2) develop a sense of self-
learn about the uniqueness of each confidence and self-efficacy, (3) under-
child through these relationships and stand their feelings and the feelings
can discover how to help each child of others, (4) positively express their
adapt to the infant/toddler care setting feelings and respond to the feelings of
and continue to develop socially and others, and (5) learn to develop posi-
emotionally. tive relationship and conflict-resolu-
tion skills. To support social–emotional
Summary of the development, teachers use the follow-
Foundations ing strategies.
The social–emotional development Create a positive environment

domain consists of 11 foundations: that allows children to explore
1. Interactions with Adults freely, in which they often hear
2. Relationships with Adults “yes” and seldom hear “no.”
3. Interactions with Peers Provide materials that support

4. Relationships with Peers relationships and the development
of social understanding. Include pic-
5. Identity of Self in Relation to tures of families, teachers, and chil-
Others dren in the environment, displayed in
6. Recognition of Ability the children’s play area on small cards
7. Expression of Emotion or homemade books. Self-adhesive
fabric can be used to attach pictures
8. Empathy
to walls. Additionally, place pictures
9. Emotion Regulation of family members on a peek board
68
pet stores, buses, trains, restaurants,

and offices.
Provide materials that relate to
feelings and emotional expression.
Offer books, stories, songs, and pic-
tures about feelings. Display through-
out the classroom photos of different
feelings—possibly around a mirror,
where children can see their own faces
and photos of various feelings. Use
puppets, dolls, and stuffed animals to
tell stories about feelings, with a focus
on simple themes: sad to say good-bye,
afraid of the dog, mad or sad when
another child takes a toy away, or
frustrated because climbing on tables
is not allowed. With materials such
as these, a simple story can be told
that demonstrates a feeling, the cause
of the feeling, appropriate ways to
express the feeling, and a resolution.
Arrange the environment to sup-
port peer interactions and relation-
(two pieces of poster board fastened ships. Create environments where
together, with pictures glued to the small groups of children can explore
bottom piece and doors cut in the materials and each other freely. Non-
top piece for children to open) or on mobile babies placed on their backs,
several sides of a milk-carton block 1 to 3 feet apart, are able to see and
(made by cutting a milk carton in half, hear each other. Toys that are soft
pushing one into the other, and cov- and easy to hold provide opportuni-
ering with paper, pictures, and clear ties for children to give and take toys
adhesive paper). Include in
the environment artifacts from
families that children can look
at, listen to, or play with—for
example, cloth, hats, vases,
candles, music, and clothes.

Add puppets and flannel-
board figures for children to
use in dramatic play. Set up
dramatic play areas where
children can practice relation-
ships and roles; examples
of pretend settings include
homes, bedrooms, kitchens,
69
with other children. Create individual, care. Primary caregiving allows infants
small-group, and open spaces in the and toddlers to learn another person’s
environment. It is helpful to offer communication and interaction style.
places where children can feel “alone” Through primary caregiving, a young
(e.g., individual cardboard boxes, car- child learns to predict what will hap-
peted riser boxes, cubby spaces); small pen in interactions with her teacher.
spaces where a child can be with one She and her teacher learn one anoth-
or two friends; and open spaces where er’s ways of communicating.
groups of children can gather together. As stated throughout this publica-
Include pictures of the children into tion, observation and responsiveness
the care environment; post pictures are essential curriculum tools. They
of all the children in the group, low are particularly important in support-
on the wall so children can see them. ing social–emotional development.
Make a collection of small cards, each Observation enables an infant care
with a picture of a child in the group. teacher to try to understand a baby’s
Laminate the cards or cover them with behavior and to respond promptly and
clear contact paper. Make a small book appropriately. These responses let
(with loose-leaf rings or ribbon) that the baby know that she is an effective
displays pictures of children in the communicator and initiator of events.
group. Provide multiples of popular Observation also makes it possible for
toys so children can engage in paral- an infant care teacher to create inter-
lel and associative play; doing so also esting and meaningful interactions
reduces peer conflict. with children. For example, when a
teacher observes young toddlers pour-
ing water from a tub onto the ground
Interactions
and looking at her expectantly, she can
Interactions with adults are funda- comment with words such as pouring,
mental for infant/toddler social–emo- splashing, wet, empty, or full and can
tional development. Caregiving rou- plan for future water setups that use
tines that occur throughout the day different containers, to find out where
offer particularly important learning the children’s interests might lead.
experiences for infants and toddlers To support social–emotional develop-
because they happen regularly and ment, teachers:
consistently. By experiencing and par- Offer learning opportunities
ticipating in these routines, children through caregiving routines. Develop
learn what it means to be nurtured in predictable caregiving routines (dia-
a caring way. In supportive relation- pering, napping, feeding, dressing, Chapter 3: Social–Emotional Development
ships with adults, children also learn washing, arrivals, and departures) that
what it means to engage in reciprocal, foster a sense of security in a baby. Let
responsive interactions. Over time, children know ahead of time what is
they begin to learn to do things for going to happen and develop a predict-
themselves. They develop competence able sequence for the routine. Include
by predicting how the routine will go, the child in the routine. Tell him what
knowing how their bodies work, learn- you are going to do and describe your
ing how to read their body signals, and actions. Encourage him to participate
learning how to participate in their in every way he can.
70
Additionally, share the lead with

a child during caregiving routines. A
teacher may want to carry out the rou-
tine, but often the child has another
agenda. While including the child
in the routine, a teacher listens and
responds to the child’s behavior, emo-
tional expressions, and vocalizations
or speech. Allow an infant or toddler
to participate in feeding—for example,
by having the child watch a spoon and
open her mouth for the food, choose
her bib, reach for and hold her spoon,
self-feed, drink from a cup, pour her
drink, serve herself, or help with cook-
ing activities. Implement “warming-in,”
in which children and families who are
about to begin child care visit a few
times with the teacher in the program
setting, and the teacher visits the child
and family at their home.
Learn about temperament. This
applies to the temperaments of the
children in the program and to your
own temperament. Adapt to each
child’s temperament. For instance,
provide ample outdoor time for an
active, high-energy child, and provide
extended warming-in time for a “slow-
to-warm” child. Notice when children
have temperaments that are personally
challenging, and work to adapt care-
giving to meet each child’s needs.
Pay attention to feelings and
emotional responses. Help children
name their feelings. Instead of tell-
ing children what they feel, suggest to

them names for feelings. This strategy
gives children a vocabulary about feel-
ings and also communicates that they
are the ones who know what their feel-
ings are.
In addition, help children to under-
stand what causes their feelings. Offer
children—rather than tell them—
possible explanations. Pay attention
71
to your emotional responses, as young Provide continuity of care to support

children are keenly sensitive to tone children’s relationships with teachers
of voice and facial expressions. Fur- as well as children’s relationships with
thermore, model for children respect- one another.
ful, appropriate expressions of emo- Model responsive and respect-
tion, facial expressions, and tone of ful interactions and behavior. Be
voice that match their feelings. Loud sensitive to turn-taking in interac-
or intensely angry tones can be over- tions with babies. After approaching
whelming and frightening for children. or communicating with a baby, wait
Support and respect the child’s a few moments to give her a chance
relationship with his or her family. to respond. Tell the infant or toddler
Build respectful, caring relationships in advance what you are going to do.
with each child’s family members. Use For example, let an infant know, with
your communication with families as a verbal and nonverbal cues, that you
model of interpersonal communication are going to pick him up. This type of
for the children to observe. Discuss communication helps a young child
with family members how routines are learn what to expect from relation-
done at home. Think about ways to ships. Additionally, acknowledge the
include each family’s caregiving prac- presence of new adults who come into
tices in the care you provide. Talk to the environment and provide informa-
children about their families. Use a tion about them.
child’s home language when possible. Respect children’s interests. If
Use rhymes or songs from the child’s you want to do something with a child
family. Show children pictures of their who is already engaged with a person
family members. Remind children or activity, wait and observe briefly to
that their family members are think- find an appropriate moment to get the
ing about them, love them, and will be child’s attention. Listen and respond
back to pick them up. Talk about fam- to children’s vocalizations and speech,
ily memories with children. even when you are unable to fully
Support relationships and interac- understand them.
tions among the children in the pro-
gram. Acknowledge children’s
healthy impulses, model appro-
priate behavior, use positive
direction and choice, give infor-
mation, and ensure safety when
children are interacting with Chapter 3: Social–Emotional Development
each other. Appreciate the ideas
children try to test or express.
Model the behavior that you
want children to learn. Give
positive directions, such as “Be
gentle with your friend.” Redi-
rect children and offer choices.
Offer information about conse-
quences of children’s actions.
72
Support children’s regulation of utes together before the other children

emotions. Learn each child’s pre- begin to arrive. Anita has noticed that
ferred ways to be comforted. Identify or Jed often demonstrates excitement
name for children what helps them feel when watching the older children. He
comforted. Acknowledge when children kicks his legs and puffs his breath
seek comfort and comfort themselves. when he sees Carlo and his mother
Collaborate with children in providing enter the playroom. Miss Anita turns
comfort for them. Keep in mind that so that Jed can easily see Carlo and
children are capable of helping to com- she says softly to Jed, “Here is Carlo,
fort themselves. coming to play. He made you laugh
Demonstrate acceptance for all of yesterday, didn’t he?” Anita smiles and
the feelings children express. Young greets Carlo and his mother, and then
children use social referencing, which she says, “Carlo, Jed is so happy to see
means they look to adults throughout you. Do you see how he kicks his legs
the day to “read” how things are going. and waves his arms? Would you like
When someone is crying, a teacher to say hello?” When Carlo approaches,
can provide a calm, accepting, and Anita says to Jed, “Here is Carlo, com-
empathic tone to help children learn ing to say hello.” The boys gaze at each
that crying is natural and related to other quietly for a moment. Anita is
feelings of sadness, frustration, fear, attentive and silent. Then Carlo makes
and anger. Likewise, a teacher who a silly face and dances, and Jed lets
responds calmly when angry or afraid out a little giggle. Carlo’s mother, who
helps children learn that such feelings is several months pregnant, shares a
are valid and appropriate. smile with Anita.
Vignette Responsive Moment

Anita is holding six-month-old Jed Anita recognizes Jed’s interest in
on her lap. Jed is the first child to Carlo and knows that the two had a
arrive in Anita’s family child care home pleasurable encounter the day before.
each day. They have a few quiet min- Anita responds to Jed’s interest by
73
positioning him so he can see Carlo her arm. Teacher Celia sits down with
and by encouraging Carlo to greet Jed. the children and offers to help with
Anita wants Jed to have a chance to the shoes as needed. She holds out
pursue his interest, and at the same her hands and says to both children,
time help Carlo learn to recognize that “Kristen has one big hand and one
even tiny babies are people with feel- small hand.” Kristen holds both hands
ings, interests, and skills. Anita skill- in front of her and looks at them.
fully guides Carlo’s attention to Jed’s Edgar holds out his too, and the two
interest and animated movements. children look at their hands together.
Carlo and Jed share an important Kristen grabs one shoe, puts her foot
moment in which they learn about in it, and uses her small thumb as a
each other and have a chance to see wedge to get her heel into the shoe.
and be seen. Through moments such Edgar, with a serious expression on his
as this one, Anita gently and inten- face, places his shoes in Celia’s lap,
tionally supports the young infants and she puts them on for him. Kristen
in interacting with older children reaches out and tugs on his shoe, and
throughout the day. he laughs because this action made
him feel ticklish. Then the teacher and
Vignette two children walk out the door, holding
At the infant/toddler center, two hands and looking for squirrels.
children, Kristen and Edgar, are sitting
together by the door. Both children are Responsive Moment
about 30 months old. Their primary Celia wants to support the devel-
care teacher, Celia, has told them that oping friendship between Kristen
if they go get their shoes from the shoe and Edgar and also help them work
shelf, she will take them on a walk through the potentially difficult
in the nearby woods. Edgar has been moment when Edgar asks about Kris-
at the center only for a week, but his ten’s hand. Kristen will likely be asked
almost immediate connection with about her hand repeatedly throughout
Kristen has helped him to settle in her life. In fact, at 30 months of age
quickly. They chatter excitedly to each it is likely that she has already been
other about their walk in the woods. It asked about her hand several times.
will be Edgar’s first time there. Kris- So Celia knows that this moment
ten tells Edgar how she will chase the provides Kristen with an opportunity
squirrels on the path, as she did on to learn how to handle this kind of
her last walk. Kristen, whose right question effectively. The situation also
hand has a tiny thumb and no fingers, provides Edgar with a chance to see
sits down to put on her shoes. Edgar that Kristen’s condition is a part of
notices Kristen’s hand and, with con- her, but not all of her. In discussions
cern in his voice, asks, “Where your with Kristen’s parents, Celia has asked
fingers? Is it hurt?” Edgar reaches out how they would like her to handle
to touch Kristen’s hand as if this is the questions about Kristen’s hand. The
first time he has noticed, though he parents and Celia have agreed that
has asked about it a few other times. Celia could simply describe Kristen’s
Kristen quickly tucks her hand under hand to other children, without getting
74
into complicated explanations about

regulate their emotions.23 Caregiv-
the cause or effects of Kristen’s condi-
ers who respond to infants’ negative
tion. In this particular situation, Kris- and positive emotions in sensitive
ten has already mastered how to put and contingent ways promote infants’
on her shoes and is able to help Edgar, abilities to regulate their own emo-
who has not yet learned this skill. In tions. Notably, infants who tend to
other situations, Kristen may need get frustrated and upset more eas-
some extra help from others. ily are likely to receive even greater
benefit from caregivers who read their
Research Highlight 1 cues and make efforts to help them
manage their distress.24
How do infants and toddlers come to
understand the thoughts and feel-
ings of people around them? Infants
and toddlers pay close attention to
Sample Developmental
what others are doing and feeling. Sequences
Toward the end of the first year of
life, infants begin to follow another’s Identity of Self in Relation to
gaze or gesture (joint attention), and Others
they use the emotional cues of oth- Definition: Children’ social–emo-
ers to provide them with information
tional development includes an emerg-
about an unfamiliar situation to help
ing awareness that one’s sense of self
guide their actions (social referenc-
ing).21 Recent research suggests that
is both distinct from and connected to
in addition to using direct emotional others.
cues, 18-month-olds engage in Beginning level: Children begin to
“emotional eavesdropping”—the use communicate their needs to caregiv-
of indirect emotional information to ers. For instance, they may move their
regulate their actions.22 Older infants arms and legs when seeking attention
pay attention not only to emotional or turn their head toward an adult
information directed toward them, during caregiving routines.
but also to emotional information Next level: Children use their
directed toward others in their envi- senses to explore themselves and oth-
ronment, using both kinds of infor- ers. For instance, they may examine
mation to guide their actions.
their own hands or feet by looking at
them or mouthing them, or they may
touch an adult’s hair when it is within
Research Highlight 2
reach.
Emotion regulation is recognized as Next level: Children can recog-

a key component of children’s social
nize their own selves, familiar people,
and emotional competence and is
and familiar things. They show clear
considered foundational to children’s
later social and academic success.
awareness of being a separate person
Research indicates that caregivers and of being connected to other people.
play a central role in helping infants For instance, they respond to someone
regulate emotions, and that early on who calls their name or turn toward
in development infants rely almost a familiar person upon hearing their
exclusively on caregivers to help them name.
75
Next level: Children not only recog- may insist on zipping up a jacket when
nize but also can communicate their an adult tries to help.
own names and the names of famil- Next level: Children seek an adult’s
iar people and things. For instance, a attention ahead of time in order to
child may point at a picture of herself demonstrate abilities. They try to get
and say her name, or point to a peer the adult to watch by calling, motion-
and say that person’s name. ing, or pulling before they do some-
Next level: Children become more thing. For instance, a boy may say,
aware of their own preferences and “Watch me! Watch me!” and then dem-
characteristics and those of others. onstrate that he can put on his coat by
They may express more details about himself.
themselves and their connection to
other people and things by referring to
Engaging Families
categories. For instance, they may use
family roles, such as “Brother,” “Baby Engaging families in supporting
sister,” “Mommy,” or “Daddy.” the social–emotional development of
their infants and toddlers starts with
Recognition of Ability the relationship between early care
and education programs and families.
Definition: As children mature, they
Infant care teachers and families can
are gradually able to evaluate their
model positive relationships for chil-
own abilities to do things and show
dren through open communication
interest in others’ evaluation of self.
and mutual respect. Additionally, sug-
They develop the sense that they can
gestions offered in daily conversations,
make things happen and that they
have particular abilities.
Beginning level: Children commu-
nicate their needs until those needs
are met. For instance, they may cry
when hungry until they are fed.
Next level: Children show pleasure
while repeating simple actions. For
instance, they may smile while kicking.
Next level: Children experiment
with different ways of making things
happen, persist in trying to do things
even if faced with difficulty, and show
a sense of satisfaction with what they
can do. For instance, they may try to
roll or creep to another part of a room
even when there is a barrier.
Next level: Children show interest
in others’ reactions when exploring
their own abilities. For instance, they
may finish painting a picture and hold
it up to show a family member, or they
76
meetings between teachers and family loud why another child is crying or
members, or newsletters can engage suggest ways to help the child feel
families in understanding and facilitat- better.
ing their children’s social–emotional • Strengthen the children’s sense of
learning and development at home and self and connection to others; bridge
in the program setting. Such commu- their social worlds by asking family
nication also helps family members members to share stories, traditions,
appreciate that emotional development or objects from home in the infant/
works hand in hand with intellectual toddler care setting. Also, encour-
and language development. Teachers age family members to mention their
should make efforts to: child’s peers and infant care teach-
• Develop rituals for certain routines, ers during conversations at home.
such as separations and reunions,
which meet physical needs, provide
Questions for Reflection
comfort during stressful times, and
convey a sense of predictability, con- 1. How can you communicate with
sistency, and stability. families about the relationship
• Respond to children’s cues through between social–emotional devel-
actions, words, and facial expres- opment and learning and devel-
sions. opment in other domains?
• Minimize infants’ exposure to exces- 2. What are some ways that you
sive stress and protect children from can learn about family and cul-
both overstimulation and understim- tural influences on social–emo-
ulation. As developmentally appro- tional development (including the
priate, provide language to help chil- expression of emotion, expecta-
dren learn to recognize and regulate tions for emotion regulation, and
a range of emotions (e.g., “I see that so forth) for the children in your
you’re starting to get excited” or “It group or program?
sounds like you’re frustrated”). 3. How can daily and personal care
• Make sure that expectations for routines provide a sense of pre-
emotion regulation, impulse control, dictability, security, and nurtur-
and attention are developmentally ance for children? How can you
and individually appropriate—for make them more socially and
example, by limiting the time that emotionally meaningful for chil-
children spend waiting and by keep- dren? How can you include fami-
ing promises made to children (“I’ll lies in planning how you carry
get you some milk after I put these out routines?
books away”). 4. In the curriculum planning pro-
• Model empathic behaviors and help cess, what strategies have you
family members build their child’s implemented that were specifi-
social understanding by commu- cally intended to facilitate chil-
nicating with their child about the dren’s social–emotional develop-
thoughts and feelings of others. For ment? What engaged the children
example, a teacher may wonder out and helped them learn? What
77
else might you do in the future to child, help the teacher understand
facilitate children’s social–emo- the uniqueness of each child and find
tional development? ways to be responsive to each child’s
preferences, abilities, temperament,
interests, and needs. The teacher’s
Concluding Thoughts
responsiveness strengthens the devel-
Developmentally appropriate cur- oping relationship with the child and
riculum planning for infants and tod- establishes a secure base for the
dlers begins with each child’s social– child’s exploration and learning. The
emotional development. The child’s child’s emerging capacity for self-reg-
relationship experiences are at the ulation, which includes emotion regu-
core of social–emotional development. lation, impulse control, and attention
Infant/toddler care teachers can best maintenance, is bolstered by gentle,
foster the child’s learning by under- respectful guidance from nurturing
standing every important relationship adults. With an emotionally secure
in the child’s life. Likewise, a partner- base and with guidance that supports
ship with the child’s family provides a self-regulation, infants and toddlers
window on the child’s emotional life. can concentrate on exploration and
Insights from the family, combined learning in every domain.
with the teacher’s observations of the

78
Map of the Foundations

Domain Social–Emotional Development
Foundation
Age-level
description
Examples
Behaviors
leading up to
the foundations
Teacher Resources Brazelton, T. B. Touchpoints: The Essential Ref-

erence: Your Child’s Emotional and Behav-
ioral Development. Reading, MA: Addison-
Brault, L., and T. Brault. Children with Chal- Wesley, 1996.
lenging Behavior: Strategies for Reflective
Thinking. Phoenix, AZ: CPG Publishing Bredekamp, S. Effective Practices in Early Child-
Company, 2005. http://www. hood Education: Building a Foundation.
braultbehavior.org/ (accessed November Boston: Pearson Education, 2010.
30, 2010).
79
Butterfield, P. M., C. A. Martin, and A. P. Prai- Lally, J. R., and others. Caring for Infants and
rie. Emotional Connections: How Relation- Toddlers in Groups: Developmentally Appro-
ships Guide Early Learning. Washington, priate Practice. Washington, DC: Zero to
DC: Zero to Three, 2004. Three, 2003.
Campbell, S. “Caretaking in a Nurturing Way: Lally, J. R., and P. Mangione. “The Unique-
Replicating Relationship-Based, Reflective ness of Infancy Demands a Responsive
Models in Healthy Families Programs.” Approach to Care.” Young Children 61, no.
Zero to Three 25, no. 5 (May 2005): 17–22. 4 (July 2006): 14–20.
Center on the Social and Emotional Founda- Miller, K. “The Most Difficult Transition in
tions for Early Learning (CSEFEL). Using Child Care: From the Infant Room into
Books to Support Social Emotional Develop- the Toddler Room.” Child Care Information
ment: Children’s Book List, 2008. http:// Exchange 119 (January-February 1998):
csefel.vanderbilt.edu/documents/booklist. 88–90.
pdf (accessed November 30, 2010).
National Association for the Education of Young
Curtis, D., and M. Carter. Designs for Living Children (NAEYC). http://www.naeyc.org/
and Learning: Transforming Early Child- (accessed September 10, 2010).
hood Environments. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf
Press, 2003. Pawl, J. H., and M. St. John. How You Are Is
as Important as What You Do In Making a
Epstein, A. S. The Intentional Teacher: Choos- Positive Difference for Infants, Toddlers and
ing the Best Strategies for Young Children’s Their Families. Washington, DC: Zero to
Learning. Washington, DC: National Asso- Three, 1998.
ciation for the Education of Young Chil-
dren, 2007. Petersen, S., and D. Wittmer. “Relationship-
Based Infant Care: Responsive, On
Gilkerson, L., ed., and R. Klein, ed. Early Devel- Demand, and Predictable.” Young Children
opment and the Brain: Teaching Resources 63, no. 3 (May 2008): 40–42.
for Educators. Washington, DC: Zero to
Three, 2008. Powers, S., ed. “The Developing Mind.” Zero to
Three 28, no. 5 (May 2008):1–48.
Gillespie, L. G., and A. Hunter. “Emotional
Flooding—Using Empathy to Help Babies Raikes, H. “A Secure Base for Babies: Applying
Manage Strong Emotions.” Young Children Attachment Concepts to the Infant Care
63 (September 2008): 46–47. Setting.” Young Children 51, no. 5 (July
1996): 59–67.
Gonzalez-Mena, J. Multicultural Issues in Child
Care. 2nd ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Riley, D., and others. Social and Emotional
Publishing, 1997. Development: Connecting Science and Prac-
tice in Early Childhood Settings. St. Paul,
Greenspan, S., and N. T. Greenspan. First Feel- MN: Redleaf Press, 2008.
ings: Milestones in the Emotional Develop-
ment of Your Baby and Child from Birth to
Age 4. New York: Viking, 1985. Endnotes
Greenwald, D. “Honoring the Family in Child
1. J. Cohen and others, Helping Young Chil-
Care Settings.” Educaring: Resources for
dren Succeed: Strategies to Promote Early
Infant Educarers 31, no. 1 (2010): 1 and 3.
Childhood Social and Emotional Develop-
Hohmann, M., and D. P. Weikart. Educating ment (Washington, DC: National Confer-
Young Children. 2nd ed. Ypsilanti, MI: ence of State Legislatures and Zero to
HighScope Press, 2002. Three, 2005).
Honig, A. S. “Infants and Toddlers: Develop- 2. National Scientific Council on the Develop-
ment—The Power of Touch.” Early Child- ing Child, Children’s Emotional Develop-
hood Today 19, no. 5 (March 2005): 25–26. ment Is Built into the Architecture of Their
Brains: Working Paper No. 2 (Winter 2004),
———. “Outcomes of Infant and Toddler Care.” p. 2.
Montessori Life 5, no. 4 (Fall 1993): 34–42.
80
3. M. H. Johnson and others, “Newborns’ ment (Washington, DC: National Confer-

Preferential Tracking of Face-Like Stimuli ence of State Legislatures and Zero to
and Its Subsequent Decline,” Cognition 40, Three, 2005).
no. 1–2 (1991): 1–19.
15. Zero to Three, Infant and Early Childhood
4. A. J. DeCasper and W. P. Fifer, “Of Human Mental Health: Promoting Healthy Social
Bonding: Newborns Prefer Their Moth- and Emotional Development (Washington,
ers’ Voices,” Science 208, no. 4448 (1980): DC: Zero to Three, 2004).
1174–76.
16. L. F. Barrett and others, “The Experience
5. M. B. Bronson, “Recognizing and Support- of Emotion,” Annual Review of Psychology
ing the Development of Self-Regulation in 58 (2007): 373–403.
Young Children,” Young Children 55, no. 2
(2000): 32–37. 17. National Scientific Council on the Develop-
ing Child, Children’s Emotional Develop-
6. R. A. Thompson and R. Goodvin, “The Indi- ment Is Built into the Architecture of Their
vidual Child: Temperament, Emotion, Self Brains: Working Paper No. 2 (Winter 2004).
and Personality,” in Developmental Science:
An Advanced Textbook, 2nd ed. (Mahwah, 18. C. C. Raver, “Emotions Matter: Making
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005). the Case for the Role of Young Children’s
Emotional Development for Early School
7. National Research Council and Institute of Readiness,” Society for Research in Child
Medicine, From Neurons to Neighborhoods: Development Social Policy Report 16, no. 3
The Science of Early Childhood Develop- (2002): 3–19.
ment (Washington, DC: National Academies
Press, 2000), p. 412. 19. J. P. Shonkoff, Science, Policy and the
Young Developing Child: Closing the Gap
8. J. P. Shonkoff, Science, Policy, and the Between What We Know and What We Do
Young Developing Child: Closing the Gap (Chicago, IL: Ounce of Prevention Fund,
Between What We Know and What We Do 2004).
(Chicago, IL: Ounce of Prevention Fund,
2004). 20. California Department of Education,
Infant/Toddler Learning and Development
9. M. A. Bell and C. D. Wolfe, “Emotion and Program Guidelines (Sacramento: Califor-
Cognition: An Intricately Bound Develop- nia Department of Education, 2006), p. 25.
mental Process,” Child Development 75,
no. 2 (2004): 366. 21. T. Striano and P. Rochat, “Emergence of
Selective Social Referencing in Infancy,”
10. National Research Council and Institute of Infancy 1, no. 2 (2000): 253–64.
Medicine, From Neurons to Neighborhoods:
The Science of Early Childhood Develop- 22. B. M. Repacholi and A. N. Meltzoff, “Emo-
ment (Washington, DC: National Academies tional Eavesdropping: Infants Selectively
Press, 2000). Respond to Indirect Emotional Signals,”
Child Development 78, no. 2 (March/April
11. J. Panksepp, “The Long-Term Psychobio- 2007): 503–21.
logical Consequences of Infant Emotions:
Prescriptions for the Twenty-First Cen- 23. N. A. Fox and S. D. Calkins, “The Develop-
tury,” Infant Mental Health Journal 22, no. ment of Self-Control of Emotion: Intrinsic
1–2 (2001): 132–73. and Extrinsic Influences,” Motivation and

Emotion 27, no. 1 (2003): 7–26.
12. L. F. Barrett and others, “The Experience
of Emotion,” Annual Review of Psychology 24. K. L. Rosenblum, C. J. Dayton, and M.
58 (2007): 373–403. Muzik, “Infant Social and Emotional
Development: Emerging Competence in a
13. Ibid. Relational Context,” in Handbook of Infant
Mental Health, 3rd ed. (New York: Guilford
14. J. Cohen and others, Helping Young Chil- Publishers, 2009).
dren Succeed: Strategies to Promote Early
Childhood Social and Emotional Develop-
81
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Barrett, L. F., and others. “The Experience of 27, 2012).
Emotion.” Annual Review of Psychology 58
(2007): 373–403. Panksepp, J. “The Long-Term Psychobiological
Consequences of Infant Emotions: Pre-
Bell, M. A., and C. D. Wolfe. “Emotion and Cog- scriptions for the Twenty-First Century.”
nition: An Intricately Bound Developmen- Infant Mental Health Journal 22, no. 1–2
tal Process.” Child Development 75, no. 2 (2001): 132–73.
(2004): 366–70.
Raver, C. C. “Emotions Matter: Making the Case
Bronson, M. B. “Recognizing and Support- for the Role of Young Children’s Emotional
ing the Development of Self-Regulation in Development for Early School Readiness.”
Young Children.” Young Children 55, no. 2 Society for Research in Child Development
(2000): 32–37. Social Policy Report 16, no. 3 (2002): 3–19.
California Department of Education. Infant/ Repacholi, B. M., and A. N. Meltzoff. “Emo-
Toddler Learning and Development Program tional Eavesdropping: Infants Selectively
Guidelines. Sacramento: California Depart- Respond to Indirect Emotional Signals.”
ment of Education, 2006. Child Development 78, no. 2 (March/April
2007): 503–21.
Cohen, J., and others. Helping Young Chil-
dren Succeed: Strategies to Promote Early Rosenblum, K. L., C. J. Dayton, and M. Muzik.
Childhood Social and Emotional Develop-ment. “Infant Social and Emotional Development:
Washington, DC: National Confer-ence of Emerging Competence in a Relational Con-
State Legislatures and Zero to Three, 2005. text,” in Handbook of Infant Mental Health.
https://www.zerotothree.org/resources/136-helping-young- 3rd ed. Edited by C.H. Zeanah, Jr. New
children-succeed-strategies-to-promote-early-childhood-
York: Guilford Publishers, 2009.
social-and-emotional-development (accessed November
24, 2010.)
Shonkoff, J. P. Science, Policy and the Young
DeCasper, A. J., and W. P. Fifer. “Of Developing Child: Closing the Gap Between
Bonding: Newborns Prefer Their Moth- What We Know and What We Do. Chi-
Human
ers’ Voices.” Science 208, no. 4448 (1980): cago, IL: Ounce of Prevention Fund, 2004.
1174–76.
Fox, N. A., and S. D. Calkins. “The Develop-

ment of Self-Control of Emotion: Intrinsic Striano,T.,andP.Rochat.“EmergenceofSelec-
and Extrinsic Influences.” Motivation and tive Social Referencing in Infancy.” Infancy
Emotion 27, no. 1 (2003): 7–26. 1, no. 2 (2000): 253–64.
Johnson, M. H., and others. “Newborns’ Pref- Thompson, R. A., and R. Goodvin. “The Indi-
erential Tracking of Face-Like Stimuli and vidual Child: Temperament, Emotion, Self
Its Subsequent Decline.” Cognition 40, no. and Personality,” in Developmental Science:
1–2 (1991): 1–19. An Advanced Textbook. 2nd ed. Edited by
M. H. Bornstein and M. E. Lamb. Mahwah,
National Research Council and Institute of
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005.
Medicine. From Neurons to Neighborhoods: Chapter 3: Social–Emotional Development
The Science of Early Childhood Develop- Zero to Three. “Infant and Early Child
ment. Edited by J. P. Shonkoff and D. A. hood Mental Health: Promoting Healthy
Phillips, Committee on Integrating the SocialandEmotionalDevelopment.”
Science of Early Childhood Development. Fact Sheet, May 18, 2004. Washington,
Washington, DC: National Academies DC: Zero to Three, 2004.
Press, 2000.
National Scientific Council on the Developing

Child. Children’s Emotional Development Is
Built into the Architecture of Their Brains:
Working Paper No. 2, Winter 2004. http://
Chapter 4
Language Development
Adults typically modify their speech

The acquisition of language
when communicating with young
and speech seems deceptively
infants. Research suggests that child-
simple. Young children learn their
directed speech (also referred to as
mother tongue rapidly and effortlessly,
“parentese” or “motherese”) has quali-
from babbling at six months of age to
ties, notably its pitch or tone and sing-
full sentences by the end of three
song-like rhythm, which distinguish
years, and follow the same
it from adult-directed speech.5 Prever-
developmental path regardless
bal infants communicate through eye
of culture.
contact, facial expressions, gestures,
— Patricia K. Kuhl, Ph.D., Professor, Speech and and sounds. Understanding language
Hearing Sciences, University of Washington1
precedes using it to communicate.6
In addition, before being able to use
As with all aspects of human devel- language effectively, infants acquire
opment in infancy, language develop- some understanding of the social
ment occurs in the context of relation- processes involved in communication.
ships. Emotion and language
development in the early years
are linked, as “much of the form
and content of communica-
tion between infants and their
caregivers in the first year of life
depends upon affective expres-
sion.”2 The relationship basis
of early language development
appears right at the beginning of
life. Newborns prefer the sounds
of their mothers’ voices.3 They
also prefer the language spoken
by their mothers during preg-
nancy.4
83
84
They learn about the social aspects of language.”10 Infants are learning about
communication by engaging in turn- the prosodic (sound) characteristics of
Chapter 4: Language Development
taking behavior in proto-conversations their native language: by nine months

with their parents or infant care teach- of age, English-speaking infants dem-
ers. In proto-conversations, the adult onstrate a preference for the sound
usually says something to the prever- stress pattern characteristic of words
bal infant, and the infant responds by in the English language.11 Kuhl con-
making eye contact, cooing, smiling, cludes, “At age one—prior to the time
showing lip and tongue movements, infants begin to master higher levels of
or waving arms. These “conversation- language, such as sound-meaning cor-
like” exchanges between the adult and respondences, contrastive phonology,
infant continue for several turns. and grammatical rules—infants’ per-
There is broad variability in the pat- ceptual and perceptual-motor systems
tern and pace of a child’s language have been altered by linguistic experi-
development.7 However, the process ence. Phonetic perception has changed
of early language development is fun- dramatically to conform to the native-
damentally the same across cultures language pattern, and language-spe-
and languages. In describing early cific speech production has emerged.”12
language development, Kuhl states, Language development naturally
“One of the puzzles in language devel- occurs through ongoing interac-
opment is to explain the orderly transitions with adults. Babies have an
tion that all infants go through during inborn capacity to learn language that
development. Infants the world over emerges by experiencing language
achieve certain milestones in linguistic input from adults. Experiences with
development at roughly the same time, language allow infants and toddlers to
regardless of the language they are acquire mastery of sounds, grammar,
exposed to.”8 and rules that guide communication
Perceptual processes play an impor- and to share meaning with others. By
tant role in language development. As intentionally including language in
Gogate, Walker-Andrews, and Bahrick responsive interactions with infants
note, “A diverse set of experimental and toddlers, and by planning experi-
findings suggests that early lexical ences that actively engage children in
comprehension owes much to infants’ communication, teachers can enrich
developing ability to perceive inter- the complex and amazing process of
sensory relations in auditory–visual language development.
events” [for example, speech].9 A
child’s experiences also affect language
Guiding Principles
development from a very early age.
One of the ways experiences influ- Be responsive to the active
ence language development is through communicator and language
their impact on perception early in learner
infancy. Prior to their first spoken
words or word comprehension, infants Infants and toddlers communicate
have already “come to recognize the with adults to express their needs,
perceptual properties of their native feelings, and interests. When they
initiate communication, they have a
85
clear purpose. Sometimes that purpose in back-and-forth, conversation-like

is to express a need, and a prompt exchanges with adults. They may look

response from an adult teaches them and smile and then wait for the adult’s
the power of their communication, response. Eventually, the child starts
helping them become effective com- to use simple phrases and sentences
municators. Infants and toddlers also to have conversations with familiar
communicate with adults to build adults. At each point in developing the
their relationships and share mean- capacity to communicate nonverbally
ing. Communication that they initiate and verbally, responsiveness from
to share meaning lasts longer and is adults enhances the child’s learning
more complex. In fact, each moment experiences.
in which a child initiates communica-
tion is a golden opportunity to support Include language in your
the child’s learning. Of course, com- interactions with infants and
munication during the early months of toddlers
life is nonverbal. Within the first year Experiences with language give the
of life, the young baby’s looks, facial brains of infants and toddlers the
expressions, coos, cries, and sounds necessary input to develop language.
are expanded to include parts of Under most circumstances, children
words, words, gestures, and pointing. experience enough language to gain
During the first year or so, they engage basic mastery of at least one language.
Research indicates that the amount
and variety of experiences with com-
munication and language influences
children’s vocabulary development
as well as their general capacity to
understand and use language. What
is most important is that adults use
language when interacting with infants
and toddlers. Even when the infant
is smiling and cooing, a smile back
in response can be enhanced with a
statement such as “Oh, what a smile!”
A few simple words along with non-
verbal communication can make a
difference. The exact words are less
important than the fact that language
is part of the communication with the
child. Connecting words with actions,
letting a child know what is going to
happen next, naming something the
child points to—all of this verbal com-
munication engages children in learn-
ing language.
86
Celebrate and support

the individual
Although children typically

acquire language in more
or less the same sequence,
they differ from one another
in how they go about com-
municating and learning.
For example, a baby with a
highly active temperament
who tends to approach new
situations readily is likely to
communicate differently from
a child with a quiet tempera-
ment who tends to be slow
to warm up to new situations. Some language develops hand in hand with
children spend a lot of time in “con- all the other domains, supporting its
versation-like” exchanges with their development is critically important.
family members and teachers. Others Differences in early experiences with
constantly point to things, expecting language and culture are numer-
the adult to say the name. In most ous. One difference that often stands
cases, different paths to acquiring out is whether the family empha-
language lead to the same destina- sizes back-and-forth communication
tion: by around three years of age, the or observational learning during the
child has basic mastery of one or more early months. In some families, adults
languages. Teachers need to observe engage in a lot of face-to-face commu-
and become familiar with each child’s nication, often relating to the child as
approach to learning language. Adapt- an interaction partner. In other fami-
ing to the individual and being respon- lies, babies spend a lot of time sitting
sive to attempts to share meaning on someone’s lap watching adults
give a strong message of support and communicate. Even so, every culture
encourage the child to continue on her provides infants and toddlers with a
path of communicating, understand- mix of experiences that enable them to
ing, and using language. learn language and eventually become
competent at engaging in conversa-
Connect with children’s cultural tions. Just as adapting to individual
and linguistic experiences at children’s paths to learning language
home is important, so too is connecting with
The baby’s first experiences with the children’s cultural and linguistic
language occur at home. From the experiences at home; doing so can cre-
beginning of life, the child learns the ate familiar, meaningful experiences
sounds of the family’s language or for children in infant/toddler care and
languages and engages in interac- can provide a starting point for cur-
tions that are rooted in the family’s riculum planning.
culture. Because the child’s home
87
Build on children’s interests hear the same song, do the same fin-
As stated in chapter 1, infants and ger play, and hear the same story over

toddlers are active, curious, highly and over again. The excitement chil-
motivated learners. People and things dren express when they are charmed
fascinate them. Everything is new by playfulness with language is con-
to them. They are driven to explore, tagious. Teachers feel the children’s
figure out how things work, and make excitement and enjoy the experience
discoveries. Infants and toddlers enjoy with the children. Repeated engage-
sharing their interests with the adults ment in fun and interesting communi-
who care for them. As their capacity cation promotes children’s vocabulary
to communicate with language grows, development and their overall capacity
children share their sense of wonder to share meaning with others. Discov-
and describe their thoughts and inter- ering the kinds of games and playful
ests. Even preverbal infants commu- interactions that infants and toddlers
nicate their interests. A teacher who are drawn to is an integral part of
listens and observes carefully will effective curriculum planning in the
pick up on a child’s interests and gain language development domain.
insights into the child’s mind. Under-
standing the focus of a child’s self-
Create literacy-rich environments
initiated learning creates the possi- Efforts to foster communication and
bility for making suggestions, asking language development also promote
questions, and posing problems that emergent literacy in infants and tod-
fuel the child’s interests and extends dlers. As children learn language,
the child’s exploration, play, and learn- they are building a foundation for
ing. Moreover, when adults communi- later literacy. The connection between
cate with children about the children’s language experiences and emergent
interests, the exchange of ideas lasts literacy should be made strong in
longer and is more complex. the infant/toddler curriculum. It is
essential to provide a learning envi-
Make communication and ronment that offers easily accessible
language interesting and fun and age-appropriate books. The books
Positive experiences with
communication and language
motivate infants and toddlers
to initiate communication
and seek to share meaning
with adults. The more fun
communication and lan-
guage are, the better. When
teachers become open to the
playfulness of infants and
toddlers, playful communica-
tion becomes part of the rela-
tionships with the children.
Infants and toddlers love to
88
should reflect the experiences of the 3. Communication Skills and

children and allow for exploration of Knowledge
new images and ideas. Infant/toddler 4. Interest in Print

care teachers model the use of books
for the children as part of curriculum. Please refer to the map of the lan-
When infants indicate an interest in guage development foundations on
looking at books together with their page 96 for a visual explanation of the
teachers, it is important for teachers to terminology used in the infant/toddler
offer such opportunities regularly. At learning and development foundations.
first, a young infant may show or give
teachers books. As children grow older, Environments and Materials
they may become interested in look-
ing at books and having items labeled The environment sets the tone for
by their teachers. The joint attention communication between children
to books eventually evolves into read- and teachers and between children.
ing times during which the adult reads Infants need places where they can
and the children listen. In addition to quietly interact with their teachers. In
listening, older infants enjoy talking addition, the environment should be
about different aspects of a story. Con- arranged to foster communication. It
versations about books simultaneously should be easy for teachers to relate
promote language development and an with infants at eye level. An important
interest in literacy. consideration is the number of chil-
dren in a room or group. Programs
that have a policy of maintaining small
Summary of the groups promote the development of
Foundations close relationships, which enhance
The language development domain both teacher-to-child and child-to-
consists of four foundations: child communication. The following
strategies support language develop-
1. Receptive Language
ment.
2. Expressive Language
89
Engage infants with books and infants to communicate back and forth
stories. Experience with books and with adults, look at books and listen

print in the environment is an impor- to stories from books, engage in finger
tant aspect of enhancing early lan- plays, sing, and participate in other
guage development and helping infants activities.
start on a path of emergent literacy. Provide materials that foster com-
Children can begin to explore books at munication. Children tend to be cre-
an early age, and developing an inter- ative with language and practice com-
est in books builds a strong motiva- municating in personally meaningful
tional base for literacy learning in later ways when they play with open-ended
years. materials such as puppets, blocks,
Moderate background noise. train sets, and dress-up clothes.
Infants need to be able to hear lan-
guage in order to develop their capac-
Interactions
ity to understand and use it. Back-
ground noise in the infant/toddler Infants are naturally attentive to
care environment should be moderated language and, as they grow, actively
through materials that absorb sound practice using it. Their inborn capac-
and through thoughtful arrangement ity to acquire language is activated
of equipment. Constant exposure through communication with adults
to music and television should be and other children. At the beginning of
avoided. At times, children are ready life, adults’ responses to infants’ facial
to be attentive to music and enjoy it— expressions, gaze, vocalizations, and
but if music is playing all the time, it gestures encourage infants to keep
becomes background noise and loses trying to communicate their needs
its value in fostering learning. and interests. It is important that the
adults’ responses include
both nonverbal signals and
language. The amount and
quality of language adults use
in their communication with
infants has a far-reaching
impact on infants’ language
development. The following
strategies support language
development.
Be responsive when chil-
dren initiate communica-
tion. Responsiveness to an
infant’s verbalizations, ges-
tures, and communication
help him learn that he is a
Arrange the environment to sup- valued conversational partner—that
port language development and what he wants to communicate is
communication. The environment important and of interest. Through
should be arranged to make it easy for responses, a teacher communicates
90
and models to the child the linguistic, routines) helps infants connect words
social, and emotional back-and-forth to the actions and behavior of others.
of conversational exchanges. Prompt, Parallel talk, which consists of adults
appropriate responses signal to the describing infants’ actions or behavior,
infant an adult’s interest in communi- helps the infants connect their experi-
cating and motivate him to continue in ences with language.
his efforts to communicate. Help children expand language.
Engage in nonverbal communica- Language expansions may include
tion. Spontaneous gestures, facial adding words to what the child is
expressions, and tone of voice com- expressing through gestures. They
municate meaningful information to may also include building on a child’s
infants, who, in turn, often use ges- verbal communication and adding
tures to communicate prior to being information on a topic of interest.
able to use language. Responding to a child’s communica-
Use child-directed language. Most tion with an open-ended question indi-
adults automatically adjust their cates the listener’s interest and gives
speech when communicating with the child the opportunity to further
young infants, adopting a communica- express herself.
tion style sometimes called parentese Support dual-language develop-
or motherese. This type of speech— ment. Young children who are learn-
which includes adaptations such as a ing more than one language may learn
slower pace, higher pitch, repetition, each language in a somewhat different
a singsong quality, short sentences, way. Teachers support the children’s
clear pronunciation, grammatically developing ability to communicate with
simple sentences, and simple words— family members by conveying respect
makes language more understandable for each child’s home language. Having
to infants and toddlers. teachers who speak the home language
Use self-talk and parallel talk. is the best way to support dual-lan-
Narrating actions while performing guage development. But if a program
them (for example, during caregiving has a child whose home language is
91
in positive communication and gives

them the message that communicating

with language can be fun.
Vignette
It is early in the morning, and
24-month-old Sabela is sitting quietly
on the lap of her teacher, Sonja. Sonja
and the other teachers talk about
the day ahead. Sonja says to another
child, “Tony, let’s go out early today.
It’s supposed to rain this morning.”
Sabela hops up, walks over to the
cupboard, and takes out a bag of sand
toys to play with outside. Taking out
the sand toys and then collecting them
to bring them back to the classroom
is an activity that Sabela often helps
with. Upon seeing Sabela move toward
the back door, dragging the sack of
sand toys, Sonja makes eye contact
and smiles. Sonja also notes that
Sabela understood Sonja’s comments
to Tony.
Responsive Moment
Sabela’s teachers have been won-
dering about her language develop-
ment. The teachers have documented
that Sabela says about 30 different
finger plays, songs, and

pretend play enrich the
range of a young child’s
experiences with language.
The rhythm and repetition
of a rhyme or song highlight
important aspects of lan-
guage. Playing with lan-
guage also engages children
92
words but is usually quiet and does Responsive Moment

not engage in conversations. Sabela’s Ruth wants to support Paula’s
father has expressed concern that development of both Portuguese and

she is not talking and compares her English, so she has learned a few
development to that of her older sis- Portuguese words from the family to
ter, who is very talkative. Sonja has use with Paula during care routines
been watching Sabela closely the past and play. Paula has recently started to
few weeks for indications of language talk a lot, and Ruth has observed that
development. When Sabela demon- many of Paula’s words are in Portu-
strated that she understood the dis- guese. By reaching out to Gustavo and
cussion about going outside early, asking for his help, Ruth increased her
Sonja documented that evidence of knowledge and her ability to support
understanding. Just as important, Paula’s home language and culture. In
she acknowledged Sabela’s interest in this particular situation, Ruth learned
language by offering an encouraging a new word to use with Paula and
smile. gained some insight into the family’s
mealtime routine. Additionally, the
Vignette interaction among the three of them
Gustavo, the father of 18-month-old at the end of the day allowed Ruth to
Paula, arrives at Ruth’s family child strengthen her relationship with the
care home in the late afternoon to pick family.
up his daughter. Gustavo sits down
so Paula can climb into his lap, and Research Highlight 1
then he greets his daughter in their
Infants come into the world as univer-
home language, Portuguese. Ruth sits
sal language learners, able to distin-
next to them and says, “Paula, I am
guish sounds from all over the world
going to ask your Papai about what equally well. It is not until between
you were saying this afternoon.” Ruth approximately nine and 12 months of
turns to Gustavo and says, “While we age that an infant’s language capaci-
were having lunch, Paula kept saying ties become specific to the language
something that sounded like ‘gaffoo.’ I that the infant has heard in her or
felt like she was asking me for some- his everyday language environment.
thing, but I didn’t know what it was. For example, in a study conducted
Any ideas?” Gustavo asks what they with American and Japanese infants,
were eating. Ruth tells him they were at seven months of age, both Japa-
having pizza. He speaks to Paula in nese and American infants were able
to discriminate between the sounds
Portuguese, and Paula nods. He grins
/l/ and /r/. However, by 11 months,
and says, “I think she was asking for
Japanese infants had much greater
a garfo, which is the Portuguese word
difficulty making this distinction,
for ‘fork.’ At home we eat pizza with a whereas American infants retained
fork.” Ruth smiles at Paula and says, the capacity to discriminate between
“Oh, you wanted a garfo—a fork. Next these two sounds.13 In the Japanese
time I will know.” Ruth thanks Gus- language, /r/ and /l/ are perceived
tavo and helps him prepare Paula to as one sound, whereas in English
leave for the day. they are separate sounds. Similarly,
93
studies have shown that capacity of

nonverbally and verbally to express
monolingual English-speaking infants their needs, feelings, and interests.

to discriminate specific sounds in Beginning level: Children make
Spanish and Mandarin declines at sounds spontaneously. For instance,
around 12 months of age.14, 15 Recent they cry or coo.
brain research further suggests that Next level: Children use gestures,
an infant’s brain commits neural sounds, or facial expressions to com-
pathways to perceiving language- municate needs, feelings, and interests.
specific speech patterns based upon For example, they wave arms or kick
exposure to communication in the legs excitedly when an adult blows
infant’s native language.16 bubbles, or they cry when hungry.
Next level: Children have a few
special words or gestures to communi-
Research Highlight 2 cate needs, feelings, and interests. For
Infants learn language through back- instance, a child may ask a teacher for
and-forth exchanges with parents a blanket by using her special word or
and other adults who provide care for gesture for “blanket.”
them. Specifically, research suggests Next level: Children use a variety of
that mothers who respond contin- simple words or gestures to communi-
gently to infants’ vocalizations pro- cate needs, feelings, and interests. For
mote both more frequent and higher- example, they may play with the mean-
quality vocalizations than those who
ing of the word “no” or they may say
respond in less contingent ways.17 In
that they want a cookie and then take a
addition to children’s experiences at
home, research on young children’s
cookie from the plate.
experiences in child care suggests Next level: Children use simple
that sensitive, responsive, and stimu- combinations of words to communi-
lating caregiving interactions predict cate needs, feelings, and interests. For
positive language-development out- instance, they may say “More juice”
comes (e.g., vocabulary and grammar) when thirsty.
for young children. The interactions Next level: Children communicate in
that mothers and child care providers a way that is understandable to most
have with children make important adults who speak the same language
and unique contributions to chil- they do. They combine words into
dren’s language-development out- phrases or sentences and demonstrate
comes.18
the ability to follow some grammatical
rules of the home language. For exam-
ple, they might say, “Me go outside,” “I
Sample Developmental want my mommy,” or “I don’t like that.”
Sequences
Interest in Print
Expressive Language (commu- (interest in literacy)
nication of needs, feelings, and
Definition: Children show interest
interests)
in books, songs, rhymes, finger plays,
Definition: As children develop, and stories. As children grow older,
they use language to communicate many of their everyday activities relate
94
to an interest in print—for example, about pictures on the page, or they will

making intentional marks on paper listen to simple songs or rhymes and
with a crayon or marker, pretending do one basic hand motion with song.
to read and write, repeating stories Next level: Children choose to par-
and rhymes, recognizing images in ticipate in reading, singing, or rhyming
books, noticing common symbols and initiated by the adult. They actively
words, and enjoying books. Interest notice print in the environment. For
in print can be considered one aspect example, they may sit next to a teacher
of emergent literacy (the idea that who is reading to another child and
literacy starts to develop during early ask simple questions (such as “What’s
childhood, well before a child enters that?”) when being read to.
school).19 Next level: Children initiate and
Beginning level: Children respond show appreciation for reading, listen-
to books and songs. For instance, ing to stories, imitating rhymes, and
they quiet themselves when an adult singing songs. For instance, they may
sings a song, or they look at a book ask the teacher to tell a story or sing a
when the adult holds it in their field of song; bring the teacher a favorite book
vision. in order to be read to; or make scribble
marks on paper and pretend to
read what they scribbled.
Engaging Families
Working together, families and
early education programs pro-
vide critical support for young
children’s language develop-
ment. During the first three
years of life, the focus should be
on communication that includes
language, having fun with lan-
guage, and laying the foundation
for future language and literacy
Next level: Children play with books development through develop-
and respond to songs. For example, mentally appropriate and culturally
they may touch or squeeze vinyl or and linguistically inclusive experiences
cloth book covers or coo when adult rather than on the acquisition of dis-
sings. crete skills. Infant care teachers can
Next level: Children attend for a build on children’s language experi-
short period of time as an adult reads ences in the home and, at the same
books, sings songs, or says rhymes. time, share with families what is being
They explore books and show interest done in group care to enhance lan-
in literacy activities, such as looking guage learning.
at photos and books with an adult. • Ask family members to provide a
For instance, they will try to turn the list of words children know in their
page of a board book as the adult talks home language (or words that are
95
specific to the child or the fam- 2. In addition to supporting lan-

ily), including the names or titles guage acquisition, what are some

of family members, pets, friends, other benefits that result when
neighbors, and so on. Share words infant care teachers become
that children have learned through familiar with the words that
various experiences in the early young children use to describe
education setting and, if necessary, important people in their lives,
consider providing home-language significant events, and places?
translations of words that children 3. How might regular observation of
are acquiring in English. children’s language development
• Create a lending library so that in different contexts (e.g., during
families can take home books and quiet activities, outdoors, dur-
other reading materials, available ing mealtimes) and with different
in English and in the families’ home social partners (e.g., familiar and
languages, to enjoy with their chil- unfamiliar adults and peers) help
dren during evening hours and on you understand children’s lan-
the weekends. guage and foster your communi-
• When participating in interactions cation with their families?
with infants, toddlers, and
their families, acknowledge
the communication efforts of
all children by commenting on
their use of nonverbal gestures,
body movements, facial expres-
sions, and vocalizations.
• Bathe infants and toddlers in
language by engaging in “extra”
talk that goes beyond the busi-
ness of daily living; for exam-
ple, play with sounds, sing,
or make up nonsense words
together.
Questions for Reflection Concluding Thoughts

1. What nonverbal gestures and Among the many developing capaci-
facial expressions do infants and ties of infants and toddlers, language
toddlers in your program make, development is one of the most amaz-
and how can you incorporate ing. Children’s capacity for learn-
their communications into back- ing language relies on experiencing
and-forth interactions with them? language in their interactions with
What are some individual differ- adults. By planning environments
ences you have observed in chil- that encourage communication and by
dren’s use of verbal or nonverbal being intentional in their communica-
language? tions with infants and toddlers, infant
96
care teachers can strengthen chil- communication experiences at home,

dren’s language development. Perhaps teachers can understand each child’s
the most important thing that teach- path to learning language—and they
ers can do is include language in their share meaning with children by engag-
interactions with children. By listening ing in responsive communication with
to and observing children, and learn- each child.
ing from families about children’s

Domain Language Development
Foundation
Age-level
description
Examples
Behaviors
leading up to
the foundations
97
Teacher Resources NICHD Early Child Care Research Network and

A. Clarke-Stewart. “A New Guide for Evalu-

ating Child Care Quality.” Zero to Three
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ment/BilingualChildren.htm (accessed gual Families and the Struggle for Quality
March 20, 2012). Education. Albany, NY: State University of
New York Press, 1997.
Bowman, B., ed. Love to Read: Essays in Devel-
oping and Enhancing Early Literacy Skills Swim, T. Infants and Toddlers. Clifton Park, NY:
of African American Children. Washington, Thomson Delmar Learning, 2007.
DC: National Black Child Development
Institute, Inc., 2002. Wittmer, D. S., and S. H. Petersen. Infant and
Toddler Development and Responsive
Brown, D. K. The Children’s Literature Web Program Planning: A Relationship-Based
Guide, 1994–2001. http://people.ucalgary. Approach. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
ca/~dkbrown/ (accessed September 10, Pearson Education, Inc., 2010.
2010).
Zambo, D., and C. C. Hansen. “Love, Language,
California Association for Bilingual Education and Emergent Literacy: Pathways to Emo-
(CABE). http://www.bilingualeducation. tional Development of the Very Young.”
org/ (accessed September 7, 2010). Young Children 62, no. 3 (May 2007):
32–37.
California Department of Education. Preschool
English Learners: Principles and Prac-
tices to Promote Language, Literacy, and
Learning. 2nd ed. Sacramento: California
Curtis, D. “Can Babies Read and Write?” Child-

care Information Exchange 31, no. 188
(July/August 2009): 42–43.
Deiner, Penny L. Infants and Toddlers: Devel-

opment and Curriculum Planning. 2nd ed.
Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learn-
ing, 2009.
Espinosa, L. Challenging Common Myths About

Young English Language Learners. Foun-
dation for Child Development Policy Brief,
no. 8, January 2008.
HighScope Educational Research Foundation.

HighScope: Inspiring Educators to Inspire
Children, 2009. http://www.highscope.
org/ (accessed September 10, 2010).
National Early Literacy Panel, National Center

for Family Literacy, and National Institute
for Literacy. Developing Early Literacy:
Report of the National Early Literacy Panel:
A Scientific Synthesis of Early Literacy
Development and Implications for Interven-
tion. Jessup, MD: National Institute for
Literacy at ED Pubs, 2008.
98
Endnotes Abilities in Early Infancy. Edited by F.

Lacerda, C. von Hofsten, and M. Heimann
(Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ-

1. P. K. Kuhl, “Early Language Acquisi- ates, 2002), p. 112.
tion: Cracking the Speech Code,” Nature
Reviews Neuroscience 5 (2004): 831. 13. G. Whitehurst and C. Lonigan, “Child
Development and Emergent Literacy,”
2. L. Bloom and J. Capatides, “Expression of Child Development 69, no. 3 (1998):
Affect and the Emergence of Language,” 848–72.
Child Development 58 (1987): 1513.
14. M. River-Gaxiola, J. Silva-Pereyra, and P.
3. A. DeCasper and W. Fifer, “On Human K. Kuhl, “Brain Potentials to Native and
Bonding: Newborns Prefer Their Mothers’ Non-native Speech Contrasts in Seven-
Voices,” Science 208 (1980): 1174–76. and Eleven-Month-Old American infants,”
Developmental Science 8, no. 2 (2005):
4. C. Moon, R. Cooper, and W. Fifer, “Two-
162–72.
Day-Olds Prefer their Native Language,”
Infant Behavior and Development 16 15. P. K. Kuhl, F-M. Tsao, and H-M. Liu,
(1993): 495–500. “Foreign-language Experience in Infancy:
Effects of Short-term Exposure and Social
5. R. P. Cooper and others, “The Develop-
Interaction on Phonetic Learning,” Proceed-
ment of Infants’ Preference for Motherese,”
ings of the National Academy of Sciences
Infant Behavior and Development 20, no. 4
of the United States of America 100, no. 15
(1997): 477–88.
(July 2003): 9096–9101.
6. L. Bloom and others, “Early Conversations
16. P. K. Kuhl, “Early Language Acquisi-
and Word Learning: Contributions from
tion: Cracking the Speech Code,” Nature
Child and Adult,” Child Development 67
Reviews Neuroscience 5 (2004): 831.
(1996): 3154–75.
17. M. Goldstein, A. King, and M. West, “Social
7. L. Bloom and J. Capatides, “Expression of
Interaction Shapes Babbling: Testing
Affect and the Emergence of Language,”
Parallels Between Birdsong and Speech,”
Child Development 58 (1987): 1513–22.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci-
8. P. K. Kuhl, “Speech, Language and Devel- ences of the United States of America 100,
opmental Change,” in Emerging Cognitive no.13 (2003): 8030–35.
Abilities in Early Infancy. Edited by F.
18. K. Hirsh-Pasek and M. Burchinal, “Mother
Lacerda, C. von Hofsten, and M. Heimann
and Caregiver Sensitivity Over Time:
Predicting Language and Academic Out-
ates, 2002), p. 115.
comes with Variable- and Person-centered
9. L. Gogate, A. Walker-Andrews, and L. Approaches,” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 52,
Bahrick, “The Intersensory Origins of Word no. 3 (July 2006): 449–85.
Comprehension: An Ecological-Dynamic
19. G. Whitehurst and C. Lonigan, “Child
Systems View,” Developmental Science 4,
Development and Emergent Literacy,”
no. 1 (2001): 13.
Child Development 69, no. 3 (1998):
10. P. K. Kuhl, “Speech, Language and Devel- 848–72.
opmental Change,” in Emerging Cognitive
Abilities in Early Infancy. Edited by F.
Lacerda, C. von Hofsten, and M. Heimann Bibliography
ates, 2002), p. 19.
Bloom, L., and J. Capatides. “Expression of
11. J. Jusczyk, A. Cutler, and N. J. Redanz, Affect and the Emergence of Language.”
“Infants’ Preference for the Predominant Child Development 58 (1987): 1513–22.
Stress Patterns of English Words,” Child
Bloom, L., and others. “Early Conversations
Development 64 (1993): 675–87.
and Word Learning: Contributions from
12. P. K. Kuhl, “Speech, Language and Devel- Child and Adult.” Child Development 67
opmental Change,” in Emerging Cognitive (1996): 3154–75.
99
Cooper, R. P., and others. “The Development ———. “Speech, Language and Developmental
of Infants’ Preference for Motherese.” Change,” in Emerging Cognitive Abilities in

Infant Behavior and Development 20, no. 4 Early Infancy. Edited by F. Lacerda, C. von
(1997): 477–88. Hofsten, and M. Heimann. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002.
DeCasper, A., and W. Fifer. “On Human Bond-
ing: Newborns Prefer Their Mothers’ Kuhl, P. K., and others. “Infants Show a
Voices.” Science 208 (1980): 1174–76. Facilitation for Native Language Phonetic
Perception Between 6 and 12 months.”
Gogate, L., A. Walker-Andrews, and L. Bahrick. Developmental Science 9, no. 2 (2006):
“The Intersensory Origins of Word Compre- F13–F21.
hension: An Ecological-Dynamic Systems
View.” Developmental Science 4, no. 1 Kuhl, P. K., F-M. Tsao, and H-M. Liu. “Foreign-
(2001): 1–37. language Experience in Infancy: Effects of
Short-term Exposure and Social Interac-
Goldstein, M., A. King, and M. West. “Social tion on Phonetic Learning.” Proceedings
Interaction Shapes Babbling: Testing of the National Academy of Sciences of the
Parallels Between Birdsong and Speech.” United States of America 100, no. 15 (July
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci- 2003): 9096–9101.
ences of the United States of America 100,
no.13 (2003): 8030–35. Moon, C., R. Cooper, and W. Fifer. “Two-Day-
Olds Prefer their Native Language.” Infant
Hirsh-Pasek, K., and M. Burchinal. “Mother Behavior and Development 16 (1993):
and Caregiver Sensitivity Over Time: 495–500.
Predicting Language and Academic Out-
comes with Variable- and Person-centered River-Gaxiola, M., J. Silva-Pereyra, and P.
Approaches.” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 52, K. Kuhl. “Brain Potentials to Native and
no. 3 (July 2006): 449–85. Non-native Speech Contrasts in Seven-
and Eleven-Month-Old American infants.”
Jusczyk, J., A. Cutler, and N. J. Redanz. Developmental Science 8, no. 2 (2005):
“Infants’ Preference for the Predominant 162–72.
Stress Patterns of English Words.” Child
Development 64 (1993): 675–87. Whitehurst, G., and C. Lonigan. “Child Devel-
opment and Emergent Literacy.” Child
Kuhl, P. K. “Early Language Acquisition: Crack- Development 69, no. 3 (1998): 848–72.
ing the Speech Code.” Nature Reviews
Neuroscience 5 (2004): 831–43.
Chapter 5
Cognitive Development
Infants draw on social–emotional,

[P]sychologists and neuroscientists
language, and perceptual and motor
have discovered that babies not only
experiences and abilities for cogni-
learn more, but imagine more, care
tive development. They are attuned to
more, and experience more than we
relationships between characteristics
would ever have thought possible.
of objects, actions, and the physical
In some ways, young children are
environment. They are particularly
actually smarter, more imaginative,
attuned to people. Family members,
more caring, and even more
friends, and teachers play an essential
conscious than adults are.
role in supporting the cognitive devel-
— Alison Gopnik, in The Philosophical Baby: opment of infants by providing the
What Children’s Minds Tell Us About Truth, Love,
and the Meaning of Life1
healthy interpersonal and social–emo-
tional context in which cognitive devel-
opment unfolds. Caring, responsive
The term cognitive development adults provide the base from which
refers to the process of growth and infants can fully engage in behaviors
change in intellectual or mental abili- and interactions that promote learn-
ties such as thinking, reasoning, and ing. Such adults also serve as a prime
understanding. It includes the acqui- source for imitation.
sition and consolidation of
knowledge. Over the past three
decades, infancy research has
caused developmental psycholo-
gists to change the way they
characterize the earliest stages
of cognitive development. Once
regarded as an organism driven
mainly by simple sensorimotor
schemes, the infant is now seen
as having sophisticated cogni-
tive skills and concepts that
guide knowledge acquisition.2
101
102
Cultural context is important in and imitating them. Above all, their

young children’s cognitive develop- natural curiosity and drive to learn
ment. There is substantial variation grow through the responsiveness and
in how intelligence is defined within encouragement of caring adults.
different cultures.3 As a result, differ-
ent aspects of cognitive performance
Guiding Principles
may be more highly valued in some
cultural contexts than in others. For Relate to the child as an active
example, processing speed is an aspect meaning maker
of intelligence that is highly valued in
some cultures, whereas in other cul- Infants and toddlers actively seek
tures, adjectives such as slow, careful, to make sense of every experience
and active may be more associated they have. The sound of keys in the
with intelligence.4 Likewise, in some door may inspire pleasure or fear,
cultural contexts, aspects of intel- depending on what the child may have
ligence that have to do with social learned to expect when the door opens.
competence appear to be seen as more Repeated experiences lead to expecta-
important than speed.5 It is crucial for tions that become meaningful for the
early childhood educators to recognize child. For instance, when a young
the role that cultural context plays in infant is regularly held securely in the
defining and setting the stage for chil- arms of an adult who is attentive and
Chapter 5: Cognitive Development
dren’s healthy cognitive functioning. makes soothing noises, the child may
Research has identified a broad associate that adult’s presence with
range of cognitive competencies and
described the remarkable progres-
sion of cognitive development during
the early childhood years. Experts in
the field describe infants as active,
motivated, and engaged learners who
possess an impressive range of cogni-
tive competencies and learn through
exploration.6, 7 Infants exhibit natural
curiosity.8 They have a strong drive
to learn, and their actions reflect
that drive. Indeed, they have been
described as “born to learn.”9
To optimize early cognitive develop-
ment, infant/toddler care teachers
need to establish relationships that
provide infants and toddlers with a
secure base for exploration and discov-
ery. Infants and toddlers thrive in envi-
ronments that offer a mix of novelty,
familiarity, and appropriate challenges.
They actively learn through interact-
ing with adults and other children
103
comfort and a feeling of security. Over then is a supportive, responsive pres-

time, the mere sight or sound of that ence as the child explores and learns.
same adult may help the child feel safe
and nurtured, even before the adult Respect the child’s initiative
approaches the child. By being respon- and choices
sive to the infant’s active engagement Infants and toddlers demonstrate
with the social and physical world, initiative when they play, explore, and
teachers create experiences together interact. Caring adults can “tune in”
with the child and share meaning, to each child by paying close atten-
which is a key part of adult–infant tion to gaze, body movements, facial
relationships. expressions, and vocalizations. In each
moment, the child is taking initiative
Provide opportunities for and making choices. Imagine an eight-
exploration month-old child on a changing table.
Through responsive interactions His teacher is helping him put on a
and thoughtful selection of materials, clean shirt. The teacher holds out the
teachers provide opportunities for chil- left sleeve, but the child puts out his
dren to explore and make discoveries. right arm rather than his left one. In
Infants and toddlers learn about the this moment, the teacher can acknowl-
world through play, exploration, and edge and respect the child’s initia-

interactions. They explore the relation- tive to participate in the routine by
ship between cause and effect, identify thanking him and switching to the left
the permanence of objects, experiment sleeve. This simple adaptation by the
with tools, develop an understanding teacher lets the child know that the
of spatial relationships, and learn by teacher values his initiative. Sensitive
imitating the behaviors of other people. teachers use moments like this one
Observing children’s exploration leads to encourage children’s initiative and
to new possibilities. For example, a choices and build cooperative relation-
teacher who observes a child banging ships with the children.
objects on various surfaces may then
provide new and different objects that Allow ample time for children
the child may also pick up and bang. to make sense of experiences
Each object offers different senso- Time is a gift. The infant/toddler
rimotor experiences; for example, each program can be for children and fami-
makes a different sound when banged lies a sanctuary in which the world
or changes shape and feels different slows down, giving them time to look,
when pressure is applied. Rather than listen, think, feel, and enjoy each
banging the new objects, the child may other. Allowing children ample time to
mouth them or crawl right past them. explore, to participate in interactions
Each of the child’s actions becomes an and care routines, and to make sense
opportunity for the teacher to con- of experiences supports their learning.
tinue to observe and wonder about the Children usually need more time than
child’s interests. The teacher provides adults to solve a problem, make a dis-
an environment and materials rich covery, test an idea, observe another
with possibilities for exploration and person, and transition from one place
104
or activity to another. When teach-

ers create a relaxed, unhurried pace
in the child care setting, infants and
toddlers can take the time they need
to concentrate on their interests and
fully experience feelings. A toddler who
has fallen may remain on the ground
(or floor) for a while, lying down, cry-
ing, wondering what happened, feeling
angry or hurt. Rather than rushing
in and picking up the child, a teacher
may crouch low, place a hand on the
child, and offer comfort while allow-
ing the child time to gather herself
together. All children need time, but
each may use it differently. One may
want to get right into the teacher’s lap,
while another may want to stay where
he is for a while. Allowing children to
set the pace whenever possible gives
them the opportunity to practice devel-
oping skills and to learn about their

interests, needs, and abilities.
Appreciate the child’s creativity

Infants and toddlers often approach
a new opportunity with a fresh per-
spective. They may find alternative
ways to relate to play materials and
other objects. For example, puzzle
pieces may be collected in a basket,
or a chair may be used as a climber
or a changing table for a baby doll. A
young toddler’s first experience with
play dough may include taking a little
taste, as the child may not know how
to use this dough but may have seen
food with a similar appearance and
texture at the eating table. In every
situation, teachers have a primary
responsibility to keep children safe and
establish rules to ensure their safety.
But when a child’s explorations lead
her to use materials in a novel, unex-
pected way—for example, climbing up
a slide or wearing a purse as a hat—
105
such actions can be a creative form cept for a child, such as the difference
of learning rather than mistakes. It is between full and empty. Teacher com-
important for teachers to appreciate ments that acknowledge the meaning
the openness and curiosity of a child’s of an infant’s or toddler’s actions cre-
mind even when they have to set limits ate both an emotional and intellectual
for the child. The infant’s curiosity and connection with the child.
drive to learn are fueled by the free-
dom to be creative in a challenging yet Support self-initiated repetition
safe learning environment. and practice
Infants and toddlers often repeat
Describe the child’s actions actions. This self-initiated repetition
and the effects of actions strengthens their learning. They may
Infants and toddlers learn by explor- repeat an action, such as mouthing
ing and manipulating objects and by an object or sliding an object back
interacting with others. Things that and forth, to gather information. They
may be obvious to adults can be com- may practice pulling themselves up
pletely new and fascinating to infants to stand or repeatedly grasp and turn
and toddlers. They learn about the the dial on a toy. Their interest in
properties of an object, such as how it repetition and practice also extends
rolls, bounces, or clicks together with to their relationships with adults. For

similar objects. They also learn that example, infants and toddlers may
it may be okay to move past a certain ask an adult to read the same book or
child on a climbing structure, but sing the same song over and over. As
another child may push when being often as possible, adults should sup-
passed. This learning happens through port this interest in repetition, as it
active navigation of the environment, reflects children’s drive to learn and
exploration, manipulation of objects, helps them gain mastery of new knowl-
and experimentation. Teachers can edge and skills. Daily routines such as
support self-initiated
learning by describ-
ing the child’s actions.
A statement such as,
“You ate all of the
peas on your plate,
and now the plate is
empty” acknowledges
the outcome of the
child’s action and gives
information to the
child. It lets the child
know that the teacher
is attentive and cares
about him. The teach-
er’s comments may
also illuminate a con-
106
meals and naps will necessarily inter- ing, and even wiping a nose, infants
rupt self-initiated learning, but during and toddlers can participate actively.
play times, infants and toddlers benefit Routines usually consist of a sequence
from having ample time and opportu- of events. For instance, the steps one
nities to practice and repeat. follows with handwashing—turning
on the water, getting soap, washing,
Give appropriate encouragement rinsing, and drying hands—happen in
for problem solving and mastery the same order each time. The predict-
Knowing when to help, when to able nature of care routines provides
stand back, and when to encourage an excellent opportunity for infants
are skills that a teacher develops over and toddlers to participate and to
time. For infants and toddlers, shar- anticipate the next step. Upon arriving
ing a moment of mastery with an adult at the sink, the child may reach out
can affirm their interest in making a to turn on the water, or, after rinsing,
discovery or mastering a new skill. A turn to tug on the paper towels. When
nearby adult who gives attention while routines are predictable and performed
allowing the child to work on a prob- by a consistent primary care teacher,
lem encourages the child to continue the infant or toddler and the teacher
exploring and trying. A teacher who can develop understandings and share
sits nearby and does not interrupt or meaning with each other. For example,
a child and an adult who often par-
interfere with the child communicates

confidence in the child’s ability to ticipate in routines together may take
handle a situation. The teacher gives turns doing certain actions or may
the message, “I am here if you need assign roles in carrying out the rou-
me, but I think you can handle it.” For tine. Over time, consistently practicing
instance, if an infant is intently pull- care routines with an infant or tod-
ing on the short cord of a toy phone, dler allows the teacher to observe and
concentrating, perhaps even grunting, adapt as the child learns and as her
a teacher may come close, watch, and level of participation develops.
comment, “I see you pulling on that
phone.” When the child pulls the toy Summary of the
phone into her lap, the teacher may Foundations
say, “You got it!” The child may look
The cognitive development domain
up at the teacher, make eye contact,
consists of 10 foundations:
and smile or may continue to play
with confidence and ease. No mat- 1. Cause-and-Effect
ter how infants and toddlers respond, 2. Spatial Relationships
encouragement that gives them time
3. Problem Solving
and space for exploration and problem
solving boosts their capacity to learn. 4. Imitation
5. Memory
Support the child’s active partici-
6. Number Sense
pation in personal care routines
7. Classification
During personal care routines such
as diapering, feeding or eating, dress- 8. Symbolic Play
107
9. Attention Maintenance turbed by adult traffic. Once infants

10. Understanding of Personal Care are mobile and can search for toys,
Routines divide the play space into distinct
areas, each with an identity—that is,
Please refer to the map of the cogni- areas where play materials of a par-
tive development foundations on page ticular type can be found. For example,
119 for a visual explanation of the teachers might arrange books, lami-
terminology used in the infant/toddler nated photos, puppets, and stuffed
learning and development foundations. dolls and animals in a corner along
with comfortable seating where the
Environments and Materials teacher and infants can read or tell
stories together. A low shelf can be
Thoughtfully selecting play mate- used as a divider to create a play nook
rials and making them available to for cause-and-effect toys. Another area
children in well-organized play spaces might be set up for active movement—
are primary components of infant/tod- for example, pulling to stand up, cruis-
dler curriculum. By carefully creating ing, climbing, balancing, and sliding.
play spaces that include toys matched Keep toys in places that are easily
to the children’s observed interests, visible and accessible. Low baskets
teachers support each child’s strong (wide-woven or plastic) and clear plas-
drive to build knowledge through tic bins are easy for infants to see and

active exploration. The following strat- allow the children to select play mate-
egies promote cognitive development in rials readily.
infants and toddlers. Consider both novelty and pre-
Provide play spaces with rich dictability when preparing the envi-
opportunities for learning. Carefully ronment. Infants enjoy searching
consider the placement and quality of for favorite and familiar toys. Finding
play materials. Set up spaces where familiar items gives them a sense of
infants can play without being dis- predictability and competence, the
108
feeling of “I know this!” or “I know play space, some that are known and
where to find that.” They also enjoy some that are novel. Above all, the
new objects—ones that are sufficiently rotation of play materials in and out
similar to be inviting yet sufficiently of the environment should be based
different to pique their curiosity. Pro- on careful observation of infants’ play
vide a basic selection of toys each day, rather than on a predetermined sched-
and store the toys in consistent, pre- ule.
dictable locations in both the indoor Arrange the environment to
and outdoor play environments; this encourage exploration. Crawling
will help the infants know where to infants and young toddlers move toys
find particular toys. Add new items to from place to place. As a result, the
the play areas on a regular basis to floor is often strewn with toys in the
support the children’s curiosity. How- wake of their exploration and move-
ever, be mindful to maintain a balance ment. This is normal. Be mindful that
between familiarity and novelty. Give when toys are scattered far from their
infants and toddlers ample time to designated storage areas, infants’
become familiar with a thoughtfully exploration might be interrupted or
selected collection of toys. If the toys stopped. Periodically pass through the
are changed too often, the children’s play space to return to their storage
play becomes superficial rather than areas items that have been cast aside.
complex and engaging. On the other This practice keeps the play space
hand, when infants stop playing with inviting and the toys accessible to the
certain toys, it is time for teachers to infants. Arrange some of the toys in an
remove the all-too-familiar play mate- interesting way to engage and extend
rials from the learning environment. the mind of the curious toddler. For
The goal should be to offer a sufficient example, if a group of young toddlers
quantity of engaging materials in the is fascinated with filling containers
109
and then emptying them (often by that an object having the same shape
dumping the contents), place small as another, smaller object can contain
items around several containers that the smaller object. With repeated prac-
are just the right size for filling and tice they learn to tell, simply by look-
emptying. Or, based on observations ing at objects, which ones will allow
of the mode of play or the types of toys them to perform stacking or nesting
being used, add new items that engage and which ones will not.
such play in a similar or a more com- Offer toys that support cause-
plex way. Infants who are not yet able and-effect experimentation. At 18
to roll over and search for desired toys months of age, toddlers enjoy the
rely on teachers to help them gain pos- challenge of complex cause-and-effect
session of things. Until infants begin to toys that require advanced think-
move on their own from place to place, ing to understand how objects work.
teachers prepare the play space with a Objects that support toddlers’ interest
few items that are within the infants’ in cause-and-effect include elements
grasp. Once the infants begin to roll that produce results through simple
and crawl, teachers prepare the entire actions—knobs that twist to make
play space with toys that attract the a sound or to make an object move;
increasingly mobile infants. levers that slide to open or to make
Offer toys that support an under- a sound; latches that open or close a
standing of spatial relationships door or lid; nuts and bolts that screw

through nesting and stacking. As together; and lids that screw onto or
infants connect toys in various ways, fit onto containers of various shapes
they discover a special property: that and sizes. Musical instruments such
objects can be nested inside each as simple flutes, drums, xylophones,
other or stacked to become longer or pianos, chimes, and bells enhance the
taller. When placing one object inside play space with delightful sounds as
another (e.g., conical plastic cups, children shake, tap, pluck, or blow
baskets, bins, sand pails, or hollow them. Containers that fit objects only
blocks), infants explore relative size of a specific size or shape invite cause-
and how things fit in space. When and-effect exploration, as toddlers pur-
stacking such objects, placing them sue the question, “What happens when
side by side or on top of one another, I try this one?” Objects that encourage
infants discover how to construct hori- toddlers to notice the cause-and-effect
zontal lines and vertical towers. Tod- relationships with the wind and the
dlers independently invent patterns sun include windsocks, chimes, or sun
with objects that nest and are multi- reflectors attached to an outdoor fence.
colored, arranging a particular color A basket of scarves or ribbons that are
to appear in a certain location—at the tied together end-to-end may engage
bottom, the top, or in the middle. As toddlers in waving the items to explore
they explore nesting, toddlers discover how things move through the air. Plas-
that, based on similarities and differ- tic mirrors and colored, acrylic panels,
ences in size and shape, some objects stored in a basket in a sunny area
fit together and others do not. They of the yard, invite toddlers to explore
also explore volume as they discover light in playful ways.
110
Select toys and arrange the

environment to support pretend
play. Infants from one to two years of
age transform ordinary objects into
pretend objects that symbolize some-
thing they have experienced before. A
box becomes a bed, or a block becomes
a cup. A series of cardboard boxes
lined up by a pair of toddlers becomes
a bedroom for the two friends. Such
play also reveals the children’s emerg-
ing abilities to recall and reenact prior
experiences in simple, pretend-play
narratives. A toddler might set a table
with dishes in the pretend-play area or
babble in rhythmic phrases while turn-
ing the pages of a book. Support pre-
tend play by finding out what experi-
ences, furnishings, and clothing might
be familiar to infants within their
homes and families. Matching what
the infants find at school with what and protection of a teacher. Toddlers
might be commonly seen and used at often collect treasures from nature
home fuels pretend play for toddlers. when they spend time outdoors, and
Provide simple, toddler-size furniture they are usually interested in stor-
and objects that the children can use ing those carefully selected items in
as props for pretend play; clothes and a special box or container. Support
accessories that toddlers can put on this interest by providing boxes or
and take off; and duplicates of cloth- bins where they can safely store their
ing that allow exploration of being the treasures. Enrich toddlers’ fascination
same as someone else. A variety of with collecting special items by supply-
opportunities for children to engage ing raincoats, boots, umbrellas, hats,
in pretend play lead to increasingly shoulder bags, and baskets—cloth-
complex symbolic thinking, a critically ing and equipment that will allow the
important development during the tod- children to gather leaves, pinecones,
dler years. flowers, and other intriguing things
Offer toys that support the collec- they may find in the play yard.
tion and storage of treasures. Chil-
dren begin to collect items in infancy Interactions
and continue this behavior throughout
childhood. In the 18- to 36-month-old The extent to which infants develop
phase, toddlers start to collect objects as confident, competent, compassion-
for their “treasure value.” They single ate thinkers and problem solvers is
out an object and give it special value influenced by the types of play and
as they hold it in their hands, store it care experiences that teachers offer. As
in a pocket, or entrust it to the hands described in other chapters, observing
111
infants’ thinking and reasoning

is essential to supporting their
learning. Teachers gather and
note impressions of what they
see and hear. From such notes
and thoughts, they build cur-
riculum by planning both indoor
and outdoor learning environ-
ments that give infants opportu-
nities to pursue their interests
through play.
Infants learn throughout the
day, including during moments
of arrival and departure, meals,
naps, and time taken for dia-
pering, toileting, and dressing.
During such caregiving routines,
infants acquire increasingly com-
plex skills related to dressing,
serving food, caring for materi-
als, and greeting and saying

good-bye to people. Care experi-
ences provide rich opportunities
for infants to apply emerging
skills in understanding what
objects and people are like and
how they work. the children in predicting what will
As infants search for information happen next, in making decisions,
about the world around them, they and in exploring how things work.
often look to those who care for them For example, when a teacher carries
as resources for learning. Infant care out a feeding routine by first hold-
teachers support learning when they ing the spoon in front of the infant’s
are available to children, being neither face so that the child can clearly see
intrusive nor directive. Taking care to and anticipate what is coming next,
allow infants to make discoveries, they she encourages the infant to adjust
reserve for inquisitive infants the chal- his body in preparation for receiving
lenge of figuring out how something the spoonful of food. Doing the same
works or of solving a problem. When with a cup, a washcloth, or any other
teachers take their lead from infants, step in a routine provides infants with
watching for cues as to how and when many chances to make sense of how
to offer help, they build infants’ confi- the world around them operates.
dence and competence as learners. The following strategies support
In addition, when teachers treat cognitive development.
caregiving experiences as opportuni- Notice what interests each child.
ties to involve infants as partners, the Observe and note what infants do
teachers find many ways to engage in the play space and whether there
112
are specific kinds of toys or particu- tunities to point out “how much” of an
lar actions that seem to engage their attribute an object possesses. Express-
interest. Notice and name things of ing “how long,” “how high,” or “how
interest to an infant. Add to the play much” is another way to help children
space objects that extend and make come to know terms of quantity. Like-
more complex the child’s current play. wise, telling stories is an effective way
This practice transforms the toy selec- to introduce toddlers to vocabulary
tion and play space into meaningful that relates to concepts.
curriculum that is well matched to the Use personal care routines to sup-
inquisitive infant’s learning. For exam- port cognitive development. Once
ple, when teachers observe an infant infants begin to sit up independently,
repeatedly shaking and then holding a mealtimes offer opportunities for the
toy still, they gather an important clue children to apply emerging skills in
for expanding the curriculum by add- pouring and serving, as they can begin
ing similar or somewhat more complex to use pitchers and serving spoons.
sound-making, cause-and-effect toys Family-style meal service provides
to the learning environment. an enjoyable setting for teachers to
Use language to engage each invite infants to try their skill in pour-
child’s intellect. Comment on tod- ing milk or serving a spoonful of fruit.
dlers’ collecting, building, and pretend Tables that accommodate three to
play; this provides meaningful vocabu- six infants seated in low cube chairs
lary for toddlers to learn and use. To make it easy for infant care teach-
expand a toddler’s experience, make ers to sit next to the children during
up an impromptu song to accompany meals. Infants in this phase of devel-
the child as he works on a task. For opment have already gathered much
example, a teacher might make up a information about diapering, dressing,
simple chant that narrates how the and napping routines. Teachers can
toddler is patting a baby doll on the invite infants to hold and select items,
back to put the doll to sleep. Offer new seal the tape on diapers, lift bottoms
vocabulary to expand toddlers’ experi- so teachers can easily slip the clean
ences and increase the likelihood that diaper underneath, reach arms into
toddlers will remember the experi- sleeves, and pick up their feet (one at a
ences. For example, when toddlers time) in order to participate—all oppor-
put objects together, their play often tunities to explore cause-and-effect,
involves number and quantity. Tod- how things work, how things are alike
dlers’ understanding and use of vocab- and different, and what happens next.
ulary related to number and quantity
(e.g., one, two, big, small, and more) Vignette
will grow when teachers use those Sammy, a 20-month-old toddler,
terms in narration of the children’s often helps out at lunchtime. He car-
play. In the same way, toddlers come ries napkins, wipes tables, and hops
to know the names of shapes and posi- up to follow his teacher, Jess, each
tions in space (e.g., on top of, below, or time she leaves the table to get a spoon
beside) by hearing the words used in or a washcloth. When Jess asks him to
meaningful situations. Look for oppor- stay seated, Sammy just gazes at her;
113

he continues to get up every time Jess stayed seated for the meal, Sammy
does. Another teacher says to Sammy remained with her. Jess and the chil-
that he is Jess’s little shadow. From dren at the table had a lively conversa-
a discussion with her master teacher, tion about things they eat at home. By
Jess got the idea to bring everything reflecting on her concerns in a conver-
she needed with her to the table in a sation with her master teacher, Jess
tub and stay seated. Jess tries out this was able to develop a plan that, once
idea and is very pleased when Sammy implemented, not only helped Sammy
stays seated next to her at the table for stay at the table, but also led to spir-
the entire meal. She asks if he would ited exchanges of ideas between Jess
like to help her clean up when the and the children.
meal is over, and he nods.
Vignette
Responsive Moment Jenna has been crawling for several
Arnett, the master teacher, sug- weeks now and is getting quite fast
gested to Jess that Sammy may be at moving around. This morning, her
imitating Jess’s behavior by leaving teacher, Archie, is watching closely as
the table frequently during a meal. He Jenna crawls up the wide ramp to a
is learning from Jess how to behave at platform where there are several large,
the table—when she gets up, he does plastic boxes of different sizes. Jenna
too. The next day, before lunch, Jess crawls up to a box and sticks her head
gathered in a tub all the items she inside it, as if she were going to crawl
thought she would need to replenish into the box. Archie knows she will
supplies and clean up messes. As Jess not be able to fit her entire body inside
114
the box, but Jenna is already halfway soothing words. Through these actions
inside it. Archie scoots up the ramp Archie conveyed his confidence in Jen-
to Jenna, who may be feeling a little na’s ability to work through the situ-
stuck at this point, and gently places ation. When Jenna pulled herself out
his hand on Jenna’s back, saying, of the box, Archie acknowledged her
“You put your head in this big box, accomplishment. The entire episode
and the rest of you is out here with was over in less than a minute, and
me. I’m here, Jenna.” Jenna pulls her Jenna moved on to conquer a larger
head out, looks at Archie, and then box, seeking Archie’s gaze and recog-
vocalizes, “Ahhh, ya, ya” and gestures nition as she did this. In response to
toward the box. Archie smiles and this cue, Archie remained nearby and
says, “Yes, I saw you with your head was available to acknowledge Jenna’s
in there. I came right up here in case efforts to learn how her body fit into
you needed me, but you got yourself the large box.
out, didn’t you?” Jenna looks back
at Archie, and then at the box, a few
Research Highlight 1
times. Then she bangs on the box
with her hands and crawls to a larger A very young baby will imitate the
actions of adults. Research by
box. She glances back at Archie, who
Andrew Meltzoff and colleagues has
smiles, and she crawls in, fitting into
demonstrated that when infants as
the larger box quite easily. “You are
young as three days old see an adult

in the big box, Jenna. You sure are, stick out her tongue, they imitate the
and I’m out here.” Jenna smiles and adult by sticking out their tongues
bangs on the box while vocalizing her in response.10 Recent research sug-
triumph. gests that older infants not only
imitate what they see adults do, but
Responsive Moment imitate based on what they think
adults intend to do. György Gergely
Archie was already watching Jenna
and colleagues conducted an experi-
closely because he had seen that she
ment in which they had 14-month-
was moving quickly. He knew that, old infants watch an adult use his
in her exuberance, Jenna might not forehead to turn on a light.11 When
“look before leaping,” so to speak. He the infants could see that the adult
also knew that mobile infants have an turning on the light with his forehead
intense interest in how things move had both of his hands occupied, the
and fit in space, and they often explore vast majority of the children used
with their whole bodies. While Archie their hands, not their heads, to turn
knew that Jenna would not actually on the light, despite observing that
get stuck in the box, he thought that the adult had used his head to turn
she might feel as if she were stuck, on the light. This research suggests
so he moved close to her to provide that infants do not merely reenact
the behavior of adults; rather, they
emotional and verbal support as
understand and imitate the inten-
Jenna worked out her problem. Archie
tion underlying the behavior, which
acknowledged that Jenna was in a is a sophisticated social and cognitive
potentially frightening situation and capacity.
offered comfort with a gentle touch and
115
show awareness of past experiences

Research Highlight 2 and remember information about peo-
The National Research Council’s ple or things. The capacity to remem-
Committee on Early Childhood ber allows children to differentiate
Mathematics suggests that the two between familiar and unfamiliar people
domains foundational to children’s and objects, anticipate and participate
math learning in early childhood are in parts of personal care routines,
(1) number, including operations; learn language, and come to know the
and (2) spatial thinking, geometry,
rules of social interaction.
and measurement.12 Across cultures,
Beginning level: Children respond
young infants demonstrate prever-
bal number knowledge and spatial
to people, things, or events. For
understanding. For instance, five- instance, a child may turn his head
month-olds can detect differences toward the source of a sound or touch,
between sets of small numbers of or look at a toy that an adult is holding
objects13 and six-month-olds dem- out.
onstrate a beginning understand- Next level: Children notice peo-
ing of spatial relationships between ple, things, and their features. For
objects.14 These initial capacities are instance, they may inspect an adult’s
starting points for later learning of face by touching different parts, or
more advanced math skills. they may stop moving to listen to noise
Young children around the world outside.

use their fingers to count and show Next level: Children recognize famil-
numbers. However, the specific ways iar people, objects, and routines in the
in which young children use their environment and show awareness that
fingers to count and show numbers familiar people still exist even when
vary by culture. For instance, in
they are no longer physically present.
India some children count by using
For instance, they will look under a
the cracks between their fingers, and
sofa after seeing a ball roll under it, or
in Japan, children lower and raise
their fingers. In the United States and they may go to the window and point
other countries, children start with after mom leaves.
the thumb and then raise the other Next level: Children communicate
fingers in order, using their smallest one or two key details about familiar
finger last. In other cultures, chil- people, surroundings, things, or events
dren start with their smallest finger that were experienced at an earlier
and move toward the thumb. While time. For instance, they may go to get
children may use different methods a book when seeing someone who read
to show how old they are or to count, books with them during a previous
each way works equally well. visit, or they may greet some peers by
name.
Next level: Children communicate
Sample Developmental
several details about familiar people,
Sequences surroundings, things, or events that
Memory were experienced at an earlier time.
For instance, they can remember a
Definition: As children develop dur-
series of steps in a game, or they may
ing the first three years of life, they
talk about various details of a recent
116
family celebration, such as who was hearing an adult’s voice from a dis-
there, what the celebration was for, tance, or seem surprised when a toy
and what happened. she is holding makes a noise.
Next level: Children repeat actions
Cause-and-Effect that have an effect. For example,
Definition: As children develop dur- they may shake a rattle over and over
ing the first three years of their lives, again, or they may grasp a toy, let it
they show understanding of the con- go, and grasp it again.
nection between cause and effect. This Next level: Children try out behav-
knowledge helps them better under- iors to cause things to happen. For
stand the properties of objects, the instance, they may try to figure out
patterns of human behavior, and the how things open, such as a lid on a
relationship between events and con- box, a cupboard door, or a book.
sequences. By developing an under- Next level: Children explore possi-
standing of cause-and-effect, children ble causes of actions, events, or behav-
build their ability to solve problems, iors. For example, they may push on
make predictions, and understand the different parts of a toy to make music
impact of their behavior on others. start again, or, when hearing a beeping
Beginning level: Children respond sound, they may look around the room
to people, things, or events. For to see where the sound might be com-
ing from.
instance, a child may become startled

by loud noises, look or turn when Next level: Children show under-
standing that actions, events, or
behaviors have a specific cause. For
instance, they may walk slowly while
carrying a cup of milk to avoid spilling;
they may play quietly, without being
asked, when another child is sleep-
ing; or they may say, “After naptime,
Mommy is going to pick me up.”
Engaging Families
Infant care teachers play an impor-
tant role in engaging families by shar-
ing information about and expressing
enthusiasm for the cognitive develop-
ment of all infants and toddlers. By
encouraging families to notice the
learning that takes place in the every-
day experiences of very young chil-
dren, teachers can help foster families’
deeper understanding of infant/toddler
cognitive development and strategies
for supporting it.
117
• Suggest ideas for simple, inexpen- Questions for Reflection

sive, homemade toys that fami-
lies can use with their children to 1. How can you talk about some of
enhance cognitive development (e.g., the things infants and toddlers

empty toilet-paper rolls that fit into typically do—for example, request
holes cut in a cardboard box give the same book or song over and
children an opportunity to explore over, poke each other in the
spatial relationships). face during exploration, or react
strongly to changes in routine—
• Point out ways in which all infants
to help families interpret them
and toddlers demonstrate cogni-
as examples of cognitive develop-
tive competencies through multiple
ment?
means of expression. Encourage
families to share stories from home 2. What might be some of the simi-
that illustrate their children’s learn- larities and differences between
ing. your (or the program’s) defini-
tion of cognitive and intellectual
• Suggest ways for families to incor-
development and that of the
porate the language of cognitive
families in your care? How are
development into their everyday
your views reflected in your com-
interactions with their children;
munication with families? How
for example, provide a list of words
might you make your curriculum
related to number sense (such as
planning process more inclusive
more, same, one) and an explanation
of diverse perspectives?
of their developmental significance.
3. How does your support for chil-
• Solicit family input in planning
dren’s cognitive development
personal care routines that engage
differ when you consider devel-
children as active participants and
opmental level, individual devel-
support the children’s anticipation
opment, temperament, and so
and understanding.
118
forth? For example, what does need to establish relationships with

problem solving look like in a adults that provide an emotionally
10-month-old as compared with secure base for exploration. These
a 27-month-old, and how might young children thrive when adults are
your approach differ according to responsive to them; responsiveness
each child’s abilities and needs? helps infants and toddlers to deepen
How do you communicate infor- their understanding of, among other
mation about cognitive develop- things, cause-and-effect, sequences of
ment to families? How do you actions, and the connection between
learn from families their perspec- concepts and words. Infants need time
tives on development? to solve problems. Acknowledgment
from adults that communicates confi-
dence in the infants’ abilities encour-
Concluding Thoughts
ages the children to try out new skills
Infants and toddlers are engaged in and continue to learn. To provide
learning with every waking moment. infants and toddlers with the types of
Their cognitive development occurs learning environments and experiences
throughout the day as they explore that foster cognitive development,
their environment, imitate the actions teachers observe the children in action
of others, and interact with their and discover ways to connect with the
teachers and each other. Their capac- children’s learning. By approaching
ity to engage in exploration depends the active learning of infants and tod-
on the adults who guide and care for dlers with a sense of wonder, teachers
them. Infants and toddlers need adults nurture the children’s sense of wonder
to provide them with safe, appropri- and their growing understanding of
ately challenging learning environ- and fascination with the people and
ments and play materials. They also things in their immediate environment.
119

Domain Cognitive Development
Foundation
Age-level
description
Examples

Behaviors
leading up to
the foundations
120
Teacher Resources Science of Early Childhood Development.

Washington, DC: National Academies
Press, 2000.
Begley, S. “Your Child’s Brain.” Newsweek 127,
no. 8 (February 19, 1996): 55–61. Perry, B. D., and others. “Childhood Trauma,
the Neurobiology of Adaptation, and ‘Use-
Burchinal, M. R., and others. “Quality of Center dependent’ Development of the Brain: How
Child Care and Infant Cognitive and Lan- ‘States’ Become ‘Traits’.” Infant Mental
guage Development.” Child Development Health Journal 16, no. 4 (Winter 1995):
67, no. 2 (April 1996): 606–20. 271–91.
Families and Work Institute. Brain Develop- Pratt, M. “The Importance of Infant/Toddler
ment in Young Children: New Frontiers for Interactions.” Young Children 54, no. 4
Research, Policy and Practice (conference (July 1999) 26–29.
report). New York: Families and Work Insti-
tute, 1996. Restak, R. M. The Infant Mind. Garden City, NY:
Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1986.
Galinsky, E. 2010. Mind in the Making: The
Seven Essential Life Skills Every Child Shaffer, L. “Using Our Experiences With Infants
Needs. New York: HarperCollins Publish- to Tell the Stories of Their Capabilities.”
ers, 2010. Child Care Information Exchange 31 (Janu-
ary/February 2009): 30–33.
Gandini, L. “Teachers and Children Together:
Constructing New Learning.” Childcare Shore, R. M. Rethinking the Brain—New
Information Exchange 108 (March/April Insights into Early Development. New York:
1996): 43–46. Families and Work Institute, 1997.
Gopnik, A. “How Babies Think.” Scientific Wadsworth, B. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
American 303, no. 1 (July 2010): 76–81. Development: An Introduction for Students
of Psychology and Education. New York:
Gopnik, A., A. Meltzoff, and P. Kuhl. The Sci- David McKay Company, 1973.
entist in the Crib: Minds, Brains, and How
Children Learn. New York: William Morrow,
1999.
Endnotes
Hawley, T. “Starting Smart: How Early Experi-
ences Affect Brain Development. An Ounce 1. A. Gopnik, The Philosophical Baby: What
of Prevention Fund Paper.” Chicago: Ounce Children’s Minds Tell Us About Truth, Love,
of Prevention Fund, 1998. and the Meaning of Life (New York: Farrar,
Straus and Giroux, 2009), p. 5.
Hirsh-Pasek, K., R. Golinkoff, and D. Eyer.
Einstein Never Used Flash Cards: How 2. K. L. Madole and L. M. Oakes, “Making
Our Children Really Learn—and Why They Sense of Infant Categorization: Stable
Need to Play More and Memorize Less. Processes and Changing Representations,”
Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 2004. Developmental Review 19, no. 2 (1999):
263.
Lally, J. R. “Brain Research, Infant Learning,
and Child Care Curriculum.” Child Care 3. R. J. Sternberg and E. L. Grigorenko, “Why
Information Exchange 121 (May/June We Need to Explore Development in Its
1998): 46–48. Cultural Context,” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly
50, no. 3 (July 2004): 369–86.
Lally, J. R., Y. L. Torres, and P. C. Phelps. “Car-
ing for Infants and Toddlers in Groups: 4. B. Rogoff and P. Chavajay, “What’s Become
Necessary Considerations for Emotional, of Research on the Cultural Basis of Cog-
Social, and Cognitive Development.” Zero nitive Development?,” American Psycholo-
to Three 14, no. 5 (April/May 1994): 1–37. gist 50, no. 10 (1995): 859–77.
National Research Council and Institute of 5. R. J. Sternberg and E. L. Grigorenko, “Why

Medicine. From Neurons to Neighborhoods: We Need to Explore Development in Its
The Science of Early Childhood Develop- Cultural Context,” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly
ment. Edited by J. P. Shonkoff and D. A. 50, no. 3 (July 2004): 369–86.
Phillips, Committee on Integrating the
121
6. National Research Council and Institute of Haith, M. M., and J. B. Benson. “Infant Cogni-
Medicine, From Neurons to Neighborhoods: tion,” in Handbook of Child Psychology Vol.
The Science of Early Childhood Develop- 2: Cognition, Perception, and Language.
ment (Washington, DC: National Academies 5th ed. Edited by D. Kuhn and R. Siegler.
Press, 2000), pp. 146–149. Editor-in-Chief William Damon. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1998.
7. G. J. Whitehurst and C. J. Lonigan, “Child
Development and Emergent Literacy,” Kálló, E., and G. Balog. The Origins of Free
Child Development 69, no. 3 (June 1998): Play. Budapest, Hungary: Pikler-Lóczy
848–72. Társaság, 2005.
8. E. Kálló and G. Balog, The Origins of Free Madole, K. L., and L. M. Oakes. “Making Sense
Play (Budapest, Hungary: Pikler-Lóczy of Infant Categorization: Stable Processes
Társaság, 2005), p. 14. and Changing Representations.” Develop-
mental Review 19, no. 2 (1999): 263–96.
9. National Research Council and Institute of
Medicine, From Neurons to Neighborhoods: Meltzoff, A. N., and M. K. Moore. “Imitation,
The Science of Early Childhood Develop- Memory, and the Representation of Per-
ment (Washington, DC: National Academies sons.” Infant Behavior and Development 17
Press, 2000), p. 148. (1994): 83–99.
10. A. N. Meltzoff and M. K. Moore, “Imita- National Research Council. Mathematics Learn-
tion, Memory, and the Representation of ing in Early Childhood: Paths Toward Excel-
Persons,” Infant Behavior and Development lence and Equity. Edited by C. T. Cross, T.
17 (1994): 83–99. A. Woods, and H. Schweingruber, Com-
mittee on Early Childhood Mathematics.
11. G. Gergely, H. Bekkering, and I. Király, Center for Education, Division of Behav-
“Rational Imitation in Preverbal Infants:

ioral and Social Sciences and Education.
Babies May Opt for a Simpler Way to Turn Washington, DC: National Academies
on a Light After Watching an Adult Do It,” Press, 2009.
Nature 415 (February 2002): 755–56.
National Research Council and Institute of
12. National Research Council, Mathematics Medicine. From Neurons to Neighborhoods:
Learning in Early Childhood: Paths Toward The Science of Early Childhood Develop-
Excellence and Equity (Washington, DC: ment. Edited by J. P. Shonkoff and D. A.
National Academies Press, 2009), p. 2. Phillips, Committee on Integrating the
Science of Early Childhood Development.
13. M. M. Haith and J. B. Benson, “Infant Cog- Washington, DC: National Academies
nition” (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Press, 2000.
Inc., 1998), p. 225.
Quinn, P.C., and others. “Development of an
14. P.C. Quinn and others, “Development of Abstract Category Representation for
an Abstract Category Representation for the Spatial Relation ‘Between’ in 6-to-10
the Spatial Relation ‘Between’ in 6-to-10 Month Old Infants.” Developmental Psy-
Month Old Infants,” Developmental Psy- chology 39, no. 1 (January 2003): 151–63.
chology 39, no. 1 (January 2003): 151–63.
Rogoff, B., and P. Chavajay. “What’s Become of
Research on the Cultural Basis of Cogni-
Bibliography tive Development?,” American Psychologist
50, no. 10 (1995): 859–77.
Gergely, G., H. Bekkering, and I. Király. “Ratio-
nal Imitation in Preverbal Infants: Babies Sternberg, R. J., and E. L. Grigorenko. “Why
May Opt for a Simpler Way to Turn on We Need to Explore Development in Its
a Light After Watching an Adult Do It.” Cultural Context.” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly
Nature 415 (February 2002): 755–56. 50, no. 3 (July 2004): 369–86.
Gopnik, A. The Philosophical Baby: What Chil- Whitehurst, G. J., and C. J. Lonigan. “Child
dren’s Minds Tell Us About Truth, Love, Development and Emergent Literacy.”
and the Meaning of Life. New York: Farrar, Child Development 69, no. 3 (June 1998):
Straus and Giroux, 2009. 848–72.
Chapter 6
Perceptual and Motor

Development
P
erception refers to the process developing control of the head. Gross
of taking in, organizing, and motor actions include the movement of
interpreting sensory informa- large limbs or the whole body, such as
tion. Perception is multimodal, with walking. Fine motor behaviors include
multiple sensory inputs contributing the use of fingers to grasp and manip-
to motor responses.1 When an infant ulate objects. Motor behaviors such
turns her head in response to the as touching and grasping are forms of
visual and auditory cues of the sight exploratory activity.4
of a face and the sound of a voice, As infants develop increasing motor
she exhibits this type of perception. competence, they use perceptual
Researchers Lorraine Bahrick, Rob- information when choosing which
ert Lickliter, and Ross Flom consider motor actions to take.5 For example,
intersensory redundancy—the fact that they may adjust their crawling or
the senses provide overlapping infor- walking in response to the degree to
mation—a “cornerstone of perceptual which surfaces are rigid, slippery, or
development.”2 slanted.6 Motor movements, includ-
Motor development
unfolds with perceptual
development; it refers to
changes in a child’s ability
to control his body move-
ments, from the infant’s
first spontaneous waving
and kicking movements
to the adaptive control
of reaching, locomotion,
and complex sport skills.3
The term motor behavior
describes all movements of
the body, including move-
ments of the eyes (as in
the gaze) and the infant’s
123
124
ing movements of the eyes, arms, legs, They visit nearly every room in their
and hands, provide most of the percep- homes and they engage in balance and
tual information that infants receive.7 locomotion in the context of varied
Young children’s bodies undergo activities.”12
remarkable changes in the early child- Early research in motor development
hood years. In describing this devel- involved detailed observational stud-
opment, Adolph and Avolio state, ies that documented the progression
“Newborns are extremely top-heavy of infant motor skills and presented an
with large heads and torsos and short, understanding of infant motor behav-
weak legs. As infants grow, their body ior as a sequence of universal, biologi-
fat and muscle mass are redistributed. cally programmed steps.13, 14, 15, 16 More
In contrast to newborns, toddlers’ recent research in motor development
bodies have a more cylindrical shape, tends to emphasize action in the con-
and they have a larger ratio of muscle text of behavior and development in
mass to body fat, especially in the the perceptual, cognitive, and social
legs.”8 These changes in weight, size, domains.17 In particular, contempo-
percentage of body fat, and muscle rary accounts of infant motor develop-
strength provide perceptual and motor ment address the strong relationship
challenges to infants as they practice between perception and action.18, 19, 20
a variety of actions.9 This dramatic This research also focuses on the
physical development occurs within relationship between actions and the
the broad context of overall develop- environment, and on the importance
ment. As infants master challenges, of motives in motor behavior, espe-
their perceptual and motor behavior cially social and explorative motives.21,
reflects their interpersonal orientation 22, 23
Although historical approaches
and social environment. may encourage professionals to focus
The extent and variety of infant on the relationship between grow-
perceptual and motor behavior are ing perceptual and motor skills and
remarkable. Infants and toddlers the child’s increasingly sophisticated
spend a significant part of their manipulation and understanding of
days engaged in motor behavior of objects, contemporary understanding
one type or another. By three-and- suggests the value of observing this
a-half months of age, infants have progression over time. The ways in
made between three and six million which these developing behaviors and
eye movements during their waking abilities play a role in the social and
hours.10 Infants who crawl and walk emotional aspects of the child’s life
have been found to spend roughly and functioning, such as forming early
half of their waking hours involved in relationships and building an under-
motor behavior, approximately five to standing of others, may be noteworthy.
Chapter 6: Perceptual and Motor
six hours per day.11 On a daily basis, The contemporary view suggests
infants who are walking “take more that thinking about perceptual and
than 9,000 steps and travel the dis- motor development can be inclusive of
tance of more than 29 football fields. infants and toddlers with disabilities
They travel over nearly a dozen differ- or other special needs. Like children
ent indoor and outdoor surfaces vary- who are typically developing, children
Development
ing in friction, rigidity and texture. who have disabilities that affect their
125
a unique developmental
pathway toward attain-
ment of important motor
milestones.30 Crawling, for
example, is not a univer-
sal stage. Research clearly
shows that some children
do not crawl before they
walk.31 Although most chil-
dren walk independently
at around age one, the
normal range for acquisi-
tion of this behavior in
Western cultures is very
broad, between nine and
17 months of age.32 Tradi-
perceptual or motor development want tionally, age has been treated as the
to explore and interact with the people primary predictor of when landmark
and things in their immediate environ- motor behaviors occur, but studies
ment. Although the perceptual and now indicate that experience may be a
motor development of children with stronger predictor of the emergence of
disabilities or other special needs may both crawling and walking.33, 34
differ from typical development, sen- It is important to recognize that,
sitive and responsive caregivers can though developmental charts may
provide alternative ways to engage show motor development unfolding in
children’s drive to explore, building on the form of a smooth upward progres-
each child’s interests and strengths sion toward mastery, the development
and supporting his or her overall of individual children often does not
physical and psychological health. follow a smooth upward trajectory. In
Pioneering researchers in infant fact, “detours” and steps backward
motor development used novel and are common as development unfolds.35
painstaking methods to study the Infant motor development can be
progression of infant skill acquisi- understood as a process in which
tion.24, 25 Their findings were presented change occurs as the infant actively
for both professionals and the public adapts to varying circumstances and
in the form of milestone charts that new tasks.36 Thelen demonstrated
depicted motor skill acquisition as a this experimentally in her well-known
clear progression through a series of study in which three-month-old
predictable stages related to chrono- babies, still too young to coordinate
logical age.26, 27 More recent research their movements to sit, reach, or crawl,
in the area of perceptual and motor learned to coordinate their kicks in
development has indicated substan- order to engage in the novel task of
tial variability between children in making a mobile move.37 Cultural and
the pathways to acquiring notewor- historical factors, including caregivers’
thy motor milestones, such as sitting behavior, also affect the ways in which
Development
and walking.28, 29 Each child may take infants engage in motor behaviors. For
126
example, Adolph and Berger observed processes.42 They may be best viewed
that mothers in Jamaica and Mali as different components of an action
“train” infants to sit by propping up system. Common behaviors such as
three- to four-month-old infants with reaching and turning the head for
pillows in a special hole in the ground visual tracking illustrate the interrelat-
designed to provide back support.38 edness of the motor, perceptual, cog-
For years, researchers, educators, nitive, and social–emotional domains
and early childhood professionals have in infant development. Even as very
emphasized the interrelatedness of young infants, children are highly
the developmental domains. The cur- motivated to explore, gain information,
rent research supports an even greater observe, and engage their physical
appreciation of the profound role of and social environments.43 As Gibson
interrelatedness and interdependence explains, “We don’t simply see, we
of factors, domains, and processes look.”44 Research by Berthier indicates
in development.39 The developmental that “infant reaching is not simply a
domains are linked not only with one neural program that is triggered by
another, but also with factors such as the presence of a goal object, but that
culture, social relationships, experi- infants match the kinematics of their
reaches to the task and their
goals.”45
Perception and motor
action play a key role in chil-
dren’s experiences and psy-
chological processes.46 They
also contribute to human
psychological development
in general, as “behavior is
movement”47 and psychology
can be defined as the study
of human behavior. It has
been proposed that infants’
use of social information to
guide their motor behavior
in physically challenging
ence, physical health, mental health, or unfamiliar situations provides an
and brain functioning.40 In the case of excellent means to study infant social
perceptual and motor behavior, Dia- cognition.48
mond has observed that perception, Of the four major developmental
motor behavior, and cognition occur domains, perceptual and motor devel-
in the context of culture, emotion, opment may appear to unfold indepen-

social relationships, and experience, dently of the other domains. However,
which in turn influence physical and as recent research on perceptual and
mental health as well as overall brain motor development suggests, devel-
functioning.41 Bertenthal has proposed opment in every domain is related to
that perception and motor action are children’s perceptual and motor abili-
Development
interrelated rather than autonomous ties. Even the social–emotional domain

127
comes into play when children engage a writing tool, adults can continually
in motor behavior in physically chal- share the children’s sense of accom-
lenging or unfamiliar situations. When plishment with them and validate their
planning curriculum for infants and motivation to take on physical chal-
toddlers in the perceptual and motor lenges. When caring for a child with
development domain, teachers need a disability or other special need that
to focus on ways to support children’s affects perception or movement, teach-
processing of sensory information and ers benefit from communicating with
fine and gross motor movements. Yet, family members and specialists who
to be effective, the planning should work with the child, learning about
occur in a broad context in which each the focus of the child’s perceptual and
child’s overall development is observed, motor development. This information
documented, and considered. helps teachers to anticipate, recognize,
and support the child’s emerging per-
ceptual and motor abilities.
Guiding Principles
Recognize the child’s developing Encourage self-directed
abilities movement
Even the youngest infant has per- In a space with equipment that
ceptual and motor skills. When observ- supports self-directed movement,
ing a young infant exploring and infants and toddlers freely express
experimenting with movements and their natural urge to move. Children
postural changes, teachers witness an move freely in space that is safe. They
extraordinary developmental process. need equipment that is stable, an
The infant’s innate drive to move and appropriate height, and appropriately
gain control over body movements is challenging. The use of developmen-
in action all the time. Part of develop- tal barriers allows teachers to provide
ing a relationship with an infant is to equipment for children who may be
communicate recognition of the child’s ready to explore with such equipment,
active, self-motivated role in perceptual while protecting other children who are
and motor development. For instance, not. Furnishings and equipment for
a teacher may comment to
a young infant, “I see you
kicking and kicking your
legs,” or “I know you are
busy balancing on your side
right now. I need to pick you
up. We are going outside
where you can practice some
more.” As infants become

increasingly mobile, begin
to walk and even run, and
eventually coordinate move-
ments such as walking on a
low balance beam or holding
Development
128
routine care can also support move- are just as pronounced. For example,
ment—for example, a diapering surface one infant may show readiness to feed
with stairs for toddlers to climb up, himself with utensils at nine months,
or one surrounded by sturdy railings and another child of the same age may
that allow mobile infants to pull up to prefer to be fed by an adult. Infants
a standing position safely. Equipment and toddlers may develop rapidly in
that children can use without assis- some areas and slowly in others. An
tance (e.g., small stools or chairs) sup- infant who uses a fork or spoon at nine
ports their movement as well. Teachers months may not walk until 16 months
also encourage children’s self-directed of age. Differences among children
movement by expressing appreciation are influenced by both experience and
and giving children the opportunity unique personal traits. Learning about
to initiate action. For instance, rather individual differences and prepar-
than lifting a child and putting him in ing an environment and routines that
a small chair, a teacher may wait while adaptively support individual children
the child gets into it on his own. Or is important and often rewarding.
rather than putting a toy in a baby’s Teachers have to keep in mind that a
hand, a teacher may sit quietly while child who is developing atypically has
the infant balances carefully on his or traits and learning strategies that are
her side and reaches for a toy. Encour- unrelated to his or her disability or
aging free movement and respecting special needs. It is essential for teach-
the child’s initiative go hand in hand. ers to get to know every child well and
adapt accordingly, both in the way
Respect individual differences they interact with each child and by
Infants and toddlers differ from one setting up an appropriately challenging
another in the way they explore move- environment.
ment and in the timing of different
developmental milestones. One infant Provide a safe place for each
may begin walking at nine months, age group
and another at 16 months. Some It is challenging to provide care in a
infants are often content to stay rela- setting when the children’s ages range
tively still and observe what is going on from a few months to 36 months.
around them, while others often have The space, materials, and equipment
an intense urge to move their bodies. must meet the needs of active, self-
One child may practice a skill over motivated learners who are at vastly
and over again, such as pulling up different levels of development. Young
and then squatting down, and another infants need floor space that is warm,
may transition quickly from cruising to firm, clean, and safe so they can kick,
walking. The speed at which children roll, and balance. A space that is kept
master skills, and the learning strate- free of traffic by a developmental bar-
gies they use, differ greatly. For exam- rier prevents young infants from being
ple, one child may be content to let go stepped on or bumped into by older
and fall back to the floor, while another children. Mobile infants often want to
carefully lowers herself to kneeling. explore and move from place to place
Differences in fine motor development during most of their waking hours.
Development
129
They thrive in open space, with shelves ration. They often like to help move
and other sturdy objects to pull up tables and chairs and bring toys out-
on and a completely safe environment side. Additionally, toddlers frequently
that allows them to explore freely. As stand rather than sit when they work
infants become increasingly mobile, at shelves and tables. Teachers can

they often carry items with them as support self-directed movement of
they move. Toddlers move bigger, each age group by paying close atten-
heavier things as they move through tion to the children’s interests and
space. In general, toddlers need plenty needs and by providing time and mate-
of opportunities for large motor explo- rials appropriate for active exploration.
Development
130
Be available to children as they 3. Fine Motor Development

move and explore
Please refer to the map of the
As infants and toddlers explore perceptual and motor development
objects, climb, or play with each foundations on page 141 for a visual
other, they need a familiar, caring explanation of the terminology used in
adult nearby. Because perceptual and the infant/toddler learning and devel-
motor development occurs without opment foundations.
any instruction, teachers may some-
times feel that all they have to do
is prepare the environment. Yet the Environments and Materials
teacher’s essential role in supporting Teachers are the architects of the
this development includes much more infant’s environment. After the envi-
than arranging the space, equipment, ronment is designed, teachers continu-
and materials in the child care set- ally scan areas and make judgments
ting. The teacher’s attentive presence about what is safe but challenging for
and emotional and physical availabil- children’s emerging skills. Toddlers
ity allow children to move away and usually repeat over and over again
explore and, when they feel the urge, whatever skill they are perfecting.
to return to the teacher. A child may For instance, they may be working on
check in by simply looking back or walking up and down a small incline
calling to the teacher with words or a while keeping their balance. When the
vocalization that communicates, “Look challenge diminishes, it may be time
at me!” Another child may climb into to introduce a steeper incline such as
the teacher’s lap and rest and watch a small grassy mound, or the children
others for a while. Teachers also need may discover for themselves different
to be present to intervene in potential challenges in the environment. The
conflicts, such as when one child is following strategies support perceptual
going up a ramp or slide and another and motor development.
is coming down or when two children Choose materials that support
want the same object. A teacher who perceptual and motor development,
is available, observes, and intervenes focusing on the children’s interests
when necessary provides the emotional and how to expand on those inter-
nurturance infants and toddlers need ests. A child may seem fascinated
to move and explore to their hearts’ with using tools to shape play dough.
delight. Offer different shapes that toddlers
can use to mold the dough. Children
may sense the contours of the different
Summary of the
shapes, which may lead to interest-
Foundations ing discoveries. Place on the floor or
The perceptual and motor develop- on a low table items that toddlers can
ment domain consists of three founda- use for hand and finger activities—for
tions: example, simple puzzles with knobs,
1. Perceptual Development peg and board sets, and large beads
that can be placed on a string.
2. Gross Motor Development
Development
131
at crawling, different sur-

faces, such as a slightly high
mat or big pillows placed on
the floor to crawl over, make
moving more challenging.
Toys should be available on
low, accessible shelves that
are labeled with pictures of
the toys; this makes it easy
for both the child and the
teacher to put away the toys.
Consider the arrange-
ment of furniture and space
in establishing physical
boundaries for moving and
Make sure there are plenty of
exploring. Strategically placed shelves
opportunities for movement and
and large furniture can define and
large motor play, both indoors and
limit areas of play and rest as well as
outdoors. Toddlers are active mov-
areas for foot traffic.
ers who are still perfecting their basic
Consider the young infant’s need
movement skills. Running and jump-
for sheltered spaces. Place cribs or
ing can be consuming interests. Pro-
bassinets in a quiet, protected area
vide riding toys for toddlers, but be
where babies can sleep undisturbed,
sure to manage traffic patterns when
yet still be observed at all times. When
children use this equipment. Avoid
not asleep in a crib or bassinet, the
exercise saucers or walkers, as they
young infant needs a firm but com-
restrict movement and may not be
fortable surface upon which she can
permitted by licensing regulations.
lie, protected from the movement of
Although most infants seem to enjoy
older children. She also needs to be
being upright, devices such as walkers
shielded from bright lights and loud
and exercise saucers can place undue
noises. While outside, infants can lie
stress on immature body areas.
in carriages or on a soft blanket on the
Provide safe but challenging
ground in a shady, sheltered spot.
spaces where children can move,
Consider safety in arranging the
both indoors and outdoors. Infants
environment. Infants need a safe,
who are not yet walking need safe yet
roomy area in which they can move as
challenging spaces protected from foot
they learn to roll and push up. Place
traffic of older children and adults;
shatterproof mirrors in places where
a clean floor free of small objects to
infants can see their movements.
mouth (and perhaps swallow); differ-

Sometimes infants become quite inter-
ent levels to explore, such as a small
ested in seeing themselves move their
ramp or a few steps; soft areas where
bodies. Scan the room for safety, as
they can sit and rest; and reachable,
infants’ emerging fine motor abilities
interesting objects to explore. Crawling
allow them to use their fingers to pick
babies need plenty of room to move.
up and mouth small objects and poke
As babies become increasingly adept
Development
fingers into interesting places. Set up

132
mats or carpeted areas that offer pad- Use everyday objects and materi-
ding for crawling infants. Mirrors and als to offer opportunities for percep-
pictures, especially of the children and tual and motor experiences. Boxes
their families hung at a level for easy with lids that can be opened and
viewing, add familiarity and interest to closed are interesting to explore and
the environment. allow little fingers to practice those
Consider the child’s ease of move- motions. Filling, carrying, and dump-
ment in setting up the physical ing are favorite activities of toddlers.
environment. Low chairs and tables Shopping bags to fill with wads of
where toddlers can eat or work on paper or small toys, large empty water
simple art projects or puzzles allow bottles that can be filled with clothes-
ease of movement. pins or other small objects, and bas-
kets (with handles) that can
be filled with precious objects
are just a few examples of
items that support manipu-
lative and moving abilities.
Additionally, soft scarves
placed within reach of young
infants give the babies oppor-
tunities to explore through
fingering or grasping, and
cardboard books with bite-
able, easy-to-turn pages are
usually appealing for older
babies and young toddlers to
explore and manipulate.
Offer variety in sensory and motor

Interactions
experiences and materials. When
providing sensory materials such as A primary principle in fostering
water or sand, consider the variety physical development is respecting
of props you put out and the differ- that babies are not taught movement.
ent skills that can be practiced with They achieve a specific competency
the various items. For instance, if when they are ready for that specific
there is water play in individual pans, challenge. Gonzales-Mena and Eyer
small sponge blocks float and can be state: “Don’t put babies into positions
squeezed. On another day, children they cannot get into by themselves.
may become interested in scooping The process of getting into a posi-
and pouring various materials. Offer tion is more important than being in
different challenges for large motor the position—the process promotes
play—for example, low climbers, rock- development.”49 To support physical
ing horses, large boxes to climb into development, it is important to gather
and out of, tunnels to crawl through, information from the child’s family
and low slides. about how the infant is cared for at
Development
home. This information will help guide

133
how to interact with the

child and how to carry out
care routines such as feed-
ing, sleeping, and toileting.
It is noteworthy that all
routines offer opportunities
for infants to acquire body
skills.
The following strategies
support perceptual and
motor development.
Provide the infant with
freedom to move. When
infants are awake, they
need freedom to move.
Place a young infant on toys near a baby who is lying down or
his back on a flat surface, which will sitting will draw the attention of the
allow him to stretch out and wave his child without overwhelming her. Like-
arms and cycle his legs. He may catch wise, a mirror or a colorful toy located
sight of his hands and be fascinated. within a young infant’s range of sight
Describe to the baby what he sees; for can provide interesting possibilities for
instance, you might say, “Oh, look at learning. Place these objects in ways
your hands and fingers!” or “See how that encourage babies to turn and
your legs move up and down?” This reach while they are sitting; this will
practice communicates to the baby help them to practice balancing the
that you are interested in his actions. head and upper body. During the early
Avoid restrictive equipment such as stages of development some infants
swings and bouncers, as they severely will gain the ability to roll to the side
limit a baby’s possibilities for moving. or flip over, onto the stomach, holding
See things from the infant’s per- their heads up and looking around.
spective. Appreciate the perceptual When holding young infants, use dif-
and motor experiences of a young ferent positions or alternate right and
infant who can move by rolling; this left sides while supporting their heads.
can be done by getting down on the This practice gives babies different per-
floor at the infant’s eye level and see- spectives and allows them to use and
ing the child’s perspective. Crawl with strengthen different muscle groups.
babies who are beginning to crawl. Additionally, take infants to interest-
They often enjoy having an adult follow ing places or change what they see by
behind them as they move about. Place placing them in different locations—
objects within the babies’ reach when look out the window with them, go out-
they are sitting, as infants enjoy reach- side, or move them to another room.
ing for things. Suitable objects include This changes their view and offers
small, easy-to-grasp manipulatives them a variety of sensations, such as
such as musical shakers, large plastic seeing leaves move with the wind or
beads to pull apart, and soft dolls to feeling a breeze on one’s cheeks.
Development
mouth, feel, and squeeze. Having a few

134
Help build the infant’s feelings of pincer grasp, which usually appears
comfort, security, and awareness at around 10 months of age. Allow
of his body. Feed an infant when he a baby who is developing the ability
seems hungry and put him down to to grasp things begin, if he wants,
rest when he appears to need sleep. to hold his own bottle of formula or
Being responsive in this way helps a breast milk. Offer foods that can be
baby become aware of his body’s mes- picked up with the fingers or easily
sages. Most infants begin to develop spooned, and a cup that is easy to
their own patterns of hunger and need grasp and support. Eating time pro-
for sleep. Hold a baby while bottle- vides great opportunities for infants
feeding. This practice adds the special to work on hand–eye coordination
comfort of touch to the experience. as well as to gain an overall sense
Describe what is happening during of competence. Draw attention to
diapering and ask the infant to par- the children’s sensory experiences
ticipate. This communication conveys by talking with infants at mealtime;
respect for her body and connects for example, comment on how the
words with areas of her body that she food tastes or on the noise the food
can feel as they are being moved and makes as it is chewed and crunched
touched. A comment such as, “Oh, you by an infant.
climbed up two steps” acknowledges • Look at cardboard books with
an infant’s accomplishment and gives infants and talk about the books
the message that an adult shares in while the infants handle them. Give
the child’s pride of accomplishment. infants the chance to use their
Help new walkers accept that falls fingers to turn pages and point to
are part of the learning process, and whatever attracts their attention.
thereby encourage infants to keep
learning by taking on physical chal- • Offer a little help to toddlers who, as
lenges. Magda Gerber suggests that they are mastering the use and coor-
the teacher’s role is to be attentive and dination of fingers, may occasionally
available and to appreciate and enjoy show signs of frustration. For exam-
what the baby does.50 ple, moving the mouth of a container
Use common routines, activities, closer to a toddler’s hand may be all
and behaviors to allow for practice that is needed for the child to put a
of perceptual and motor skills. bead into a jar.
• Let eating become a shared proj- • Sing songs that have different hand
ect. Have one spoon for the baby motions—such as “Wheels on the
and one for the teacher, and trade Bus” or “Twinkle, Twinkle”—and
spoons during the meal. While feed- go slowly to allow infants to try to
ing, infants often touch or mash control, time, and coordinate move-
food as they explore texture and ments. For example, when an infant
consistency. It is also common for begins clapping two hands together,
an infant to reach for a spoon the she is learning to coordinate the
teacher is using to feed her. Provide two sides of her body. Infants may
finger foods—foods a baby can pick also enjoy games that encourage
up—to allow infants to perfect their the development of fine motor skills.
Development
135
ments with them. A comment such

as “You made it to the top of the lad-
der!” builds a child’s confidence, which
grows with each new feat.
Vignette
Seven-month-old Abasi is seated
comfortably in teacher Stephen’s lap,
ready for lunch. Abasi tugs at his bib
and watches intently as Stephen fills
a bowl with orange baby food. Abasi
opens his mouth when Stephen holds
up a full spoon for him to see. Stephen
gently moves the spoon to Abasi’s lips,
and Abasi closes his mouth on the
spoon. Almost immediately, Abasi spits
out the spoon and food and grimaces.
Stephen is surprised. Abasi refuses
another bite and ends up having a
bottle instead. Stephen mentions this
episode to Abasi’s grandmother at
pickup time. She laughs and says,
One example is This Little Piggy “His favorite food is peaches, but that
Went to Market. was carrots. I told his Mama that it
would be a nasty surprise for him!”
• To foster movement among infants Abasi watches as the two adults laugh
and toddlers, establish specific times together. Stephen comments, “Abasi,
for playing music. This practice you looked at the orange color and
builds expectation in the children, expected your favorite—peaches. What
and they can begin to look forward a surprise to taste carrots!”
to the activity. Older toddlers enjoy
when a teacher initiates music Responsive Moment
games such as “Hokey Pokey” or
“Ring Around the Rosie.” Stephen recognizes that Abasi had
expected peaches based on the color of
• Create times for reading one-on-one the food on the spoon. Stephen docu-
with toddlers. They may enjoy fol- ments this observation as evidence of
lowing a simple story line, turning Abasi’s perceptual development. Aba-
page after page. Sometimes a small si’s grandmother anticipated Abasi’s
group of toddlers may spontaneously
reaction to carrots, and she and Ste-

gather as a teacher reads to one or phen share a moment of understand-
two children, and each child may ing. Stephen plans to let Abasi have
want a chance to turn a page. a tiny taste of each food from now on,
Acknowledge each child’s accom- and he will tell Abasi ahead of time
plishments. Comment on infants’ about the types of food that are pre-
pared for him.
Development
efforts and enjoy their accomplish-

136
Vignette I’ll come find you.” The toddlers nod

to each other and return to the book
Leon is five months old. He is the
corner.
youngest child in Mona and Brandy’s
Early Head Start classroom. The class-
Responsive Moment
room can get very busy, as four of the
eight children are active toddlers, and Brandy sees that Leon is moving his
babies on the floor need to be pro- body more and more. Leon’s mother
tected from bigger bodies and toys. says that at home he is happy to roll
Last week, Mona and Brandy rear- around on a blanket by himself for a
ranged some furniture and barriers to little while. Brandy consulted with her
create a space where Leon can safely teaching partner, and they decided to
move his body on the floor. Brandy rearrange the classroom to create a
is Leon’s primary care teacher. She space where Leon can safely move on
observes Leon moving in the protected the floor. Brandy makes sure that she
space they set up for him. Leon kicks can easily see Leon in his protected
up both of his legs, reaches up with space and that she is able to enter the
his arms, and rolls onto his side. As he space quickly when Leon needs her or
makes these movements, he vocalizes, when she has a spare moment to sit
“Aaauuuuu, aaaauuuuuu.” Leon then with him.
rolls back onto his back and repeats Brandy is also aware that the tod-
the action a few times. He grabs his dlers can enter Leon’s protected space
right toes with his right hand, and quite easily even though Leon cannot
he stays on his side a few seconds leave the space without help. Brandy
longer before rolling onto his back keeps a close eye on the children who
again. Occasionally, Leon kicks vigor- approach the barrier. She makes a
ously, pumping his arms and legs, and point of helping the toddlers recognize
then he begins to roll his body again. Leon’s activity while also supporting
Brandy quickly makes a note about their interest in being with him.
how Leon is grabbing his toes while
on his side, as she has not seen this
behavior previously. Research Highlight 1
Leon’s loud vocalizations draw the “Development can be a process of
attention of two toddlers who have moving one step backward for every
been playing in the book corner. As two steps forward.”51 After an infant
they approach Leon, Brandy also masters the act of crawling, she even-
moves toward him. The children ask if tually stops focusing on her profi-
they can hold the baby. Brandy smiles ciency in that skill to take on the new
and says, “Let’s watch him for a while. challenge of walking. Although the
infant will gain a more efficient form
He is learning how to move his body.

Isn’t that right, Leon?” Leon continues of locomotion by learning to walk, it
will take her a while to achieve the
his movements without acknowledg-
level of proficiency in walking that
ing his observers. After watching Leon
she has already achieved in crawl-
for a few moments Brandy says to the
ing. Infants who are new to walking
toddlers, “When Leon shows interest in may revert to crawling when trying
being held, you can sit with us then.
Development
137
Developmental Sequence
to get somewhere quickly. Yet despite
making this adjustment to move more Fine Motor
quickly, infants seem to prefer to face
new obstacles in their newly learned
Definition: Through touching,
upright posture rather than in their grasping, and manual manipulation,
crawling position.52 Some research- children learn about the features of
ers suggest that when first learning people, objects, and the environment.
to walk, infants may be motivated Fine motor development is related to
to give up crawling for the novelty the ability to draw, write, and partici-
of walking even though it involves a pate in routines such as eating and
sacrifice of proficiency in movement. dressing.
Beginning level: Children exhibit
beginning responses. For instance,
they hold hands in a fisted position or
Research Highlight 2 curl fingers around an adult’s finger
A large body of research suggests when it is placed in their palm.
that infants between the ages of Next level: Children reach for and
about five months and seven months grasp things and use eyes and hands
begin to use visual information from to explore objects actively in the envi-
their environment to help guide the ronment. For example, they keep
motor actions they take. Infants will
hands open most of the time, or they
adjust their reach or grasp accord-
may curl fingers and pull an object
ing to visual and other sensory cues
from the environment. Building upon
closer in a raking motion.
these findings in a recent study,
Claxton and colleagues suggest that
infants use perceptual information
not only to guide their actions in the
moment, but also to plan what they
will do with an object in the immedi-
ate future.53 In this study, infants
who were ten and a half months old
adjusted how they reached for an
object based upon what they were
planning to do with the object. For
instance, when the infants intended
to throw a ball, they reached toward
the ball more quickly than if they
planned to fit the ball into a tube.54
This research suggests that early
in life, infants use perceptual cues
in sophisticated ways to guide their

behavior.
Development
138
Next level: Children use full hand or rudimentary responses. For

grasp with the thumb closed on the instance, a child will move her legs or
fist. For instance, they hold a crayon turn her head.
with a full fist, or they may adjust their Next level: Children combine the
grasp to the size and shape of a toy or movements of more than one body
food. part. For example, they wave their
Next level: Children pick up or hold arms and kick their legs at the same
things with fingertip(s) and thumb. For time, or they hold onto a foot while
example, they may hold a spoon, using lying on their back.
thumb and fingers, to feed a doll; or Next level: Children coordinate
they may use the index finger and movements of their arms and legs to
thumb to pick up a piece of food. move the whole body. For instance,
Next level: Children manipulate they roll from stomach to back or
objects using the fingers and wrist of from back to stomach; they move from
one hand while stabilizing the object lying down to a sitting position; or
with the other hand. For instance, a they move from a sitting position onto
child may use a turning motion with hands and knees.
the hand and wrist while trying to Next level: Children coordinate
open twist tops, or he may feed him- movement of the whole body while
self with one hand while stabilizing the using support to stand on two feet. For
dish with the other hand. example, a child may use a table to
Next level: Children manipulate pull himself to a standing position, or
objects using the fingers and wrists of he may hold onto the table and side-
both hands together to accomplish a step around it.
task or participate in an activity. For Next level: Children coordinate
example, they can use child-safe scis- movement of the whole body while
sors in one hand to make snips in a standing on two feet without support.
piece of paper, or they can string large For instance, they may squat to reach
wooden beads onto a shoelace. for a toy and stand up unassisted, or
walk up stairs by putting two feet on a
Gross Motor step before going to the next one.
Definition: Gross motor develop- Next level: Children coordinate
ment includes the attainment of skills highly complex movements with confi-
such as rolling over, sitting up, crawl- dence and ease. For example, they may
ing, walking, and running. Gross walk up steps, alternating their feet;
motor behavior enables children to walk on tiptoes; or run while holding a
move and thereby attain different toy.
perspectives on the environment. The
gross motor behaviors involved in Engaging Families
active outdoor play with other children

By learning how to observe and
are related to children’s development
facilitate children’s perceptual and
of social skills and an understanding
motor development, families gain a
of social rules.
greater understanding of the con-
Beginning level: Children move
nection between this domain and the
their bodies with beginning responses
Development
other developmental domains. Infant

139
care teachers can play an

important role in fostering
an understanding of per-
ceptual and motor develop-
ment by engaging family
members in conversation
about this developmental
domain, by sharing with
families ideas for enjoy-
ing physical activities with
their children, and by
developing or identifying
resources in the commu-
nity that support young
children’s perceptual and
motor development. It is the early education setting. A few
also helpful to talk with families about examples are songs and movements
how to plan experiences or provide that young infants participate in
simple materials at home that address while being held on someone’s lap.
all aspects of their children’s per-
• Encourage families to take advan-
ceptual and motor development. For
tage of community resources (e.g.,
example:
inclusive playgrounds) designed to
• Talk with families about how gross support the perceptual and motor
motor activities are not limited to development of all children.
parks and playgrounds, which may
or may not be accessible to all fami-
lies. An example of a fun activity
Questions for Reflection
that supports gross motor develop- 1. What are some ways in which
ment is “painting” a sidewalk or you can support the perceptual
fence using paintbrushes and rollers and motor development of all
that have been dipped in water. Sim- children, including those with
ilarly, a walk in the neighborhood special needs? How can you
can provide opportunities to practice help the families of children with
balancing, jumping, bending, and special needs to support their
running. children’s perceptual and motor
• Suggest to families ways in which development at home and in the
toddlers can engage in fine motor community?
activities at home, such as by help- 2. What are some ways you can use
ing to sort blueberries or beans dur- the information in the infant/

ing meal preparation. toddler learning and development
• Invite families to share songs, foundations and the infant/tod-
games, or other early childhood dler curriculum framework to
rituals that incorporate perceptual gain a deeper understanding and
and motor development, and include become a more careful observer
Development
some of those activities regularly in of children’s perceptual and

140
motor development? How would children attain the same major motor
a deeper understanding of this milestones, each may follow a distinct
developmental domain influence developmental pathway. Teachers need
the ways in which you plan cur- to get to know every child well and
riculum and partner with fami- adapt accordingly—both in the way
lies? they interact with the child and by set-
ting up an appropriately challenging
environment.
Concluding Thoughts
Recognizing perceptual and motor
The perceptual and motor develop- development in infants and toddlers
ment of infants and toddlers occurs and communicating with the children
within the broad context of overall about that development are important.
development. With each new compe- An observant teacher conveys interest
tency gained, the child’s perceptual in each child’s drive to explore sensory
and motor behavior is developing hand and motor experiences and to attempt
in hand with his or her interpersonal physically challenging movements.
orientation and social environment. As Responsiveness from teachers with
infants and toddlers are developing in whom infants have close relationships
all domains, they spend a significant encourages the infants’ continued
part of each day engaged in a variety of exploration and movement. In addi-
motor behaviors. In light of children’s tion, by describing children’s actions,
active engagement in perceptual and teachers can help children connect
motor learning, teachers need to keep words with physical sensations and
overall development in mind while movement. This practice supports
planning to support the children’s perceptual and motor development
ongoing processing of sensory informa- and facilitates the development of
tion and fine and gross motor move- concepts and language. Finally, when
ments. teachers acknowledge an infant’s or
It is noteworthy that perceptual toddler’s accomplishments, they send
and motor development occurs in the the message that they share in the
context of culture, emotions, social child’s pride of accomplishment, affirm
relationships, and experience. The bio- the child’s developing self-confidence,
logical makeup and the sociocultural and deepen their relationship with the
experiences of children blend together child.
in unique ways. Indeed, though most
Development
141

Domain Perceptual and Motor Development
Foundation
Age-level
description
Examples
Behaviors
leading up to
the foundations

Development
142
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13. Ibid.
4. K. E. Adolph, “Learning in the Develop-
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17. Ibid.
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and Language, 6th ed., series edited by W. opment of Perception, Action and Repre-
Damon and R. M. Lerner, volume edited sentation,” Annual Review of Psychology

by D. Kuhn and R. Siegler (Hoboken, NJ: 47 (1996): 431–59.
John Wiley and Sons, 2006).
19. E. J. Gibson, “Exploratory Behavior in the
8. K. E. Adolph and A. M. Avolio, “Walking Development of Perceiving, Acting and the
Infants Adapt Locomotion to Changing Acquiring of Knowledge,” Annual Review of
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20. E. Thelen, “Motor Development: A New 32. Ibid.

Synthesis,” American Psychologist 50, no.
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21. E. J. Gibson, “Exploratory Behavior in the Introduction to Infant Development, 2nd
Development of Perceiving, Acting and the ed., edited by A. Slater and M. Lewis (New
Acquiring of Knowledge,” Annual Review of York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
Psychology 39, no. 1 (1988): 4–5.
34. K. E. Adolph, B. Vereijken, and P. E.
22. E. Thelen, “Motor Development: A New Shrout, “What Changes in Infant Walking
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23. C. Von Hofsten, “Action in Development,” 35. K. E. Adolph and S. E. Berger, “Motor
Developmental Science 10, no. 1 (2007): Development,” in Handbook of Child Psy-
54–60. chology, Volume 2: Cognition, Perception,
24. K. E. Adolph and S. E. Berger, “Physical Damon and R. M. Lerner, volume edited
and Motor Development,” in Developmental by D. Kuhn and R. Siegler (Hoboken, NJ:
Science: An Advanced Textbook, 5th ed., John Wiley and Sons, 2006), p. 173.
edited by M. H. Bornstein and M. E. Lamb
(Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ- 36. E. Thelen, “Motor Development: A New
ates, 2005). Synthesis,” American Psychologist 50, no.
2 (1995): 79–95.
25. K. E. Adolph, “Motor and Physical Devel-
opment: Locomotion,” in Encyclopedia of 37. E. Thelen, “Three-Month-Old Infants Can
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(San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2008). 5 (1994): 280–85.
26. Ibid. 38. K. E. Adolph and S. E. Berger, “Physical

and Motor Development,” in Developmental
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“Motor Development,” in Encyclopedia of edited by M. H. Bornstein and M. E. Lamb
Cognitive Science (London: Macmillan, (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ-
2003). ates, 2005).
28. K. E. Adolph, “Learning in the Develop- 39. A. Diamond, “Interrelated and Interde-
ment of Infant Locomotion,” Monographs pendent,” Developmental Science 10, no. 1
of the Society for Research in Child Devel- (2007): 152–58.
opment 62, serial no. 251, no. 3 (1997):
99–106. 40. Ibid.
29. K. E. Adolph, “Motor and Physical Devel- 41. Ibid.

opment: Locomotion,” in Encyclopedia of
Infant and Early Childhood Development, 42. B. I. Bertenthal, “Origins and Early Devel-
edited by M. M. Haith and J. B. Benson opment of Perception, Action and Repre-
(San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2008). sentation,” Annual Review of Psychology
47 (1996): 431–59.
30. K. E. Adolph and A. S. Joh, “Motor Devel-
opment: How Infants Get Into the Act,” in 43. E. J. Gibson, “What Does Infant Percep-
Introduction to Infant Development, 2nd tion Tell Us About Theories of Percep-
ed., edited by A. Slater and M. Lewis (New tion?,” Journal of Experimental Psychology:
York: Oxford University Press, 2007). Human Perception and Performance 13, no.
4 (1987): 515–23.
31. K. E. Adolph, “Motor and Physical Devel-
opment: Locomotion,” in Encyclopedia of 44. E. J. Gibson, “Exploratory Behavior in the
Infant and Early Childhood Development, Development of Perceiving, Acting and the
edited by M. M. Haith and J. B. Benson Acquiring of Knowledge,” Annual Review of
(San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2008). Psychology 39, no. 1 (1988): 5.
Development
145
45. N. E. Berthier, “Learning to Reach: A Society for Research in Child Development

Mathematical Model,” Developmental Psy- 62, serial no. 251, no. 3 (1997): 1–164.
chology 32, no. 5 (1996): 811.
———. “Motor and Physical Development:
46. E. Thelen, “Motor Development: A New Locomotion,” in Encyclopedia of Infant and
Synthesis,” American Psychologist 50, no. Early Childhood Development. Edited by M.
2 (1995): 79–95. M. Haith and J. B. Benson. San Diego, CA:
Academic Press, 2008.
47. K. E. Adolph and S. E. Berger, “Physical
and Motor Development,” in Developmental Adolph, K. E., and A. M. Avolio. “Walking
Science: An Advanced Textbook, 5th ed., Infants Adapt Locomotion to Changing
edited by M. H. Bornstein and M. E. Lamb Body Dimensions.” Journal of Experimental
(Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ- Psychology: Human Perception and Perfor-
ates, 2005), p. 223. mance 26, no. 3 (2000): 1148–66.
48. C. S. Tamis-LeMonda and K. E. Adolph, Adolph, K. E., and S. E. Berger. “Motor Devel-
“Social Referencing in Infant Motor opment,” in Handbook of Child Psychology,
Action,” in The Development of Social Cog- Volume 2: Cognition, Perception, and Lan-
nition and Communication, edited by B. D. guage. 6th ed. Series edited by W. Damon
Homer and C. S. Tamis-LeMonda (Mah- and R. M. Lerner, volume edited D. Kuhn
wah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, and R. Siegler. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley
2005). and Sons, 2006.
49. J. Gonzalez-Mena and D. W. Eyer, Infants, ———. “Physical and Motor Development,” in
Toddlers, and Caregivers: A Curriculum of Developmental Science: An Advanced Text-
Respectful, Responsive Care and Education, book. 5th ed. Edited by M. H. Bornstein
6th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Compa- and M. E. Lamb. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
nies, 2003), p. 129. Erlbaum Associates, 2005.
50. M. Gerber, Dear Parent: Caring for Infants Adolph, K. E., and A. S. Joh. “Motor Develop-
and Toddlers with Respect, 2nd ed., edited ment: How Infants Get Into the Act,” in
by J. Weaver (Los Angeles: Resources for Introduction to Infant Development. 2nd
Infant Educators [RIE], 2001), p. 19. ed. Edited by A. Slater and M. Lewis. New
York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Development,” in Handbook of Child Psy- Adolph, K. E., B. Vereijken, and P. E. Shrout.
chology, Volume 2: Cognition, Perception, “What Changes in Infant Walking and
and Language, 6th ed., series edited by W. Why.” Child Development 74, no. 2 (2003):
Damon and R. M. Lerner, volume edited 5–97.
by D. Kuhn and R. Siegler (Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley and Sons, 2006), p. 173. Adolph, K. E., I. Weise, and L. Marin. “Motor
Development,” in Encyclopedia of Cognitive
52. K. E. Adolph, “Learning in the Develop- Science. London: Macmillan, 2003.
ment of Infant Locomotion,” Monographs
of the Society for Research in Child Devel- Bahrick, L. E., R. Lickliter, and R. Flom. “Inter-
opment 62, serial no. 251, no. 3 (1997): sensory Redundancy Guides the Develop-
12–14. ment of Selective Attention, Perception,
and Cognition in Infancy.” Current Direc-
53. L. J. Claxton, R. Keen, and M. E. McCarty, tions in Psychological Science 13, no. 3
“Evidence of Motor Planning in Infant (2004): 99–102.
Reaching Behavior,” Psychological Science
14, no. 4 (2003): 354–56. Bertenthal, B. I. “Origins and Early Develop-
ment of Perception, Action and Represen-

54. Ibid. tation.” Annual Review of Psychology 47
(1996): 431–59.
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digms and New Issues: A Comment on
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Adolph, K. E. “Learning in the Development
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3 (1997): 141–51. Toddlers, and Caregivers: A Curriculum of
Respectful, Responsive Care and Education.
Berthier, N. E. “Learning to Reach: A Math- 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies,
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Haith, M. M., C. Hazen, and G. S. Goodman.
Bushnell, E. W., and J. P. Boudreau. “Motor “Expectation and Anticipation of Dynamic
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Development 64, no. 4 (1993): 1005–21.
Pick, H. L. “Motor Development: The Control of
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“Evidence of Motor Planning in Infant 6 (1989): 867–70.
Reaching Behavior.” Psychological Science
14, no. 4 (2003): 354–56. Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., and K. E. Adolph.
“Social Referencing in Infant Motor
Diamond, A. “Interrelated and Interdependent.” Action,” in The Development of Social
Developmental Science 10, no. 1 (2007): Cognition and Communication. Edited by
152–58. B. D. Homer and C. S. Tamis-LeMonda.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ-
Gerber, M. Dear Parent: Caring for Infants and ates, 2005.
Toddlers with Respect. 2nd ed. Edited by J.
Weaver. Los Angeles: Resources for Infant Thelen, E. “Motor Development: A New Syn-
Educators (RIE), 2001. thesis.” American Psychologist 50, no. 2
(1995): 79–95.
Gibson, E. J. “Exploratory Behavior in the
Development of Perceiving, Acting and the ———. “Three-Month-Old Infants Can Learn
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Psychology 39, no. 1 (1988): 1–41. dination.” Psychological Science 5, no. 5
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———. “What Does Infant Perception Tell Us
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Experimental Psychology: Human Percep- opmental Science 10, no. 1 (2007): 54–60.
tion and Performance 13, no. 4 (1987):
515–23.
Development
Appendix
Resources for Teachers of Children with
Disabilities or Other Special Needs
Achieving Learning Goals Through This book takes a practical, “activity-

Play: Teaching Young Children with based” approach that is theoretically
Special Needs (2nd ed.). Author: A. H. sound and current. It also discusses
Widerstrom. Baltimore, MD: Brookes specific intervention strategies that
Publishing Company, 2004. enhance teachers’ use of embedded
learning opportunities within daily
curriculum activities and routines. The
Play is more than just fun; it is a pow- content is relatively jargon-free and
erful teaching tool that helps young is built on evidence-based practices,
children learn. This guide provides making it appropriate for a wide range
ready-to-use strategies for weaving of readers. Illustrations of techniques
individual learning goals into play and strategies make it a useful resource
throughout the school day. It was cre- that promotes an inclusive, family-cen-
ated for use with children from ages two tered approach to working with young
through five who have special needs, children with special needs and their
but it is equally effective for typically families.
developing children. The book includes
information on how play activities can Building Strong Foundations. Authors:
help children develop cognitive, commu- R. ParlakianandN.L.Seibel.Wash-
nication, motor, social, and preliteracy ington, DC: Zero to Three, 2002.
skills. The appendixes offer guidelines This publication explores the ways
for developmentally appropriate prac- in which supportive relationships at all
tice, resources for including children levels of an infant care program—
with disabilities, and reproducible plan- between supervisor and staff members,
ning matrixes. staff members and families, parents
and children—contribute to children’s
healthy social–emotional develop-ment,
Adapting Early Childhood Curricula which is sometimes referred to as
for Children with Special Needs (7th “infant mental health.” The authors
ed.). Authors: R. E. Cook, M. D. Klein, present the core concepts of infant
and A. Tessier. Upper Saddle River, NJ: mental health, offer strategies for lead-
Merrill, 2007. http://pearsonhighered. ers and trainers on how to promote
com/educator/product/Adapting-Early-
Childhood-Curricula-for-Children-with-
Special-Needs/9780131723818.page
(accessed January 18, 2012).
147
148
children’s mental health, and describe The Exceptional Child: Inclusion in

guidelines on when to refer very young Early Childhood Education (6th ed.).
children for assessment and treatment. Authors: E. K. Allen and G. E. Cowdery.
To bring concepts to life, the book Florence, KY: Cengage Learning, 2008.
includes numerous vignettes featuring a
mix of infant/family settings. Exercises This book presents history and research
designed to help staff and leaders better on the legal issues, disabilities, and
understand and apply infant mental other considerations that are relevant to
health practices are also included. educating children with special needs. It
California Map to Inclusion & Belong- addresses the approach and tools
ing. http://cainclusion.org/camap/ needed to provide an optimal setting for
(accessed January 18, 2012). the children and their families. The
publication includes forms and check-
The California Map to Inclusion & lists that educators can use in the
Belonging Web site, operated by the classroom to create developmentally
WestEd Center for Child and Family appropriate environments. Its easy-to-
Studies and funded by the California use format was designed to assist edu-
Department of Education’s Child Devel- cators, care providers, and parents.
opment Division (with a portion of the
federal Child Care Development Fund
Quality Improvement Allocation), offers
many resources and Web links to sup-
port children with special needs and
their families. Inclusion Works! Creating Child Care
Programs That Promote Belonging
DEC Recommended Practices: A Com- for Children with Special Needs.
prehensive Guide for Practical Author: California Department of Edu-
Application in Early Intervention/ cation. Sacramento: California Depart-
Early Childhood Special Education. ment of Education, 2009. http://www.
Authors:S.R.Sandallandothers. cde.ca.gov/re/pn/rc/ap/pubdisplay.
Missoula, MT: The Division for Early aspx?ID=001689 (accessed January 18,
Childhood (DEC), 2005. 2012).
In addition to providing all of the infor- This publication offers guidance and
mation from the original DEC Recom- proven strategies that promote belong-
mended Practices, this guide offers real- ing and inclusion for all children. Build-
life examples and practical tips for ing on research and the experience
implementation. The book includes gained from years of effective imple-
strategies for assessing and improving mentation, the book includes stories,
programs, checklists for parents and examples, background information,
administrators, and an annotated list of and resources that support success-
relevant resources. ful inclusive practices. Suggestions for
ways to adapt the environment are pro-
vided, along with examples of inclusive
strategies. A glossary and appendixes
make this handbook a practical tool for
care providers.
149
Inclusive Child Care for Infants and Mental Health Consultation in

Toddlers: Meeting Individual and Child Care. Authors: K. John-
Special Needs. Author: M. O’Brien. ston and C. Brinamen. Washington,
Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publish- DC: Zero to Three, 2006.
ing Company, 1997.
As young children spend more time in

This book presents child care providers child care programs, those programs
with advice on handling daily caregiving have an increasingly significant effect
tasks, teaching responsively, meeting on children’s social and emotional
individual needs, developing rapport development. This book discusses the
with parents, understanding toddlers’ impact of the caregiver–child relation-
behavior, working with Individualized ship on the mental health of young
Family Service Plans, and maintaining children. It reviews current theory and
high standards of care. Suggested play offers practical suggestions for improv-
activities and intervention approaches ing relationships among program direc-
help promote healthy development in all tors, staff members, parents, children,
children. The publication also includes and mental health consultants. The
checklists for assessing quality, par-ent book aims to help mental health profes-
report forms, and feeding/play sionals, early childhood educators and
schedules that target developing skills in trainers, and policymakers identify and
areas in which infants and toddlers remove obstacles to quality care and
need the most help. make positive changes in child care
environments.
Inclusive Early Childhood Education:

Development, Resources, and Prac-
tice (5th ed.). Author: P. L. Deiner.
Florence, KY: Cengage Learning, 2010. Mental Health in Early Intervention:
Achieving Unity in Principles and
Practice. Edited by G. M. Foley and J.
This comprehensive special education D. Hochman. Baltimore, MD: Brookes
resource was designed to help early Publishing Company, 2006.
childhood educators with the diagnosis
and education of children who have a
variety of learning disabilities. The text Too often, infant mental health and
includes extensive coverage of dis- early intervention are dealt with sepa-
abilities—comparable to the content of rately rather than together. Integration
many “Introduction to Special Edu- of these two interdependent fields is the
cation” courses. The book also offers goal of this publication. The book pre-
guidelines, vignettes, and hands-on pares readers to combine the two fields
program planning to prepare educators and improve practices in both.
to integrate children with learning dis-
abilities into regular classroom instruc-
tion.
150
Sensory Integration and Self-Regula- health services into other systems and
tion in Infants and Toddlers: Help- programs that support young children.
ing Very Young Children Interact This publication will help profession-
with Their Environment. Authors: als discover how to improve young
G. G. Williamson and M. E. Anzalone. children’s outcomes by building sturdy
Washington, DC: Zero to Three, 2001. bridges between mental health services
and medical, educational, and social
services. Brief stories throughout the
This book was written for an audience book illustrate how mental health ser-
of multidisciplinary practitioners who vices help children and families at risk.
support the development of infants and Two real-life case studies give readers
young children in a broad range of set- an inside look at effective early child-
tings—including child care, Head Start hood mental health systems, including
and Early Head Start, early interven- structure, financing, and evaluation of
tion, neonatal intensive care follow-up, outcomes.
developmental clinics, infant mental
health centers, and child life programs. Social Competence of Young Children:
The authors integrate and synthesize Risk, Disability, and Intervention.
knowledge from the fields of occupa- Edited by W. H. Brown, S. L. Odom,
tional therapy, neuroscience, child and S. R. McConnell. Baltimore, MD:
development, psychology, psychiatry, Brookes Publishing Company, 2007.
education, and the movement sciences http://www.brookespublishing.com/
to help readers understand the sen-sory store/books/brown-69230/index.htm
development of infants and young (accessed January 18, 2012).
children; learn about assessment and Increasing positive peer interaction can
intervention approaches designed to reduce future social competence prob-
promote very young children’s self- lems, but how can you ensure that chil-
regulation and adaptive behavior; and dren with developmental difficulties are
gain awareness of new directions and given a chance to cultivate the social
questions in basic and applied research relationships they need? This book
in the field. details current, research-based assess-
ment and intervention strategies, along
with well-matched and effective peer
interaction interventions—classroom,
naturalistic, or explicit—to suit specific
Social and Emotional Health in Early children’s needs.
Childhood: Building Bridges Between
Services and Systems. Edited by Teaching Infants, Toddlers, and Twos
D. F.Perry,R.K.Kaufmann,andJ. with Special Needs. Author: C. Wil-
Knitzer. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Pub- lis. Baltimore, MD: Gryphon House,
lishing Company, 2007. 2009. http://www.gryphonhouse.
com/store/trans/productDetail-
Social and emotional health are criti-cal Form.asp?CatID=26&BookID=15089
factors in a child’s development and (accessed January 18, 2012).
school readiness—factors that depend
on weaving effective mental Placing children with special needs in
environments that include typically
developing peers has become common-
place, as research continues to confirm
151
that all children benefit and learn from Young Children with Disabilities in
each other and from their teachers. Natural Environments: Methods
This book was written for all teachers and Procedures. Authors: M. J.
and directors who work with infants Noonan and L. McCormick. Baltimore,
and toddlers, including special educa- MD: Brookes Publishing Company,
tion professionals and educators who 2006. http://brookespublishing.com/
work with typically developing children. store/books/noonan-8612/index.htm
It focuses on the needs of children with (accessed January 18, 2012).
developmental delays and on children Focusing on children from birth to age
who are at risk of developing special five who have disabilities, this publica-
needs. Each chapter includes information provides specific, practical knowl-
tion on how young children learn, as edge on how to work effectively with
well as strategies and adaptations that children in natural environments. It
apply to all children. Examples are includes clear methods; an integrated
presented for managing the physical approach that blends information from
environment and for teaching skills that different disabilities, developmental
will enhance the overall development of domains, and ages; and a strong focus
infants and toddlers with special needs. on cultural competence.
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California

California Department of Education

California Department of Education

The California Infant/Toddler Curriculum Framework was developed by

© 2012 by the California Department of Education

A Message from the State Superintendent of Public Instruction v

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework 1

Chapter 2: The California Early Learning and Development System 53

Chapter 3: Social–Emotional Development 63

Chapter 5: Cognitive Development 101

Chapter 6: Perceptual and Motor Development 123

Appendix: Resources for Teachers of Children with Disabilities

children who are culturally diverse, and assistance, children in inclusive

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

ties attended preschool in California.12 The family is at the center of

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Intentional teaching and care to organize learning experiences for

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

• Children who are learning Eng- • focus on the children’s sense of

to use alternative ways to communi- accommodations and support for

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

to the many learning possibilities that their immediate environment through

During the first eight months

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

gather new information and make these experiences through thoughtful

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

and holistic learning, teachers create The following vignette illustrates

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Jacob’s play with the basket. She 2. Interactions and Conversa-

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

The following vignette describes how to incorporate Leah’s ways of taking

The Reflective Curriculum Planning Process

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

of the teaching–learning relationship. as they observe, take notes, reflect

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

aspects of the teacher’s experiences Observation and Documentation

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Begin by just watching, not rushing to do things for the

Ask yourself: What message is the child sending?

Adapt your actions according to what you believe to be

Observing While Participating tines. Observations from teachers who

Tools for Documenting

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Planning Based on Observation, individually and with colleagues and

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

introduced should reflect respect for The teacher’s interaction strategies

• address the whole learning experi- • optimization of program connections

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

mentation, as well as activities that a Disability: Statewide Report (Sacramento,

15. S. M. Bell and M. D. Salter Ainsworth,

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Framework

The California Early

California Department of Education, Child Development Division