SELECTED STUDIES OF

THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVE

FREQUENCY I N LANGUAGE
LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
 SELECTED STUDIES OF
THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVE
FREQUENCY IN LANGUAGE

BY

GEORGE KINGSLEY 2IPF

INSTRUCTOR. I N GERMAN AT HARVARD U N I V E R S I T Y

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS
1 2
93
 COPYRICHT, 1 9 3 a
BY THE PRESIDENT AND FELLOWS O r HARVARD COLLEGE

PRINTED AT THE HARVARD ONIVEASITY PRESi

CAMBRIDGE, MASS., O. 3.A.

/ y /
 INTRODUCTION
THE p r e s e n t p a p e r , c o n s i s t i n g of t h e results of s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s u b v e n e d b y liberal g r a n t s
f r o m t h e G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n B o a r d ' s A p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r S t u d i e s in t h e H u m a n i t i e s , d e a l s w i t h t h e
Principle of Relative Frequency, a general t h e o r y of l a n g u a g e first a d v a n c e d p u b l i c l y b y m e in
1929. 1 T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e t h e o r y , w h i c h b e g a n s o m e y e a r s b e f o r e p u b l i c a t i o n in 1929, h a d
e v e n b y t h a t t i m e r e a c h e d such p r o p o r t i o n s t h a t in t h e o r i g i n a l article I c o u l d i n c l u d e o n l y s u c h
m a t e r i a l a s I d e e m e d especially salient f o r t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n of t h e n e w h y p o t h e s i s . S i n c e t h e n ,
the m a t e r i a l h a s a g a i n increased c o n s i d e r a b l y , n o t o n l y f r o m m y o w n i n d e p e n d e n t research, b u t
likewise f r o m t h e c o m m e n t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s k i n d l y t e n d e r e d b y c r i t i c s b o t h here a n d a b r o a d .
H e n c e a g a i n , m y s p a c e c o m p e l s o n l y selected s t u d i e s , a selection w h i c h is designed in p a r t to in-
crease t h e i l l u s t r a t i v e m a t e r i a l , in p a r t t o p e n e t r a t e f u r t h e r i n t o t h e a n a l y s i s of t h a t m a t e r i a l , a n d
in p a r t t o e x t e n d t h e l i m i t s of t h e v e r y t h e o r y itself. T h e c a r e f u l l y d e l i b e r a t e d a r r a n g e m e n t is,
h o w e v e r , such t h a t I h o p e t h e reader c a s u a l l y p e r u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s will sense t h e f u n d a -
m e n t a l o r g a n i c u n i t y of t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e . T h e u n i t y of the Principle of Relative Fre-
quency, i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s a n d scope, its b e a r i n g o n t h e t h e o r y of Gestalt Psychology on t h e one h a n d
a n d t h e t h e o r y of Psychoanalysis o n t h e o t h e r , a n d i t s g e n e r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s b o t h linguistic a n d
otherwise, I ain a t p r e s e n t c o m b i n i n g i n t o a m o d e s t v o l u m e to a p p e a r in t h e i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e .
I t is b e c a u s e of this v o l u m e t h a t I n o w i n c l u d e a s a p p e n d i c e s all the essential source m a t e r i a l
u p o n w h i c h t h e a r g u m e n t of t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s is b a s e d . O n l y a f t e r t h e m o s t c a r e f u l discussion
of t h e m a t t e r w i t h c o l l e a g u e s a n d w i t h t h e C h a i r m a n of t h e G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n B o a r d ' s A p p r o -
p r i a t i o n w a s i t d e c i d e d t o p r i n t this u n w i e l d l y e v i d e n c e . If, as they say, the Chinese phonetic
t r a n s c r i p t i o n s in t h e a p p e n d i x a n d t h e lists of t h e C h i n e s e w o r d s a n d s y l l a b l e s a r r a n g e d a c c o r d -
i n g t o f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e p r o v e t h e m s e l v e s of i n t e r e s t a n d v a l u e t o those w o r k i n g o n g r a m -
m a r s , readers, o r s t e n o g r a p h i c s y s t e m s in C h i n e s e , a n d if t h e list of all w o r d s o c c u r r i n g in f o u r of
P l a u t u s ' p l a y s , a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c a r d s w i t h line
references for e a c h w o r d (deposited in the H a r v a r d C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ) s h o u l d p r o v e of v a l u e f o r one
w o r k i n g on P l a u t u s , all of t h a t is i n c i d e n t a l to t h e p u r p o s e of their inclusion here. P e r h a p s t h a t is
m o r e t h a n a sufficient j u s t i f i c a t i o n . I h o w e v e r i n c l u d e t h e m solely t h a t there s h o u l d b e no
d o u b t a s t o t h e m e t h o d used for t h e results a n d a s to t h e v e r a c i t y of t h e results o b t a i n e d , f o r
these results o f f e r o v e r w h e l m i n g p r o o f s of t h e Principle of Relative Frequency. T h o u g h the evi-
dence t h e y g i v e r e p r e s e n t s b u t a s m a l l p o r t i o n of t h e t o t a l e v i d e n c e a v a i l a b l e , y e t it is of s u c h
a n a t u r e a s to establish a t l e a s t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of t h e t h e o r y b e y o n d a s h a d o w of a d o u b t .
I t is needless t o s a y t h a t i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e for m e t o g a t h e r the e n s u i n g m a t e r i a l
w i t h o u t t h e h e l p of l o y a l a s s i s t a n t s . T h e t e d i o u s n e s s a n d n e e d of a c c u r a c y of t h e w o r k called f o r
almost superhuman patience. O n e w h o h a s never a t t e m p t e d such an investigation will never
u n d e r s t a n d t h e e n o r m o u s d e b t of t h a n k s I o w e t o M r . K a n Y u W a n g , M r . H . Y . C h a n g , M i s s
D o r o t h y P r i e s t , M i s s M a r y C a m p b e l l , a n d m y w i f e f o r their a s s i s t a n c e , a s s i s t a n c e w h i c h w o u l d
h a v e b e e n m a i n l y i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t t h e g e n e r o u s s u b v e n t i o n of t h e G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n B o a r d ' s
A p p r o p r i a t i o n for S t u d i e s in t h e H u m a n i t i e s .

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS
January 6, 1932

1 G. K . Zipf, "Relative Frequency as a Determinant of Phonetic Change," Harvard Studies in Classical Phi-
lology, Vol. X L (1929), pp. 1-95.
 CONTENTS
PART I . Relative Frequency in Respect to Chinese Phonology I

PART I I . Relative Frequency, Abbreviation, and Semantic Change 8

APPENDIX A . F r e q u e n c y of O c c u r r e n c e of W o r d s in P l a u t u s ' Auluiaria, Mostellaria, Pseu-

dolus, a n d Trinummus 31

APPENDIX B . P h o n e t i c T r a n s c r i p t i o n s of 20,000 S y l l a b l e s of t h e D i a l e c t of
Modern Peking Plates 1-50

APPENDIX C . F r e q u e n c y of O c c u r r e n c e of W o r d s in the 20,000 S y l l a b l e s of

Appendix B P l a t e s 10,-50.

APPENDIX D . F r e q u e n c y of O c c u r r e n c e of S y l l a b l e s in the 20,000 S y l l a b l e s of

Appendix B Plates 16-76
 PART I

The Principle of Relative Frequency in Respect to

Chinese Phonology
THE p r e s e n t p a p e r s e t s f o r t h t h e r e s u l t s of a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n u n d e r t a k e n c h i e f l y t o d e t e r m i n e
w h e t h e r or n o t the m o d e r n v e r n a c u l a r of P e k i n g , C h i n a , a g r e e s w i t h I n d o - E u r o p e a n t o n g u e s in
s u b s t a n t i a t i n g t h e Principle of Relative Frequency. T h a t a n oriental language would offer v a l u -
able a n d final e v i d e n c e w a s a p p a r e n t l i k e w i s e t o others. 1 And t h a t of t h e m a n y oriental
l a n g u a g e s , C h i n e s e , o r , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e d i a l e c t of m o d e r n P e k i n g , w o u l d b e t h e m o s t i d e a l
f r o m a l m o s t e v e r y a n g l e , I h o p e t o m a k e clear in t h e ensuing p a r a g r a p h s .
B u t before p r o c e e d i n g t o t h e e v i d e n c e , i t w o u l d b e w i s e t o r e v i e w i n brief t h e m a i n p o i n t s of
the theory which the evidence seems to support. F o r t h e t h e o r y of Relative Frequency, unlike
e v e r y other linguistic t h e o r y , does n o t l o o k f o r t h e c a u s e s of linguistic c h a n g e s i n c l i m a t e , g e o g -
r a p h y , v o c a l organs, c h i l d h o o d m i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n s , a n d s o o n , b u t s i m p l y m a i n t a i n s t h a t a n y
change in a g i v e n l a n g u a g e is b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e i n h e r e n t s t r u c t u r e of t h a t l a n g u a g e itself.
T h e gist of t h e t h e o r y is t h a t a n y e l e m e n t of s p e e c h w h i c h o c c u r s in s p o k e n l a n g u a g e m o r e fre-
q u e n t l y t h a n some o t h e r similar e l e m e n t d e m a n d s less e m p h a s i s o r c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s t h a n t h a t
o t h e r element w h i c h o c c u r s m o r e r a r e l y . I n o t h e r w o r d s , w h a t is e x p e c t e d d o e s n o t n e e d o r re-
ceive t h e e m p h a s i s or c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s of t h e r e l a t i v e l y less e x p e c t e d . A f e w e x a m p l e s w i l l p e r h a p s
m a k e this clearer.
T h e e v e r r e c u r r i n g e n d i n g s of a w o r d d o n o t g e n e r a l l y need a s m u c h e m p h a s i s a s t h e r o o t ; t h e
v e r b a l auxiliaries, b e i n g m o r e f r e q u e n t , u s u a l l y d o n o t d e m a n d o r r e c e i v e a s m u c h e m p h a s i s a s
t h e m a i n v e r b ; so too t h e article less t h a n i t s n o u n . T h e g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y t o w a r d a b b r e v i a t i o n ,
s y n c o p e , t o w a r d t h e f u s i o n of e n d i n g s , suffixes, p r e f i x e s , auxiliaries, articles, a n d p a r t i c l e s o f f e r s
f u r t h e r possibilities of p r o o f . I n f a c t this s e e m s t o m e t h e v e r y c r u x of Satzphonetik, a s I h o p e will
be a p p a r e n t t o t h e reader in P a r t T w o of t h i s p a p e r . I f o n e g o e s deeper t h a n t h e w o r d , h o w e v e r ,
and takes a paradigm which has some endings rigidly accented and others regularly without
a c c e n t , one will find t h a t a c c e n t is c o u p l e d w i t h c o m p a r a t i v e r a r i t y of o c c u r r e n c e , w h i l e l a c k of
a c c e n t is i n v a r i a b l y l i n k e d w i t h h i g h f r e q u e n c y of u s a g e . 2
I n t h e l i g h t of all this, I f o r m u l a t e d t h e Principle of Relative Frequency: T h e a c c e n t o r d e g r e e of
conspicuousness of a n y w o r d , s y l l a b l e , o r s o u n d is i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e r e l a t i v e f r e -
q u e n c y of t h a t w o r d , s y l l a b l e , or s o u n d , a m o n g i t s f e l l o w w o r d s , s y l l a b l e s , o r s o u n d s in t h e s t r e a m
of s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . A s a n y e l e m e n t ' s u s a g e b e c o m e s m o r e f r e q u e n t , i t s f o r m t e n d s t o b e c o m e less
a c c e n t e d , o r m o r e e a s i l y p r o n o u n c e a b l e , a n d vice versa.

1 Cf. Ed. Hermann, Philologische Wochenschrift, Vol. 51 (1931), p. 602.

* For a detailed discussion of supporting evidence, cf. Zipf,o£. ct<., pp. s f f . In support of these views, cf. EUse
Richter Archivfür das Studium der neueren Sfrachen, Vol. 157 (1930), pp. 291 ff. Against these views cf. Ed. Her-
man, op. cti., pp. 599 ff. As I expect soon to be able to point out, the e-o gradation in the o-declension and thematic
verbs is the answer to Professor Hermann's shrewd question.

m
 T h i s principle b e c o m e s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t i n r e s p e c t t o s o u n d s (phonemes). 1 F o r s t r a n g e l y
e n o u g h s o u n d s , a s w e shall see, differ d e c i d e d l y in degree of conspicuousness. T h e v o i c e d a s p i r a t e
dh f o r e x a m p l e is m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s , b o t h p h o n e t i c a l l y a n d a c o u s t i c a l l y , t h a n the m e d i a dt since i t
h a s e v e r y t h i n g t h e d possesses, p l u s t h e a d d i t i o n a l increment of aspiration. B e c a u s e of this a d d i -
t i o n a l increment of aspiration, t h e dh is m o r e difficult t o p r o n o u n c e t h a n a d a n d , likewise, m o r e
a u d i b l e t o t h e h e a r e r : in o t h e r w o r d s , i t is b o t h p h o n e t i c a l l y a n d a c o u s t i c a l l y m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s .
S o t o o a lenis o r a f o r t i s d is m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y lenis o r fortis tenuis
since t h e d possesses e v e r y t h i n g t h e t h a s , p l u s t h e increment of voice. I n a like m a n n e r , t h e a f f r i -
c a t e ts is p h o n e t i c a l l y a n d a c o u s t i c a l l y m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t h a n a t, b e c a u s e in a d d i t i o n t o t h e t i t
has a following spirant. B u t w e c a n s a y n o t h i n g in r e s p e c t t o t h e r e l a t i v e conspicuousness of a
s p i r a n t , f o r e x a m p l e t h e p. F o r t h o u g h t h e p l a c k s t h e increment of explosiveness of t h e tenuis, i t
c a n m o r e t h a n c o m p e n s a t e for this l a c k b y a p r o l o n g e d d u r a t i o n (e. g . ppp). O b v i o u s l y this
a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e d e n t a l s c a n be c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y e x t e n d e d t o labials, p a l a t a l s , v e l a r s , or i n d e e d
t o a n y o t h e r o r e v e r y o t h e r s o u n d w h i c h w i l l s i m i l a r l y a d m i t of a c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s .
T h a t t h e conspicuousness of a s o u n d is o n l y d e t e r m i n a b l e r e l a t i v e t o a n o t h e r sound h a s seemed
t o s o m e c r i t i c s of t h i s t h e o r y u n f o r t u n a t e . B u t in s p i t e of t h e b r i l l i a n t w o r k of m o d e r n e x p e r i -
mental phonetics, phoneticians have not y e t discovered a n y method which can give for a n y
s o u n d , let a l o n e f o r e v e r y s o u n d , e i t h e r t h e a c t u a l a b s o l u t e a m o u n t of e n e r g y required f o r i t s p r o -
n u n c i a t i o n , or a n a b s o l u t e m e a s u r e either of i t s a u d i b i l i t y or i t s p s y c h i c conspicuousness. A n d i t is
d o u b t f u l t h a t s u c h a m e a s u r e w i l l e v e r be f o u n d . F o r this c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s d e p e n d s t o a large d e -
g r e e u p o n t h e a m p l i t u d e o r l o u d n e s s , a t h i n g w h i c h v a r i e s g r e a t l y in w o r d s , a n d therefore in
s o u n d s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m o o d o r e m o t i o n a l s t a t e of t h e s p e a k e r . B u t in regard to t h e r e l a t i v e
c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s of a s o u n d , t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of dh t o d, d t o /, a n d ts t o t is s a t i s f a c t o r y . F o r re-
g a r d l e s s of h o w l o u d l y o r s o f t l y a n i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k s , a lenis o r f o r t i s d t let us s a y , w i l l be b o t h
m o r e a u d i b l e a n d m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o p r o n o u n c e t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y lenis or f o r t i s /.
A n d n o w , if w e c a n s a y t h a t a lenis o r f o r t i s m e d i a is m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t h a n a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y
lenis or f o r t i s t e n u i s , a n a l y s i s of l a n g u a g e s h o u l d s h o w , if t h e Principle of Relative Frequency be
c o r r e c t , t h a t t h e less c o n s p i c u o u s tenuis s h o u l d o c c u r in c u r s i v e l a n g u a g e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n t h e

1 i k I P 4
Bulgarian 7-54% 3-55 % 2.98% 1.46% 2.82 % 1-32 %
English .. . 7-13 4-Ji 2.71 •74 2.04 1.81
Russian 7.49 3-42 3-49 1.10 2.19 1.76
Italian 4-74 363 •41 2.7S .89
Swedish 764 5.48 3-S2 2.so 1.20 1.32
Hungarian 7.18 3-3° S-7 2 2.45 1J34
German , . 3-75 2.24 1.84 '•34
French .... 6.28 3-S5 4.81 •76 3-54 >•39
Caech 5.60 3-73 3-93 •IS 3-S» r.86
Spanish .... 4.2J 5.20 3.S2 .07 2.64 2.05
Sanskrit . .... 6.65 =.8S 1.99 .82 2.46 .46
Greek .... 7.58 2.87 4.07 1.74 3.38 •49
Latin 7-72 3-41 3-71 .96 2-OJ 1.40

1 For the sake of those who prefer the word phoneme, an extremely useful philological term which does not yet

enjoy the frequency of usage it deserves, let me say that the older and more generally used word sound which X shall
adhere to in this paper may be replaced throughout this paper by the word phoneme without modifying my meaning
in the slightest degree. B y sound changes I mean, as practically every investigator of this ¿eld now means, phoneme
changes. For the meaning of phoneme see Leonard Bloomfield, " A Set of Postulates for the Science of Language,"
Language, Vol. II (1926), 157. In addition one may profitably consult Edward Sapir, "Sound Patterns in Lan-
guage," Language > Vol. I (1925), 37.

c » :
 more conspicuous media. I n o t h e r w o r d s , w e s h o u l d e x p e c t in c o u n t i n g t h e s o u n d s of a reason-
a b l y l o n g piece of c o l l o q u i a l prose t o find b y a c t u a l c o u n t t h e t e n u e s m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n their
corresponding m e d i a e — m o r e i's t h a n d ' s , m o r e k's t h a n g's, m o r e p's t h a n b's.
T h e t a b l e o n p a g e 2, r e p r i n t e d f r o m tny original a r t i c l e , i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t this is s t r i k i n g l y true. 1
A n d the c o n c l u s i o n s t o b e d r a w n f r o m t h e t a b l e a r e clear.
W h e n , either b e c a u s e of c h a n g e of t h e f r e q u e n c y of u s a g e of w o r d s in the f o l k v o c a b u l a r y , o r
because of t h e a d d i t i o n of n e w or the d e l e t i o n of h i t h e r t o f a m i l i a r w o r d s , the r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y of
a sound increases, the s o u n d t e n d s t o b e c o m e less c o n s p i c u o u s , e i t h e r b y d i m i n i s h i n g the c o n -
spicuousness of o n e or m o r e of i t s i n c r e m e n t s , o r b y a b a n d o n i n g o n e o r m o r e of its i n c r e m e n t s
entirely. S o a f o r t i s d m a y b e c o m e a lenis d, o r e v e n a t. A n d c o n v e r s e l y , if t h e s o u n d b e c o m e s
r e l a t i v e l y rarer, i t m a y a d d to its i n c r e m e n t s . I n this f a s h i o n a i m a y b e c o m e a d, a ih, o r a is; o r
a lenis d m a y b e c o m e a f o r t i s d or a dh. I n this fashion sound shifts take place.
T h e G e r m a n a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n b are. e x a m p l e s of t h e f o r m e r . H a v i n g b e c o m e m o r e f r e q u e n t
than p, a s o u r t a b l e s h o w s , the G e r m a n a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n b h a v e w e a k e n e d in b o t h t h e i r i n c r e -
m e n t of v o i c e a n d e x p l o s i v e n e s s , a n d h a v e b e c o m e a s o u n d n o t v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m a s o f t l y v o i c e d
E n g l i s h p. S p a n i s h l i k e w i s e e x h i b i t s a similar c h a n g e w i t h i t s d, w h i c h , b e c a u s e of i t s excessive
f r e q u e n c y , h a s in m o s t p o s i t i o n s lost i t s increment of explosion a n d b e c o m e a n 3". H e n c e i t h a p p e n s
t h a t t h e s a m e f u n d a m e n t a l s o u n d s in v a r i o u s l a n g u a g e s m a y v a r y i n d e g r e e of explosiveness,
a m o u n t of a s p i r a t i o n , o r v o i c e . S o m e c r i t i c s b e l i e v e this v a r i a t i o n v i t i a t e s t h e Principle of Rela-
tive Frequency. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , i t w o u l d b e h i g h l y o d d , a s w i l l a p p e a r b e l o w , if this v a r i a t i o n
were n o t there. F o r a m o r e c o m p l e t e discussion of t h e t a b l e I m u s t h o w e v e r r e f e r t h e r e a d e r t o
t h e original article. L e t u s t u r n n o w t o t h e o b j e c t i o n s t h a t h a v e b e e n m a d e t o the t a b l e , inas-
m u c h a s t h e p r e s e n t C h i n e s e d a t a a r e i n t e n d e d t o a n s w e r m o s t , if n o t all, of t h e m .
T h e first o b j e c t i o n is b y far t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t , n a m e l y t h a t t h e s t a t i s t i c s d o n o t r e p r e s e n t
phonetic transcriptions. T o this m a y I s a y a g a i n t h a t t h e figures i n t h e t a b l e for s o m e of t h e
languages d o r e p r e s e n t a c t u a l p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n s ; f o r s o m e of t h e m o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e p h o -
n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n s ; a n d f o r s o m e , n o t a b l y those f o r t h e d e a d l a n g u a g e s , in c o n s i d e r i n g l e t t e r s a s
s o u n d s , c o m e a s close to a p h o n e t i c transcription a s w e shall e v e r o b t a i n . I t is c o m m o n p l a c e t o
s a y t h a t o u r a l p h a b e t s a r e n o t p h o n e t i c a l l y e x a c t . B u t , in s o s a y i n g , l e t u s n o t f o r g e t t h a t our a l -
p h a b e t s in g e n e r a l , e s p e c i a l l y in r e g a r d t o c o n s o n a n t s , d o n o t a l w a y s u t t e r l y a n d c o m p l e t e l y dis-
r e g a r d p h o n e t i c e q u i v a l e n t s , representing, a s i t w e r e , n o e a r t h l y c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e a c t u a l p r o -
n u n c i a t i o n . S a n s k r i t , a s a m a t t e r of f a c t , is so e x a c t in i t s a l p h a b e t t h a t o n e m i g h t s a f e l y s a y t h a t
i t is t r u l y a p h o n e t i c w r i t i n g . B u t b e t h a t a s i t m a y . I f t h e reader is n o t i m p r e s s e d b y t h e i n c o n -
t e s t a b l e c o r r e l a t i o n of t h e p e r c e n t a g e s in t h e t a b l e , h e m a y d i s r e g a r d t h e t a b l e o n w h a t e v e r
g r o u n d s he w i s h e s . B u t h e m a y n o t discard t h e C h i n e s e s t a t i s t i c s o n the g r o u n d of p h o n e t i c
transcription, f o r the C h i n e s e statistics represent c a r e f u l a n d e x a c t p h o n e t i c v a l u e s ; t h e t r a n -
scriptions t h e m s e l v e s a r e i n c l u d e d in t h e a p p e n d i x .
T h e s e c o n d o b j e c t i o n d e a l s w i t h conspicuousness? I t h a s b e e n o b j e c t e d t h a t a s o u n d w h i c h is
e a s y for one p e r s o n t o p r o n o u n c e m a y b e difficult f o r a n o t h e r , m e a n i n g b y t h i s t h a t a G e r m a n ,
f o r e x a m p l e , finds t h e E n g l i s h ih m o r e difficult t h a n d o e s a n E n g l i s h m a n . B u t this a g a i n h a s
n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e Principle of Relative Frequency. J u s t a s t h e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y of a
s o u n d m e a n s t h e f r e q u e n c y of t h e s o u n d r e l a t i v e t o t h e o t h e r s o u n d s of t h e s a m e d i a l e c t a n d o b -

1 Zipf, op. eii., p. 61. The various sources of these statistics and control figures, together with a criticism
of the method by which the statistics were obtained, are given on pp. 42 5.
1 Cf. E. Hermann, pp. cii., p. 602.

C3 J
 v i o u s l y not t o s o u n d s in g e n e r a l , so t o o t h e c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s of a n y sound is r e l a t i v e o n l y t o the
c o n s p i c u o u s n e s s oS o t h e r s o u n d s i n t h e s a m e d i a l e c t . I t w o u l d b e a b s u r d to think t h a t t h i s l a w
s h o u l d w o r k f o r t in g e n e r a l a n d d in g e n e r a l ; a fortis t, a s said b e f o r e , m a y b e m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s
t h a n a lenis d. I f so, i t s h o u l d b e less f r e q u e n t t h a n t h e d. M o r e o v e r i t is n o t l i k e l y t h a t a n y s o u n d
o r g r o u p of s o u n d s will b e a s e a s y f o r a s p e a k e r t o u t t e r o r a h e a r e r t o p e r c e i v e a s a s o u n d o r
s o u n d s of t h e n a t i v e s p e e c h p a t t e r n . I f t h e reader wishes, h e m a y discard t h e p r e v i o u s t a b l e o n
t h e s o m e w h a t d o u b t f u l g r o u n d s t h a t a F r e n c h t, f o r e x a m p l e , is p r o n o u n c e d in m a n y w a y s , a n d
a d d t h a t t h e s t r i k i n g c o r r e l a t i o n is n o t h i n g b u t r a n d o m c h a n c e . B u t h e m a y n o t discard t h e
C h i n e s e figures f o r t h a t r e a s o n ; for t h e a n a l y s i s h a s b e e n r e s t r i c t e d t o the m o d e r n v e r n a c u l a r
d i a l e c t of P e k i n g .
T h e third, a n d I t h i n k t h e last, serious o b j e c t i o n , is t h a t t h e s a m e s o u n d v a r i e s i n i n t e n s i t y ,
a n d h e n c e conspicuousness, a c c o r d i n g to t h e n a t u r e of t h e s u r r o u n d i n g sounds. T h i s is u n -
d o u b t e d l y true. A s P r o f e s s o r E l i s e R i c h t e r p o i n t s o u t , ' a m o n g o t h e r excellent e x a m p l e s , t h e Ger-
m a n p a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of a w o r d , b e t w e e n s y l l a b l e s , a n d a t t h e e n d of a w o r d represents t h r e e d i f -
f e r e n t a n d p h o n e t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t s o u n d s ; she i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e s for G e r m a n p a r e ,
therefore, n o t v a l i d u n t i l t h e s e p's a r e e a c h s e g r e g a t e d . S h e s u g g e s t s recourse t o e x p e r i m e n t a l
p h o n e t i c s . I t h a s also been s u g g e s t e d b y a n o t h e r t h a t I a v o i d t h e issue e n t i r e l y b y using t h e w o r d
phoneme i n s t e a d of sound, i m p l y i n g t h e r e b y t h a t s o u n d s w h o s e d i f f e r e n c e is d e t e c t a b l e o n l y b y t h e
skillful r e a d i n g of a r e c o r d i n g a p p a r a t u s m a y b e r e g a r d e d f o r linguistic p u r p o s e s a s i d e n t i c a l
s o u n d s . I m y s e l f h a d h o p e d t o a v o i d t h i s t r o u b l e s o m e issue o n p a g e 41 of t h e original article b y
s t a t i n g t h a t w h e n a s o u n d b e c a m e m o r e f r e q u e n t , a n d t h e r e f o r e t e n d e d t o diminish in c o n -
spicuousness, i t s w e a k e n i n g w o u l d first c o m m e n c e in those p o s i t i o n s w h e r e s u r r o u n d i n g s o u n d s
were p r o p i t i o u s f o r a w e a k e n i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , if a b, b e c o m i n g t o o f r e q u e n t , t e n d e d t o lose, l e t u s
s a y , i t s increment oj voice, i t w o u l d in all p r o b a b i l i t y lose i t s o o n e r a n d easier if s u r r o u n d e d b y
voiceless s o u n d s , t h a n i t w o u l d b e t w e e n v o w e l s ; i t w o u l d b e m o r e a p t t o lose i t s v o i c e in gebst o r
hebst t h a n in geben or heben. A n d if o n e considers l a n g u a g e a s s o m e t h i n g d y n a m i c , s o m e t h i n g
l i v i n g , a n d one h a p p e n e d t o r e c o r d t h e l a n g u a g e p h o n e t i c a l l y a s a g r a d u a l w e a k e n i n g w e r e t a k i n g
p l a c e , o n e c o u l d n o t r e a s o n a b l y s a y t h a t t h e Principle failed to function simply because a dif-
ference of a r t i c u l a t i o n w a s o b s e r v a b l e in d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s .
H o w e v e r , t h e r e is a n easier w a y t o r e f u t e t h e p h o n e t i c i s t t h a n b y a t t e m p t i n g t o d e m o n s t r a t e
t o h i m t h a t t h e v e r y p h e n o m e n a h e p o i n t s t o a s disproof a r e i n r e a l i t y a n essential p a r t of t h e
w o r k i n g of t h e Principle. L e t us t a k e r a t h e r a l a n g u a g e w h e r e t h i s p r o b l e m d o e s n o t arise a n d
t e s t its c o n s o n a n t s . L e t u s e x a m i n e t h e d i a l e c t of P e k i n g , w h i c h i s m o n o s y l l a b i c i n s t r u c t u r e . In
t h e d i a l e c t of P e k i n g , a c o n s o n a n t is used o n l y a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of a s y l l a b l e a n d is a l w a y s f o l -
l o w e d b y a v o w e l . T h e r e is n o s u c h t h i n g a s a final c o n s o n a n t . T h e l a n g u a g e , b e i n g e s s e n t i a l l y
m o n o s y l l a b i c , o f f e r s n o serious p r o b l e m of i n t e r s y l l a b i c c o n s o n a n t s . I n r e s p e c t t o the position of
t h e c o n s o n a n t , e v e r y t h i n g is a b s o l u t e l y c o n s t a n t . T h e r e is n o t h i n g t o consider b u t t h e a c t u a l c o n -
spicuousness of t h e s o u n d .
N o r is there a n y d i f f i c u l t y in d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h c o n s o n a n t i n e a c h p a i r is m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s .
E v e n t h e earliest r o r o a n i z a t i o n s s h o w i t ; all p h o n e t i c i s t s a g r e e a b o u t i t ; i t is a t once e v i d e n t t o
a n y o n e listening t o a n a t i v e o f P e k i n g s p e a k . T h e f o r t i s t e n u i s a s p i r a t a is decidedly m o r e c o n -
s p i c u o u s t h a n t h e f a i n t lenis m e d i a . 1 F o r so w e a k is t h e v o i c e i n t h e lenis m e d i a , t h a t there is
d o u b t a s t o w h e t h e r i t s h o u l d b e s t b e t r a n s c r i b e d w i t h a R o m a n m e d i a o r t e n u i s (e. g . b y a 6 or p).
A n d so s t r o n g i s t h e a s p i r a t i o n a n d f o r c e of t h e t e n u i s , t h a t s e v e r a l of the transcriptions i n d i c a t e i t

1
Op. cit., pp. 293 B.
2 For a careful and thorough discussion of Chinese phonetics, see Bemhard Karlgren: Etudes sur la phonologic
chinoise, Leyden and Stockholm, 1915, pp. 223 ri.

C+3
w i t h a f o l l o w i n g " , (e. g . p c , k", t", etc., a s in t h e W a d e S y s t e m ) . F o r m y o w n t r a n s c r i p t i o n s I h a v e
used the p h o n e t i c s y s t e m r e c o m m e n d e d b y C h a o , 1 p u r e l y for i t s g r e a t e r s i m p l i c i t y a n d b r e v i t y :
t h e m e d i a is used t o represent the lenis, t h e t e n u i s t r a n s c r i b e s t h e f o r t i s tenuis a s p i r a t a . B u t t h a t
the reader m a y n o t b e c o n f u s e d , t h e p e r c e n t a g e s f o r all s o u n d s i n t h e t a b l e s o n p a g e s 6 a n d 7
indicate t h e f o u r d i f f e r e n t w a y s in c u r r e n t use f o r t r a n s c r i b i n g C h i n e s e s o u n d s .
A n d so t h e C h i n e s e figures will b e a n a n s w e r t o e v e r y criticism m a d e of t h i s p o r t i o n of t h e
t h e o r y . If P r o f e s s o r H e r m a n n o n p a g e 6 0 2 2 d o e s n o t find i t s t r a n g e t h a t t h e s o u n d s of m o s t of t h e
l a n g u a g e s a g r e e r o u g h l y in p e r c e n t a g e s , i n a s m u c h a s t h e y g o b a c k t o t h e s a m e d i a l e c t f o u r t h o u -
sand y e a r s a g o , such a n a r g u m e n t , a s s t r a i n e d a s i t s e e m s to m e , d r o p s w h e n one c o n s i d e r s C h i n e s e .
I f P r o f e s s o r H e r m a n n o n p a g e 603, i n c o n c l u d i n g his criticism, expresses his surprise, a f t e r all,
t h a t t h e t e n u e s s h o u l d b e g e n e r a l l y m o r e f r e q u e n t t h a n their c o r r e s p o n d i n g m e d i a e , a n d w o n d e r s
a t t h e reason, let h i m l o o k a t these figures a n d r e m e m b e r t h a t o n p a g e 599 he d i d , a f t e r all, c o n -
cede t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l side of the a r g u m e n t a p p e a r e d i n c o n t e s t a b l e .
I n t h e l i g h t of t h e Principle of Relative Frequency, t h e f a i n t lenes mediae s h o u l d b e d e c i d e d l y
m o r e f r e q u e n t t h a n t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g fortes mediae aspiratae, and they are:

d/t i/p t/t cj/a m ts/ts

lenis media 6.iS% 2-37 % 2.58 % 2.69 % 2.44% 2.63 %

fortis tenuis aspi-
rata 2.56 •56 1.02 1.04 1.23 r.40

M a y i t b e o b s e r v e d t h a t l i k e w i s e in C h i n e s e t h e d e n t a l s (cerebrals) are d e c i d e d l y m o r e f r e -
q u e n t t h a n t h e l a b i a l s o r g u t t u r a l s . 3 I n t h e e v e n t t h a t one b e i n t e r e s t e d in t h e n u m b e r of o c c u r -
rences o f a l l s o u n d s , h e w i l l find in t h e t a b l e s , o n p a g e s 6 a n d 7, t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r of o c c u r r e n c e s
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e n t a g e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e v a r i o u s s y s t e m s of t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
T h e c o l u m n w i t h a n X a t t h e t o p is C h a o ' s r e c o m m e n d e d p h o n e t i c s y s t e m w h i c h is u s e d in t h e
t r a n s c r i p t i o n s g i v e n in f u l l in A p p e n d i x B .
T h e figures a r e b a s e d o n a t r a n s c r i p t i o n of t w e n t y s e l e c t i o n s of c o l l o q u i a l C h i n e s e , e a c h
s e l e c t i o n o n e t h o u s a n d s y l l a b l e s or i d e o g r a p h s l o n g . T h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n r e a d s f r o m l e f t t o r i g h t ;
each square contains a Chinese ideograph representing a syllable. I n the upper left h a n d corner
of e a c h s q u a r e is t h e n u m b e r of t h a t s y l l a b l e in t h e s e l e c t i o n of a t h o u s a n d s y l l a b l e s ; t h e n u m b e r
a t t h e l o w e r r i g h t is t h e t o n e of t h e w o r d ( * , r , 2, 3, 4) ; a n d u n d e r n e a t h is t h e p h o n e t i c t r a n -
s c r i p t i o n f o r e a c h s y l l a b l e . T h e t o n e s a n d t r a n s c r i p t i o n s a r e a c c o r d i n g to D r . Y u e n R e n C h a o ' s
A Phonetic Dictionary of the Chinese National Language, Shanghai (1926), the Commercial
P r e s s . T h o u g h C h a o g i v e s a l l t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n s f o r e a c h w o r d , m y t r a n s c r i p t i o n s in t h e a p p e n -
d i x use o n l y t h e " B r o a d e r S y s t e m of I n t e r n a t i o n a l P h o n e t i c S y m b o l s " b a s e d u p o n " L ' é c r i t u r e
phonétique internationale exposé populaire," published b y the International Phonetic Associa-
tion.

1 See infra.

' Of. cit.

3 See Fu Lu: Etude Expérimentale sur les tens du Chinois, Paris and Peking, 1925, p. 105, for a transcription,
according to a different system, of 25s Peking words. The frequency of the consonants in Lu's transcription indi-
cates the same relationship as my own and can be considered a control.

i s l
 I n t h e 20,000 s y l l a b l e s , t h e r e a r e 20,000 v o w e l s , a n d 1 7 , 3 3 8 c o n s o n a n t s . T h e n u m b e r of
tones are as follows:

First tone 3484

Second " 3028
Third " 3783
Fourth w 6209
Entering " (*) 3496

20,000

T h e n a m e s o f t h e t w e n t y d i f f e r e n t w r i t i n g s f r o m e a c h o f w h i c h a s e l e c t i o n of one t h o u s a n d c o n -
n e c t e d s y l l a b l e s w a s t a k e n a r e g i v e n in C h i n e s e o n t h e l a s t p l a t e ( 7 B ) of A p p e n d i x D .

« 8 S A 1

Wade
ft m *
ft &
m & m SI Wade
A B l m
Wi
X Count % X Count %
b b b P 887 2.37 n tz tz ts, ' t z 983 2.63
ti9
* pe P P Pc 210 .56 •s & ts ts t<a, h'z 522 1.40

m m m m 815 2.18 2* a B a G, Igs 877 2-35

E f f t 1 395 1.06 B r ih I302 3-49

3 3
W V V r w o .00 i ' r1- z <s a 321 .86

» 4 a a t 2306 6.18 - i i 1 i 2717 7.28

* f t t te 958 2.56 X u u u » a , -u? 1381 3-7°

-> n n n n 371 -99 u y 7 tt JÜ, -Ü 363 •97

» 1 1 1 1 1096 2.93 Y Ol <1 a a 794 2.13

« 9 a 8 k 965 2.58 e 0 0 0, ( « ) ' « 1199 3-21

-j ke k k k< 382 1.02 9 9 e 6 279 •75

% 9 9 q wo 220 .59 •a % e e 6 264 •7»

r X X h h 781 2.09 Si »! ai ai ai 673 1.80

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[ 6 ]
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Í71
 PART II

Relative Frequency, Abbreviation, and

Semantic Change
THE present s t u d y deals with the problem of semantic c h a n g e a n d is intended to show the rela-
tionship between semantic c h a n g e a n d a b b r e v i a t i o n . M u c h h a s been w r i t t e n on t h e s u b j e c t of
semasiology b y linguists, psychologists, and philosophers, y e t , as far as I k n o w , little or nothing
h a s been done f r o m the angle of abbreviation. A n d b e l i e v i n g t h a t abbreviation is the v e r y c r u x
of t h e m a t t e r , I prefer to disregard, for the present, all p r e v i o u s investigations of the s u b j e c t a n d
t o b u i l d up m y present theory b y a consideration of the o b v i o u s examples of semantic change
such as t h e y occur in the e v e r y d a y language of an i n d i v i d u a l — of a n y individual, be he old or
y o u n g , wise or foolish, sick or well, m a d or sane. I n the ensuing pages m u c h will be said a b o u t
the " m e a n i n g " of words and a v e r y g r e a t deal a b o u t the " e m o t i o n a l q u a l i t y a n d i n t e n s i t y " of
words, domains^bitherto a n d for no good reason considered p r i m a r i l y proper for the philosopher
a n d psychologist. B u t since these properties of words are, to m y m i n d , n o t divorced f r o m a b -
b r e v i a t i o n , a s incomprehensible as t h a t m a y seem to the reader a t this time, I shall k e e p this
p a p e r w i t h i n t h e limits of linguistics, a n d t r y t o a v o i d first, an intricate portrait of w h a t is con-
sidered the nature of h u m a n m i n d , a n d secondly, t h e e t e r n a l question of the relationship of the
" s y m b o l i c " to t h e " r e a l , " hoping, thereby, to escape t w o k n o t t y problems which i n v a r i a b l y
spell the downfall of semasiologists w h o begin with a c o n t e m p l a t i o n of mind or r e a l i t y .
F o r f r a n k l y , we k n o w n o t h i n g a b o u t the n a t u r e of h u m a n m i n d a n d v e r y little a b o u t r e a l i t y .
T h e r e are theories to be sure, b u t these theories conflict so g r a v e l y t h a t a frank examination of
the f a c t s of l a n g u a g e will, in m y belief, be m o r e a p t to t h r o w l i g h t on the process of m i n d t h a n
theories of mind on the process of language. F o r t h e f a c t s of l a n g u a g e are the facts of l a n g u a g e ,
j u s t as the f a c t s of g r a v i t a t i o n are the facts of g r a v i t a t i o n . A n d j u s t as w e should smile a t a
physicist w h o d e v o t e d his time to explaining h o w m u c h m o r e picturesque nature w o u l d b e if
g r a v i t a t i o n followed the inverse cube instead of the inverse s q u a r e , so we should smile a t t h e
person-who spends h i s time t r y i n g to persuade u s t h a t " c o r r e c t " l a n g u a g e should be of this na-
ture a n d n o t of t h a t . H e n c e , h o w one should express oneself is of n o concern in this p a p e r , b u t
r a t h e r h o w one does express oneself. T o be sure, t h e reader will occasionally glimpse behind
m y s t a t e m e n t s t h e thoughts of others. T h e reason I do n o t interlard the present p a p e r w i t h
references to the investigations of others is not t h a t I do n o t w i l l i n g l y concede t h a t the w o r k s of
o t h e r s h a v e o f t e n been either a n inspiration or a re-assurance, a n d t h a t w i t h o u t t h e m this
t h e o r y of a b b r e v i a t i o n w o u l d h a v e prospered more slowly, b u t rather that this theory for b e t t e r
or f o r worse should stand o n its own f e e t w i t h o u t resting in a n y w a y upon authority.
B e f o r e proceeding f u r t h e r , there is another p o i n t to be considered inasmuch as this p a p e r is
addressed primarily to linguists. T h e t h e o r y of Relative Frequency is a statistical l a w a n d , as
s u c h , falls within the laws of probability. L e t us r e v i e w , briefly, w h a t is meant in p a r t b y p r o b -
ability. W h e n the o d d s are even, i t m e a n s t h a t either e v e n t u a l i t y covered b y t h e o d d s m a y

m
 happen; when the odds are ten to one, it means t h a t either e v e n t u a l i t y m a y h a p p e n ; w h e n the
odds are a trillion to one, either e v e n t u a l i t y still m a y h a p p e n , a n d i t is no disproof of a law,
based on probability, if t h a t remote chance should t a k e place. T h e entire Principle of Relative
Frequency is based on probability. Sound changes are too general a n d consistent to allow t h a t
sound laws are a n y t h i n g b u t basic, dynamic, p e r v a s i v e l a w s ; b u t the exceptions are numerically
too a b u n d a n t a n d conflicting t h a t they m a y all be c h a r g e d w i t h o u t f u r t h e r evidence to the ac-
eotmt of prehistoric linguistic substrata or prehistoric dialectal divergences. One c a n n o t d e n y
the possible influence of linguistic substrata a n d remote dialectal divergences; b u t t h a t pure
chance plays some rdle in sound change likewise c a n n o t be disregarded. F o r , a f t e r all, h o w else
can one explain the enormous diversity following u p o n a n y m a j o r sound shift?

I allude to all this n o w because some h a v e t a k e n exception to the Principle of Relative Fre-
quency simply because i t is statistical. F o r statistics are h a t e f u l t o t h e h u m a n m i n d ; t h e y are
painfully definite for t h e group w i t h o u t being p a r t i c u l a r l y definite for the i n d i v i d u a l . Un-
doubtedly, a primary law which k n o w s no fluctuation within itself is pleasanter. I f nature had
consulted m a n in the m a t t e r , we should all h a v e suggested p r i m a r y l a w s , from t h e instinctive
fear t h a t some d a y W h i r l m i g h t otherwise become king, f o r g e t t i n g first of all t h a t e v e n in a
statistical law it is difficult for W h i r l to become c o m p l e t e k i n g , f o r g e t t i n g , likewise, t h a t in m a n y
personalities Whirl does seem in a w a y to be king. B u t nature did n o t consult us in the m a t t e r
and has seen fit to let t h e l a w s of chance g o v e r n v a s t p o r t i o n s of the b a s i c order of the p h y s i c a l
universe, as well as n o small a m o u n t of the biological. Y o u m a y disregard the Principle of Rela-
tive Frequency because you do not consider the statistics significant; you c a n n o t discard it,
however, o n the grounds t h a t a statistical law is n o t respectable. A n d so w i t h the critics w h o
h a v e resented the m a t h e m a t i c a l nature of this t h e o r y , a n d whose n a m e s I here omit, I c a n o n l y
agree t h a t i t is perhaps n o t pleasant to k n o w t h a t all colors go b a c k to three p r i m a r y colors,
t h a t all m a t t e r is reducible to protons and electrons in motion, y e t n a t u r e really seems to h a v e
been so bold as to decide these difficulties w i t h o u t asking for the philologist's exquisite opinion.
A n d now to the m a t t e r a t h a n d .
T h e r e are four i m p o r t a n t characteristics w h i c h are easily recognizable in words, p e r h a p s not
all four in e v e r y word, b u t certainly there are words which h a v e a t l e a s t one a n d e v e n more, nor
are the characteristics so unusual t h a t the reader will not recognize t h e m as i m p o r t a n t . The
first is meaning, t h a t elusive a t t r i b u t e of a word, so i m p o r t a n t and y e t o f t e n so h a r d to describe.
Secondly, there is quality, b y which I m e a n t h a t a w o r d m a y represent something desirable for
the ego (positive quality) or something undesirable f o r the ego (negative quality). " H o n o r " is
generally positive; " d e a t h " generally negative. T h i r d l y , w o r d s h a v e emotional intensity, which
is nothing more than v a l u e : c o m p a r a t i v e l y speaking, the intensity indicates h o w m u c h we
should like to obtain the positive or h o w m u c h we should like to avoid t h e n e g a t i v e . T h e fourth
characteristic I shall call order-, and for the present, let us consider order nothing more than the
word's p a r t of speech, — a d v e r b , noun, etc. I shall n o t t r y to define these four characteristics
further here, b u t b y examining the processes of semantic change t r y to m a k e clearer m y under-
standing both of their nature and of their importance in semantic change.
B y semantic change I shall mean a change w h e r e b y one s y m b o l is temporarily or permanently
substituted for another. Examples are without number. Calling a " m a n " a " d o g , " a " w o m a n "
a " p e a c h , " the " m o o n " a il c a n d l e , " m a y be considered temporary semantic changes, until their
use in this sense becomes so frequent and general t h a t the original p r i m a r y m e a n i n g of " d o g , "
peach," and " c a n d l e " becomes secondary to the new primary meaning of a particular kind or
aspect of " m a n , " " w o m a n , " and " m o o n . " W h e n a given substitution occurs b u t rarely, we call
the change a metaphor. H o w e v e r , as the given substitution becomes ever more frequent and gen-

[ 9 ]
 eral, the originally rare meaning of the word finally becomes a sub-meaning, a co-integral p a r t of
the word, a connotation. I n this fashion, " k i d , " a t one time " a young g o a t / ' came to have the
connotation " c h i l d " or " b o y . " W h y " k i d " was ever substituted for " c h i l d " or " b o y " need not
concern us now; it is simply self-evident that once substituted the permanency of the substituted
meaning depends largely, if not entirely, upon the frequency of occurrence of the word with the
substituted meaning.
T h i s one thing we must remember, since it is important for a n y study of semantic change, that
there is no fixed boundary between metaphor or connotation. I t is disputable whether " n u t " is
merely a metaphor, or whether b y now " q u e e r p e r s o n " is not a connotation of " n u t . " Likewise,
there is no definite law establishing for all time w h a t is the primary meaning or denotation of a
word and w h a t its secondary meaning or meanings, the connotations. If we take the word " b u g -
h o u s e " as an example, it is questionable whether the primary meaning is " i n s a n e a s y l u m , " or
" h o u s e for the preservation or propagation of b u g s . "
I n determining the primary meanings of words, one is a p t to feel t h a t either the original mean-
ing or the oldest meaning or the aptest meaning is decisive. B u t that none of these are final is evi-
dent from the f a c t that often a t a given m o m e n t the original or oldest meaning is either obso-
lescent, obsolete, or indeed even entirely unknown. W h a t e v e r " l o r d " means today, it certainly
does not mean as in Old English " g u a r d i a n of the loaf." A n d as for aptness of designation, one
can bring forth examples without limit to illustrate the frequent inaptness of designation. If one
takes " c o c k t a i l , " " h i g h - b a l l , " " m a r s h m a l l o w , " " b o o t l e g , " without examining the special history
of each word and without knowing w h a t the words refer to, one would simply be a t utter loss
to guess their meaning. A g e , derivation, and appropriateness must be all discarded if one seeks
the absolute in the meaning of a word. Sometimes t h e y explain the primary meaning; sometimes
not. T o m y mind, it is highly doubtful t h a t there is an absolute primary meaning over any period
of time, or within a group of individuals. One gains best insight into meaning b y examining
shifts of meaning, — semantic changes.
T h e temporary, semi-permanent, and permanent semantic changes, for so I shall henceforth
designate t h e sliding scale from metaphor through connotation to complete and irrevocable sub-
stitution, differ among themselves only in respect to degree of probability. T h e greater the prob-
ability that a n y given word when used will h a v e the derived or secondary meaning instead of the
primary meaning, the greater the degree of permanency of the semantic change. E v e r y v o c a b u -
lary a t a n y time reflects these various stages of semantic development in its words so clearly that
the semasiologist m a y rightly say t h a t meaning is shifting and determinable in respect to prim-
a r i l y only b y the relative frequency of usage. A n d this frequency of use likewise explains our feel-
ings about the importance of the original meanings or the fitting meanings of words. For often
these meanings remain primary. Y e t t h a t original meanings or a p t meanings so often continue to
remain p r i m a r y meanings is simply because of a favoring probability. A n d it is this favoring
probability as we shall see t h a t prevents every temporary semantic change from automatically
becoming permanent, thereby replacing the older meanings.
" H a m " means to us a kind of meat, to a theatrical circle a " p o o r a c t o r " ; " l a m b " means to us
a kind of animal, to the racketeer a "guillible person." A n d so we might proceed with many words
whose primary meanings, or the permanency of whose semantic changes, varies between different
social, occupational, regional, cultural circles. A permanent semantic change in one circle m a y be
only t e m p o r a r y or unheard of in another. Hence, p e r m a n e n c y is really a relative affair, primarily
relative to a given circle in w h i c h i t e n j o y s a preponderant relative frequency of usage. A person
is a member of m a n y circles, — his family, his office, his club, the circle covered b y his journals, his
church, — and this free interlocking is the conservative influence in language. For within a given

[ r o ]
circle a certain meaning, arrived at by semantic change, m a y , because of Ihe rights of relative
frequency, be undisputed king, and y e t in other circles be unheard of. Indeed, a word m a y have a
different, decided primary meaning in every different circle and y e t , when one measures the rela-
tive frequency of occurrence of meanings in the large group which includes all the other circles,
find that all these local primary meanings are insignificant. A n y t h i n g t h a t tends to hinder the
free interlocking of these social and occupational circles, whether the impediment be caused by
nature in the form of rivers, oceans, mountains, deserts, and the like, or b y man himself through
custom barriers, hostile feelings, different and separated market centers, travel, differences in
culture and religion, and the like, will tend to remove the conservative influence of the large group
and cause the language to drift apart slowly into dialects. E a c h small circle broken from the whole
pursues its semantic changes unhindered until its v o c a b u l a r y as used becomes more a n d more un-
intelligible to a separated circle. If the changed frequency of the changed v o c a b u l a r y upsets the
inner balance of vowels and consonants, as explained in P a r t One, phonetic changes m a y a d d to
the cleavage. One circle cannot expand a t the expense of others, or one circle cannot isolate itself
from all others without upsetting the stability of meaning, which is based on the relative fre-
quency or relative probability of occurrence.
T h e N o r m a n invasion of England or the M i d d l e A g e s in G e r m a n y exemplify the consequences
of an expanding circle and of contracting circles. Conservative change in language is found where
the status remains fairly fixed through time, and is not a t all connected with the a m o u n t of slang
in the language. For all languages have slang; if the slang of today does not in toto become the
good usage of tomorrow, it is not because slang is not older or not more appropriate than good
usage, for it is often v e r y old and its usage reflects its suitability. L a n g u a g e in good usage has the
laws of chance to thank for its longevity, and not, contrary to the belief of schoolmasters, a n y in-
herent venerability or suitability. T h i s is, to m y mind, an explanation of the phenomena covered
b y Johannis Schmidt's Wellentheorie, and is the basis of a n y t h i n g important in the current theories
on linguistic substrata. H o w e v e r a word m a y receive its meaning, and whether the meaning is
original or appropriate or not, the permanency of the meaning and of the word itself is ultimately
a matter of Relative Frequency. T h e primary meaning simply is the customary or usual mean-
ing. A word m a y change its meaning over night. Y e t only those semantic changes are likely to
remain which are of service to a decided m a j o r i t y . T h e meaning of a word is far from stable. But
let us turn to a consideration of just w h a t a word is.
A word, whether it be written, spoken, felt, or thought is a t root, regardless of the degree of
attendant consciousness, a mental event. T o be sure, sometimes it m a y be perceptibly accom-
panied b y gestures of the vocal cords or other members of the body, or, as in the case of pure
thinking, it m a y not. I n itself, a word is nothing b u t an event in time. T h e meaning is supplied
b y the mind of the speaker and the mind of the auditor, if there be an auditor. T h e meanings do
not necessarily need to agree between speaker a n d auditor, nor is there necessarily a consistency
of meaning for the speaker or hearer over a period of time. N o w " c a t " means " f e l i n e a n i m a l , "
now it means " w o m a n . " If the mental event is in the mind of the speaker, the word is an expres-
sion; if in the mind of the auditor, a perception, regardless of the age, wisdom, experience, train-
ing, health, or sanity of either. T h e definition of a word as a mental event applies to every living
organism t h a t h a s language. " C o r r e c t " meaning 01 " p r o p e r " meaning of a word signifies nothing
more than that the circle or circles in which that meaning e n j o y s high relative frequency seem to
y o u , because y o u are or are not in them, " p r o p e r " and " c o r r e c t . "
B u t though a word exists both as a perception and as an expression, I shall henceforth, as far
as possible, consider it only as an expression, — not because i t is more interesting or important as
an expression, b u t because a word is a l w a y s an expression, even in an hallucination, though not

[ n ]
 a l w a y s a p e r c e p t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , l e t u s c o n t i n u e o u r e x a m i n a t i o n for convenience b y first ex-
a m i n i n g o n l y t h e s p o k e n w o r d . F o r the s p o k e n w o r d is a m e n t a l e v e n t w h i c h is a l w a y s a c c o m -
p a n i e d b y p e r c e p t i b l e gestures. B y g e s t u r e s , I d o n o t m e a n p r i m a r i l y gestures of the h a n d s , legs,
a r m s , b u t r a t h e r certain small g e s t u r e s of t h e m e m b r a n e s a n d tissues of the t h r o a t , m o u t h , lips,
l u n g s , — p h o n e t i c gestures. Y e t t h a t is n o t all. T h e c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e blood, b r e a t h i n g , a n d o t h e r
basic p h y s i o l o g i c a l processes, t h o u g h n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e s p o k e n w o r d , are also a n e x t r e m e l y es-
sential p a r t of a s p o k e n w o r d a n d I shall call t h e m substrata gestures}
W e h a v e these substrata gestures, w h i c h a r e a n essential p a r t of the s p o k e n word a n d w h i c h , a s
f a r a s w e c a n see, are a c o n s t a n t escort of m e n t a l e v e n t s t h r o u g h life, v a r y i n g to be sure in their
a c t i v i t y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n a t u r e of the m e n t a l e v e n t . B u t of t h e m e n t a l e v e n t w e k n o w n o t h i n g
m o r e t h a n i t is c o n n e c t e d w i t h m e a n i n g a n d t h a t t h e s a m e m e a n i n g is n o t a l w a y s l i n k e d w i t h the
s a m e phonetic gestures or the s a m e substrata gestures. T a k i n g t h e s p o k e n w o r d a s s t a n d a r d , t h a t is,
t h a t p a r t of t h e s p o k e n w o r d w h i c h w e s h a l l c a l l phonetic gestures, w e find t h a t t h e m e a n i n g m a y
v a r y f r o m m e t a p h o r t h r o u g h c o n n o t a t i o n ; l i k e w i s e , t h e substrata gestures m a y v a r y d e n o t i n g ,
t h e r e b y , a n e m o t i o n differing b o t h in quality a n d intensity. T h e mental e v e n t contains some-
t h i n g m o r e t h a n m e a n i n g ; i t c o n t a i n s b o t h quality a n d intensity in a d d i t i o n ; i t c o n t a i n s t h e
m o m e n t a r y a p p r a i s a l of the m e a n i n g .
B y quality, I m e a n the n a t u r e of t h e m e n t a l e v e n t , w h e t h e r t h e m e n t a l e v e n t expressing t h e
m e a n i n g a t a g i v e n t i m e is positive o r negative. I f t h e m e n t a l e v e n t s e e m s u l t i m a t e l y to b e on t h e
one h a n d a r e a c h i n g o u t i n t o e n v i r o n m e n t t o g r a s p in a n y f a s h i o n for s o m e s u p p o r t for t h e or-
g a n i s m f r o m t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e m e n t a l e v e n t h a s a positive quality. I f , on the o t h e r h a n d , t h e
m e n t a l e v e n t is a shrinking b a c k f r o m e n v i r o n m e n t t o e s c a p e a n d to d e f e n d the organism f r o m t h e
e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e m e n t a l e v e n t h a s a negative quality. T h a t t h e s e qualities exist in l a n g u a g e is in-
d i s p u t a b l e . I t is l i k e w i s e i n d i s p u t a b l e t h a t t h e y e x i s t a s p a r t a n d p a r c e l of t h e m e n t a l e v e n t a n d
substrata gestures. T h o u g h the q u a l i t y of a w o r d m a y d i f f e r f r o m s p e a k e r t o s p e a k e r a n d f r o m
time t o time w i t h t h e s a m e s p e a k e r , y e t i t is, n o n e t h e less, e x c l u s i v e l y a p a r t of the m e n t a l e v e n t .
Quality like meaning is s u b j e c t i v e ; y e t quality is n o t meaning. T h e q u a l i t y of a w o r d is p a r t of
w h a t w e shall call the inner v i v i d n e s s of a w o r d . T h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t of inner v i v i d n e s s is w h a t w e
l o o s e l y call intensity.
T o m a k e inner v i v i d n e s s clearer, let u s t a k e t h e w o r d " c a t " f o r a n e x a m p l e , a s a n y g i v e n per-
s o n m a y use i t a t a n y g i v e n time. D i s r e g a r d i n g t h e m e a n i n g of the w o r d a t t h a t t i m e , t h e q u a l i t y
will b e either n e g a t i v e or p o s i t i v e . T h a t is, " c a t " will t o t h a t p e r s o n a t t h a t t i m e b e either de-
sirable f o r t h e ego, or undesirable, o r n e u t r a l , or m o r e p o s i t i v e t h a n n e g a t i v e , or m o r e n e g a t i v e
than positive. I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e m e n t a l e v e n t " c a t " m a y b e colored b y desire or fear, o r b y
n e i t h e r , or a m i x t u r e of t h e t w o w h e r e o n e or n e i t h e r m a y p r e v a i l . I n a d d i t i o n t o this q u a l i t y is
the i n t e n s i t y . I f t h e q u a l i t y is a n x i e t y , t h e i n t e n s i t y is t h e a m o u n t of a n x i e t y a t t h a t t i m e w i t h
t h a t person. T h e m o r e t h e a n x i e t y , t h e g r e a t e r I shall call t h e i n t e n s i t y . T h e s a m e h o l d s true of
desire, ox a m i x t u r e of a n x i e t y and desire, o r of f e a r , r e m o r s e , o r h a t r e d . H o w l o w t h e i n t e n s i t y of
a m e n t a l e v e n t m a y b e is p r o b l e m a t i c a l . B u t t h a t i t m a y g o so h i g h a s t o d e r a n g e or d e s t r o y t h e

1 These basic physiological processes — the functioning oí nerves, lungs, liver, heart, and the like — which I
call substrata gestures, are concomitant with the mental event, and intimately linked with it. li the mental event
varies suddenly in emotional intensity, the activity of the substrata gestures is apt to vary: sudden wrath or anxiety,
and a sudden change in heart-beat and rapidity of breathing. Whether the wrath or anxiety causes the change in the
substrata gestures, or whether the change in the substrata gestures causes the wrath or anxiety, it is hard to say.
Much has been argued on each side. It is sufficient for the purposes of this paper to assume that the mental proc-
esses and the physiological processes are concomitant, without an attempted inquiry into which comes first in time
or importance. If the reader finds this procedure arbitrary, let him miss several meals and notice the emotional con-
dition of his mind; and having done so, let him wait until he is beset with worry and anxiety, and notice the con-
dition of his appetite.

C 1 2 :
organism is not unheard of. All this is contained in the inner vividness of the mental e v e n t " c a t . "
A s to the meaning, i t m a y h a v e meant " f e l i n e a n i m a l , " or " w o m a n , " or a n y number of things.
A s meaning m a y fluctuate, so too m a y quality a n d intensity fluctuate. E a c h one m a y v a r y
among persons, or within the same person from time to time. E v e n if there is no instrument to
measure intensity, or record quality, our experience tells us t h a t they are not necessarily constant.
T h e word " w h i s k e y " m a y be uttered with desire in one individual and w i t h aversion in another.
Within twelve hours the same person m a y shift from high desire to complete aversion. I n fact, if
it were possible for a person to compile the words he uses and the occasions a t which he uses
them in expressing himself, he would be surprised to see the differences in meaning, quality, and
intensity of m a n y of the words over a period of time. Y e t I believe he would be equally surprised
to find that these fluctuations in meaning a n d inner vividness were n o t absolutely a t random, as
he might expect from a d a y to d a y observation. T h o u g h it is conceivable t h a t a word h a s a dif-
ferent meaning every time it occurs, y e t i t is probable that m a n y words will h a v e b u t a few mean-
ings and will show a m o n g those meanings decided preferences; the m t a n i n g s will arrange them-
selves as primary, secondary, etc., even though there be competing meanings for the first, second,
third place.
So, too, the positive or negative quality of a word, though i t m a y be randomly shifting for
some words, certainly with other words will show a decided preference for either the positive or
negative or a certain mixture of the two. L i k e meaning, quality m a y not be invariably constant,
but like meaning, i t m a y h a v e a marked t e n d e n c y or preference.
I n the like manner, the intensity, although it too m a y fluctuate greatly for some words, should
for others show a tendency toward a more marked stability, high or law. T o be sure, a man while
starving might use " b r e a d " with a considerably higher intensity than he would while walking b y
a bakery shop after dinner. Y e t though these fluctuations m a y be great, depending upon the
varying situations, still you would hardly be willing to say t h a t from d a y to d a y the meanings,
qualities, and intensities of your words v a r y absolutely a t random. So, too, y o u cannot say that
they do not v a r y a t all, estimating meanings, qualities, intensities as they are a t the beginning and
a t the end of a period of time — a d a y , a month, a year, a decade, a score of years, a life-time. If
the inner vividness for m a n y words does not fluctuate a t all over a given period, or if i t fluctuates
a great deal over a period of time, this m a y be s y m p t o m a t i c of a serious mental condition. Y e t no
matter how serious the mental condition of the individual, the events of his mind would consti-
tute language.
I n light of the a b o v e , we m a y say then of inner vividness t h a t for a considerable group of in-
dividuals a t one time, or for a single individual over a considerable period of time, words in spite of
all their fluctuations show a t e n d e n c y toward a preference of meaning, toward a stability of qual-
i t y , whatever the quality m a y be, a n d toward a c o n s t a n c y of intensity. T o be sure, we have no
positive w a y of knowing whether or not this applies to ail events of the mind, since we have no
w a y of examining mind except through its expressions, and we can only appreciate expressions of
the mind when they h a v e something approaching a preference for meaning, a stability of q u a l i t y ,
and a constancy of intensity. B u t t h a t i t is in general true for the mental events of spoken lan-
guage is crystal clear, since all communication depends upon a tacit " a c c e p t a t i o n " of primary
meanings, qualities, and intensities. T h e " a c c e p t e d " meanings need only b e approximate, like-
wise the qualities and intensities, v a r y i n g more or less as they do from individual to individual.
B u t that there is a general agreement somewhere is evidenced by the v e r y existence of diction-
aries. In other words, the usual meaning is the usual meaning, the usual q u a l i t y the usual quality,
the usual intensity the usual intensity. W e are again in the field of probability.

[13 3
 A n d even in cases where the spoken language is not w h a t we normally consider communica-
tion, that is, in the case of the language of a person raving with madness or delirium, still this
language over a period of time reveals to the skillful observer a certain consistency of meaning,
quality, and intensity — perhaps a t utter variance with the " a c c e p t e d " inner vividness — y e t
none the less, fairly consistent, relative to the patient.
A n d even where speech is not accessory to mental expression, t h a t is, in our dreams and phan-
tasies, though the meanings of the symbols are illusive even to the dreamer, and the qualities and
intensities far from obvious, y e t the great specialists in that field have made it clear that some of
the symbols tend to recur with a consistency of inner vividness, not only frequently consistent to
the individual, but sometimes consistent over great groups of people.
A s a matter of fact, there must be a rough consistency of inner vividness throughout life, even
though the mental event is in no w a y perceptible. A t least, every living mortal assumes a d a y to
d a y consistency both in himself and in others. W e assume that we shall like and dislike tomorrow
what we like and dislike t o d a y ; that we shall think and feel a n d " r e a s o n " tomorrow as w c think
and feel and " r e a s o n " today. W e expect the same of others; and y e t our surprises, disappoint-
ments, and sudden fears show that in this we are often mistaken. I t is not only that external con-
ditions alter, b u t we, likewise, change, change where to all intents and purposes externals are
identical. Inner vividness is only something approximate, something that varies within a range;
something constant enough so that life and society can generally function with an amazing degree
of orderliness, y e t something fluctuating enough so that life and society generally function also
with an amazing amount of conflict and friction.
W h a t has all this to do with semantic change, the reader m a y ask. I t is the propelling cause
behind semantic change. W e have seen how meaning m a y shift; this illustrates w h y meanings do
shift, w h y one word is substituted for another at all. W h e n a mental event, from whatever cause,
deviates decidedly from the normal in quality or intensity, another word m a y be substituted
which more nearly approaches the quality and intensity dictated b y the exigencies of the moment.
T h i s is not the whole story of semantic change, but it is b y far the most significant part, for the
similarity in quality and intensity is to m y mind far more important in the substitution than
similarity in meaning. In calling a " w o m a n " a " p e a c h , " or a " c a t , " or a " r o s e , " or a " b i t c h , "
or a " v a m p i r e , " or a " m o u s e , " are we in the last analysis doing m u c h more than simply sub-
stituting the quality and perhaps intensity (I say advisedly " p e r h a p s " ) of " p e a c h , " "cat,"
" r o s e , " " b i t c h " and so forth? Surely there can be little doubt about the substitution of quality.
One would rarely refer endearingly to a person as " p e s t - h o u s e . "
H o w great a rôle the accepted intensity of the substituted word plays in the substituting is
problematical. I am of the opinion that it is in m a n y cases negligible. For in m a n y instances of
substitution, the substituted word has normally only a mild or indifferent intensity, and the in-
tensity of the substitution arises much more from the f a c t t h a t an unusual epithet has been be-
stowed than that it is an epithet of unusual intensity. I a m f a r from convinced t h a t a word of
normally high emotional intensity, such as " b i t c h , " is selected for substitution because of its high
emotional intensity; I believe rather that its present high emotional intensity has arisen from
former sporadic substitution of unpleasant nature, — a seemingly paradoxical proposition which
we shall presently develop.
W h e n asked or desiring to give the clear meaning of a n e v e n t , we do not normally " substi-
t u t e " ; we " e x p l a i n . " Definition, exposition, synthesis, analysis, or whatever else you are in-
clined to p u t under the heading of logical explanation, seem to m e primarily a question of order or
sequence of words. I n " e x p l a n a t i o n " it is a m a t t e r of using the " a c c e p t e d " meaning and " a c -
c e p t e d " inner vividness as far as possible. Occasionally in " e x p l a n a t i o n " there is metaphor and

l H i
connotation- B u t are not metaphor and connotation, that is, semantic change, rather used to convey
vividness than clarity? I s it not true that the more an explanation is in the world of metaphor,
which is the world of feeling, the less likely it is that the auditor will follow, or, if he follows, the
less likely that he will lend to the words the meaning with which the speaker intends to endow
them? For with metaphor, by its very nature, the primary meaning is not to prevail. B u t with
explanation, clarity depends upon a fairly strict adherence to " a c c e p t e d " meaning and " a c -
c e p t e d " inner vividness, and if I m a y here say so, upon a comprehensible o r d e r — coherence.
T h i s is then really the very problem of semantic change, the relationship between emotional •
intensity and clarity of meaning. T h o u g h we cannot define emotional intensity or clarity of -
meaning, we are all conscious of what they are; and I believe the solution to the riddle is to be
found in what I term "order." Order, as I shall later explain and define it, is the essential difference
between high intensity and clear meaning. Such a statement is in itself utterly meaningless. I
mean that clarity tends to collect around " n o r m a l " order, and intensity around abnormal or
" b r o k e n " or unusual order. I do not say there is a n y causal relationship, I simply state w h a t I
hope to show is a fact. T h e more primary the meanings, the more fixed the qualities, the more
normal the order, the lower will be the concomitant intensity. In other words, the usual is not
emotionally intense, a proposition which is certainly not unheard of. H e n c e , intensity, like mean-
ing, must somehow, even though only remotely, be connected with relative frequency. Though
absolutely nothing is known definitely about order other than that it is everywhere extremely im-
portant, let us proceed to examine the facts of order as far as language reveals them.
E v e r y language has a pattern, so rigid that certain small violations of the pattern m a y lead in-
stantly to obfuscation or incomprehensibility. A n d y e t the pattern is so loose and supple that an
individual within his pattern m a y describe his entire consciousness, regardless of w h a t it be. But
there is no divine decree behind a linguistic pattern, though the schoolmaster is rare who does not
believe so. If we compare pattern with pattern, p u t t i n g one language beside another, we find
nearly every conceivable order represented in the various patterns —• a d j e c t i v e s generally pre-
cede in one, follow in another; verbs precede in one, follow in another; inflectional suffixes are
added in one, prefixes in another, neither in a third. If one looks a t linguistic patterns, one is
forced to conclude that here, if anywhere, the usual order is the usual order. W e say " t h e black
h o r s e " instead of " h o r s e black the," because it m a k e s better sense; y e t the reason it m a k e s better
sense is not because of divine decree, b u t because the order is more usual.
Again, exactly w h a t normal order is, I , for one, do not know. W h e n one says normal order,
one means usual order. W h e n one speaks of the normal course of events, one means the usual
course of events. W h e n the order of certain events becomes so fixed t h a t one does not e v e n think
of the possibility of changing, we refer to those events in that crystallized order as h a b i t . A g a i n ,
there is obviously no divine decree behind order, although the temptation is a l w a y s great to as-
sume that our habits, or our arrangement of events in the flow of time, is " p r o p e r " and " c o r r e c t . "
The more often in the past a certain event preceded or succeeded another certain event or events
at a relatively approximate interval in the flux of time, the more we are inclined to consider those
events as being in a fixed order and expect they will continue to occur in the future in the like
arrangement. W h e n A is a l w a y s followed by B , or B always preceded b y A , we say that A and B
relative to each other are in firm sequential order; and judging from our p a s t experience, we postu-
late the same for the future. T h e less fixed the order in the past, the less positivelv do w e prog-
nosticate the arrangement in the future. Let. us express this feeling in different terms: the more
often that two or more events occur in a certain sequential order in the stream of time, the more
fixed we consider those events in order. I n other words, briefly, the greater the relative frequency

H i ]
 of an event in a certain sequence or sequences rather than in no sequence, the more fixed the order
of the event.
This is first of all true regardless of causal relationship, whatever causal relationship may
mean. If great portions of life processes are found in a causal relationship in a sense other than
that outlined b y the theory of Relative Frequency, the a b o v e statement of order will still hold
true, in spite of the fact t h a t " c a u s a t i o n " should be found the basic factor of arrangement.
Secondly, the definition of order does not necessitate the organism's " c o m p r e h e n s i o n " of the
inner arrangement or of the possible appropriateness of the order. " I planted a seed, a tree grew,
and here is an apple from the tree." Seed, tree, apple, are in fixed normal sequence, even though
we cannot explain the connecting steps. T h e reason we say t h a t planting a seed and after a cer-
tain interval plucking an apple is reasonable and understandable is not that it is in the least un-
derstandable or reasonable according to our present knowledge, but that it is usual. L e t a man
marry his grandmother and it is incomprehensible t o us; let a m a n beget a child and most of us do
not wonder an instant about the processes involved. A n d yet, one is as much or as little
reasonable and understandable as the other. W e make a greater stir about the one than the
other because it is less usual. N o t a small amount of h u m a n experience ma}' be lined up behind
the acid statement that the greater the relative frequency the less the ado. A n d can we not say
that one of the reasons that a pleasant thing becomes unpleasant to us is because it suddenly be-
comes too frequent or too rare in our life, or in the wrong order? " There is a time for all things."
A n d does not the comprehensibility of the event become clouded, and isn't the meaning of the
event unsettled by sudden shifts in frequency? Just as e v e r y e v e n t has some kind of quality and
some " m e a n i n g , " so, too, every event of mind must h a v e a degree of determinacy of order.
E v e r y event must be preceded and succeeded by another e v e n t , from the first event to the last
event, whenever that m a y be. There is then no harm in estimating future probabilities of se-
quence from past occurrences. A n d y e t we also have breaches in norma! order.
E v e r y word has syntactical possibilities and limitations; a word is unthinkable except as
somehow ordered in the stream of time. A n y breach against usual order tends to unsettle the
stability of both quality and meaning, and to increase the emotional intensity. A breach in order
does not cause the unsettling, for one m a y just as reasonably commence with an unexpected
emotional intensity and find order deranged. One m a y argue the causal relationship until the end
of time; broken order is simply emotional intensity; emotional intensity is simply broken order —
they are concomitant. One is definable only in terms of the other. Y o u may consult all the spe-
cialized works on emotion y o u will; y o u m a y read investigations intended to measure, investiga-
tions intended to analyze, investigations intended to cure. W e talk daily about emotions — y e t
w h a t are they? T h e r e is no p a r t of the brain reserved for t h e m ; w h a t we consider the " c a u s e s " of
them can arise in the lungs, liver, or in the mind itself. T h e y can have a source anywhere. All
definitions of the emotions seem to gravitate about the proposition that emotion is inalienably
connected with conflict. I s there any harm in saying that conflict is broken order, a deviation
from whatever cause, from the normal course of events? D o not y o u r greatest sorrow's, greatest
fears, greatest jovs come from an unexpected change in the habitual course of events? Is not the
intensity of the emotion greater, the greater and more unexpected the deviation? Y e t as the un-
expected event recurs more and more, — in fact becomes less unexpected and more usual, in fact
more and more a matter of course, — does not the intensity correspondingly diminish? Of course
there arc flash-backs, b u t we expect that in probability. B u t the greater the relative frequency,
the less the likelihood of flash-backs. A n d if to our above factors of meaning, quality, intensity,
and order, we a d d likewise gradients of attention, fatigue, volition, as we shall when all of this is

[ 16 ]
 brought together in one v o l u m e , a certain sense of e v e r y - d a y reality will b e g i n t o collect a r o u n d
the Principle of Relative Frequency.
B u t w h a t is order, v o u m a y a s k ? O r d e r , a s used here, is b u t the sequence of e v e n t s . In the
sequence of the e v e n t s A , B , C , D , E , t h e g r e a t e r the d e t e r m i n a c y , in the l i g h t of p r o b a b i l i t y ,
with which one e v e n t a n d n o t a n o t h e r a p p e a r s i m m e d i a t e l y or a t a certain i n t e r v a l i n s t e a d of less
i m m e d i a t e l y or at an u n c e r t a i n i n t e r v a l , or n o t a t all, before or a f t e r a n o t h e r e v e n t , the more fixed
the order of those e v e n t s . A f t e r the degree of p r o b a b i l i t y of a certain sequence b e c o m e s so g r e a t
t h a t the likelihood of non-occurrence in t h a t s e q u e n c e b e c o m e s negligible, w e b e g i n t o s p e a k
p b e n o m e n o l o g i c a l h ' of causation.
T h e reader m a y rebel at this definition, p a r t l y b e c a u s e he feels t h a t W h i r l m a y b e c o m e k i n g ,
and p a r t l y because order m a y w i t h passing t i m e b e c o m e v e r y d e t e r m i n e d . A s t o W h i r l , let m e
s a y t h a t with order so defined W h i r l ' s c h a n c e s of p a r t i a l or c o m p l e t e r e g e n c y in h u m a n personali-
ties are, of course, definitely e x i s t e n t , a n d n u m e r o u s h u m a n beings behind or not behind l o c k e d
doors g i v e p i t i f u l e v i d e n c e t o t h e v e r a c i t y of this s t a t e m e n t . T h e o b j e c t i o n of c o n s t a n t l y g r e a t e r
d e t e r m i n a c y of certain s e q u e n c e s a t the e x p e n s e of o t h e r s is just as valid. W h e n , o u t of all possible
e v e n t s arranged a c c o r d i n g to p r o b a b i l i t y of o c c u r r e n c e , one e v e n t i n s t e a d of a n y of the o t h e r s
occurs, t h a t e v e n t f r a c t i o n a l l y increases, t h e r e b y , i t s p r o b a b i l i t y of re-occurrence b y c o r r e s p o n d -
ingly diminishing the p r o b a b i l i t y of the others. S o i t is t h a t w i t h passing y e a r s a n i n d i v i d u a l , re-
gardless of his speciss. b e c o m e s more fixed a n d set in his w a y s , and a new order or a new i n t e n s i t y
or a new q u a l i t y suffices to a n n i h i l a t e h i m , e v e n t h o u g h it be o n l y of a slight d e g r e e of d e v i a t i o n
from the normal, so slight t h a t in the i n d i v i d u a l ' s y o u t h he w o u l d h a v e a d j u s t e d himself to i t
c o m p a r a t i v e l y easily.
A n d w h y does n o t l a n g u a g e b e c o m e so c r y s t a l l i z e d , for l a n g u a g e r e p r e s e n t s this order par
excellence? I t does. B u t t h e g r e a t t h i n g t h a t s a v e s l a n g u a g e f r o m b e c o m i n g e n t i r e l y c r y s t a l l i z e d
is abbreviation. F o r w h e n the sequence A , B , C , D , £ b e c o m e s so fixed t h a t w h e n e v e r A o c c u r s
the odds are enormous t h a t B , C , I ) , E will f o l l o w , the e c o n o m y of l a n g u a g e a b b r e v i a t e s B , C , D ,
E , using only A . S o , too, w h e n t h e o d d s are in f a v o r of B , or C , or D , or E , so t h a t w h e n a n y one
or more of them occur, it o r t h e y will o c c u r in this s e q u e n c e , t h a t s y m b o l o r those s y m b o l s m a y
stand for the sequence. T h e r e is n o t h i n g in the n a t u r e of m e a n i n g t h a t it c a n n o t b e c o n t a i n e d in
one s y m b o l r a t h e r than in a n o t h e r or others, p r o v i d e d t h a t it once b e c o m c s e s t a b l i s h e d either b y
a b b r e v i a t i o n or s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , w h i c h are to all i n t e n t s and purposes the s a m e t h i n g . W h e n for
the sequence A , B , C , D , E one of the s y m b o l s therein c o n t a i n e d is s u b s t i t u t e d , w e call it abbrevia-
tion, w h e n an outside s y m b o l A" is s u b s t i t u t e d , w e call it s e m a n t i c change. I s p e a k of s y m b o l s ad-
v i s e d l y ; a s y m b o l is s o m e t h i n g t h a t s t a n d s for s o m e t h i n g else. B u t I shall show t h a t a s y m b o l is
also a mental e v e n t . T h e c o n s e r v a t i v e t e n d e n c y w h i c h causes a b b r e v i a t i o n is the s a m e t e n d e n c y
which m a i n t a i n s the a b b r e v i a t i o n a n d tends to p r e v e n t regression to the original s e q u e n c e w h i c h ,
wherever it m a y exist a f t e r it h a s been a b b r e v i a t e d , c o n t a i n s the m e a n i n g a t t a c h e d t o t h e new
s y m b o l . A n d so the s y m b o l arising f r o m a b b r e v i a t i o n m a y c o m b i n e with o t h e r s y m b o l s arising
from a b b r e v i a t i o n until a fixed sequence arises, a n d a new a b b r e v i a t i o n t a k e s place — abbrevia-
tion upon a b b r e v i a t i o n ad infinitum. If w e d e l v e i n t o the roots of a s y m b o l , w e m a y h i t s t r a t a
atter s t r a t a of s y m b o l s in e v e r m o r e fixed a n d c r y s t a l l i z e d order. W h e n d o e s one finally reach
reality, do y o u a s k ? I likewise ask. T h e o r d e r m a y b e c o m e so firm as to be s u b c o n s c i o u s , instinc-
tive, to be reflexive, t o be s t r u c t u r a l — these are t h e substrata gestures, of w h i c h t h e p e r m u t a t i o n s
and c o m b i n a t i o n s in time m a k e up consciousness. W h e r e is r e a l i t y ? G o e v e n i n t o cell s t r u c t u r e
and y o u are still in the field of s y m b o l i s m .
F o r as we review the d e v e l o p m e n t of life, as f a r as it is k n o w n to us, we see t h a t these a b b r e v i a -
tions of sequences arising b y c h a n c e h a v e led to t h e g r e a t e s t v a r i e t y of species. A n d as a m e m b e r

[17 3
 of a species b e g i n s to d e v e l o p , if it h a s an e m b r y o n i c s t a g e a t all, it rehearses, as we all k n o w , the
entire previous essential his tor) - of its species in abbreviated order. T h e r e is no essential d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n a n a m o e b a distending its wall for a f o o d p a r t i c l e , a d o g d i g g i n g for a bone, a child reach-
ing for a cookie, and an old m a n c r y i n g for b r e a d . T h e y are all r e a c t i n g to their e n v i r o n m e n t in a
d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n w i t h different r e l a t i v e frequencies. A s the r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y b e c o m e s g r e a t e r ,
the likelihood of definite i n h e r i t a b i l i t y b e c o m e s g r e a t e r . Y o u d o not need to think y o u r h a n d is
less a s y m b o l t h a n y o u r words s i m p l y b e c a u s e y o u c a n p e r c e i v e the material s u b s t a n c e in t h e one.
T h e essential d e v e l o p m e n t , m o v e m e n t , g e s t u r e , o r d e r i n g in y o u r h a n d are really i m p o r t a n t ; t h e
molecules are replaced r e m a r k a b l y o f t e n t h r o u g h o u t life. L o o k a t y o u r h a n d in the light of e v o -
lution and consider it a s l o w l y d e v e l o p i n g a b b r e v i a t i o n of m a n i f o l d gestures of defense a n d ag-
gression therein c e n t e r e d , b e c o m i n g ever m o r e c r y s t a l l i z e d in t h e order of its d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
f u n c t i o n s , all i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d , like a w o r d , w i t h t h e w h o l e ego. I n d e e d , we m i g h t go o n in-
definitely w i t h this t h e o r y , regarding p h y s i c a l disease as i n t e r r u p t e d or broken essential p h y s i o -
logical order, regarding m e n t a l disease as b r o k e n or i n t e r r u p t e d instincts or h a b i t s , s h o w i n g t h a t
our intelligence a n d reason, of which we are so p r o u d , h a v e been o b t a i n e d a t the e x p e n s e of the
s t a b i l i t y of i n s t i n c t i v e process, a b a r g a i n of t h e p a s t w h i c h , a s our propensities for drugs a n d nar-
cotics i n d i c a t e , is n o t n o w a l w a y s u n a n i m o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d wise. A n d it is fitting t h a t such a
t h e o r y of life should c o m e from the philologist, e v e n t h o u g h his expression of it w o u l d be some-
w h a t f a c i l i t a t e d b y using t e r m s of the Gcstalt a n d Freudian s y s t e m s of p s y c h o l o g y , those t w o
p o w e r f u l s y s t e m s which h a v e so g r e a t l y a i d e d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of ourselves.

T h e m o d e r n t h e o r e t i c a l linguist h a s a p o s i t i o n of n a t u r a l a d v a n t a g e . H e f i n d s his e v i d e n c e all

sorted and classified for h i m , e v i d e n c e g o i n g b a c k t h o u s a n d s of y e a r s and e x t e n d i n g o v e r millions
of s q u a r e miles, the record of billions of m o r t a l s , s t u d i e d a n d o r d e r l y a r r a n g e d b y some of the m o s t
brilliant m i n d s of the last a n d p r e s e n t centuries. A n d t h o u g h he w o r k s alone he has at his hand
the fruits of i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d s p e c u l a t i o n of the m o d e r n p s y c h o l o g i s t s , physicists, c h e m i s t s , phi-
losophers to e n c o u r a g e and p o i n t the w a y . Y e t t h e g r e a t e s t a n d m o s t unique a d v a n t a g e he h a s in
the v e r y n a t u r e of his m a t e r i a l . H e can o b s e r v e b o t h b y l o o k i n g into himself a n d a t others. The
p r o b l e m of c h a n g e a n d m u t a t i o n is t h e s a m e for h i m as f o r the b i o l o g i s t ; b u t the linguist c a n ob-
serve m u t a t i o n s t a k i n g place in his v e r y l i f e t i m e w i t h o u t s u b j e c t i n g his o b j e c t of e x p e r i m e n t to a
strain w h i c h , in being g r e a t e n o u g h to b r e a k e s t a b l i s h e d order, m a y be more t h a n sufficient t o
annihilate the o b j e c t . H o w e v e r , all of this is e a s y to say. L e t us n o w t u r n to the proof. F o r the
great p r o b l e m is h o w w e c a n d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t this t h e o r y of a b b r e v i a t i o n and the f u n c t i o n a l rela-
tionship of order a n d e m o t i o n is true. A n d t h e g r e a t i m p e d i m e n t to proof is the question of w h a t
in all l a n g u a g e shall we t a k e a s a basic u n i t for m e a s u r e m e n t .
F o r there h a s never been a g r e e m e n t as t o w h a t t h e u n i t of l a n g u a g e is. O n e m a y argue e q u a l l y
p l a u s i b l y for s o u n d s , syllables, words, phrases, c l a u s e s , s e n t e n c e s , a n d so f o r t h , and each one of
these units is serviceable, d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e n a t u r e of the p r o b l e m . Y e t there is no c o m m o n
basic u n i t w h i c h unites p h o n o l o g y w i t h m o r p h o l o g y , w i t h s y n t a x , w i t h s e m a n t i c c h a n g e . We
h a v e no m e a s u r i n g rods, scales, or w a t c h e s to s h i f t p i n t s i n t o p o u n d s , or hours into meters. Tak-
ing sounds a s a u n i t , w e find e v i d e n c e to s u p p o r t t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t the greater the relative fre-
q u e n c y , the less the conspicuousness, a s d e f i n e d a n d i l l u s t r a t e d in P a r t O n e of this p a p e r . Taking
syllables as a u n i t , e v e r y philologist is w i l l i n g t o c o n c e d e t h a t i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y of usage is a p t
to w e a r a w a y the syllable. A n d elsewhere 1 1 h a v e s h o w n t h a t s y l l a b i c a c c e n t — t h a t g r e a t sup-
p o r t of form — is a p t to diminish w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y . B u t w h e n w e come t o w o r d s , let
alone phrases, clauses, a n d sentences, w e are f r a n k l y at our w i t s ' ends. W h a t is the c o m m o n unit
t h a t will include all these?

1 Zipf, op. ciipp. 5 ff.

[ 18]
 The common unit is a time triangle. W h e n 1 s a y that A is a n a b b r e v i a t i o n for A B C D E , a
sequence which h a p p e n e d to be preceded b y e v e n t Y a n d f o l l o w e d b y e v e n t Z, I h a v e really said
that the a b b r e v i a t i o n A is a short cut t h r o u g h time f r o m Y t o Z , a n d h a v e g i v e n t h e r e b y an ex-
ample of a t i m e t r i a n g l e :

/ \

d i r e c t i o n of t i m e

Y A Z is shorter than Y A B C D E Z . If o n e s u b s t i t u t e s an o u t s i d e s y m b o l , X ( s e m a n t i c c h a n g e )
for the sequence, Y X Z is still shorter in time t h a n Y A B C I ) E Z- I t is shorter b e c a u s e one
e v e n t intervenes i n s t e a d of five. T h e s u m of Y A + A Z is s h o r t e r t h a n Y A B C D E Z. 1 If the
reader wonders a t this, let m e assure him t h a t I a m not m e a s u r i n g b y solar t i m e , e v e n t h o u g h
solar time u l t i m a t e l y belongs most d e c i d e d l y in the p i c t u r e . 1 can m a k e the t i m e of this triangle
clearer to y o u b y a little e x p e r i m e n t .
L e t me lock y o u in an enclosure from w h i c h sun a n d s t a r l i g h t are e x c l u d e d . I shall t a k e y o u r
w a t c h , but in return I shali g i v e y o u e v e r y t h i n g y o u a s k for, e x c e p t a n y o b j e c t b y which y o u can
deduce solar time. I s the e x p e r i m e n t clear? N o w as long as y o u are e n t e r t a i n e d there, y o u will
find time short; while y o u are bored, y o u will find time long. I s t h a t n o t true? B u t , a c c o r d i n g to
w h a t measure is it long or short? I t h i n k y o u will a d m i t t h a t y o u r feelings a b o u t s l o w n e s s or
swiftness of passing time h a v e little or n o t h i n g to d o w i t h a c l o c k , b u t e v e r y t h i n g t o do w i t h the
nature and i n t e n s i t y of y o u r e m o t i o n s a t the t i m e .
N o w , t h a t s u b j e c t i v e s t r e a m of t i m e a c c o r d i n g to which y o u s a y t h a t a g i v e n p o r t i o n of y o u r
life seemed long or short, seemed to p a s s e s p e c i a l l y s l o w l y or r a p i d l y , is the same s t r e a m of time in
which I shall s a y t h a t the unit of l a n g u a g e f o r m s a t i m e triangle. I shall call it psychic time. I
shall s a y the unit of l a n g u a g e is a m e n t a l e v e n t w h i c h in t u r n is a lime triangle in psychic time.
' ' B u t this psychic time is not a b s o l u t e like clock time. H o w c a n y o u use it a s a measure?"' It is
just exactly as little a b s o l u t e as clock t i m e ; t h a t is precisely the p o i n t of the m a t t e r . In going
from Y to Z b y m e a n s of A , it t a k e s less t i m e than f r o m Y to Z b y m e a n s of A B C D E . And
since time is merely t h a t b y m e a n s of w h i c h we m e a s u r e v e l o c i t y , we m a y , therefore, s a y t h a t the
mental e v e n t A , being t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n Y a n d Z , is r e l a t i v e l y f a s t e r than A B C D E , being
also the i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n Y a n d Z .
W i t h o u t the a b b r e v i a t i o n , the e v e n t s of y o u r m i n d run, let us s a v , — W Y A B C D E Z—
with the a b b r e v i a t i o n the e v e n t s run —»V W Y A Z - * a n d the o n l y w a y y o u c a n tell f r o m the
stream of consciousness t h a t a b b r e v i a t i o n h a s t a k e n p l a c e (or s e m a n t i c c h a n g e , if one uses X
instead of A ) is t h a t there is a s u d d e n a c c e l e r a t i o n b e t w e e n Y a n d Z . I f Y and Z in turn are like-
wise a b b r e v i a t i o n s o r s u b s t i t u t i o n s a n d t h e r e b y . e n j o y a c c e l e r a t i o n , there is then no w a y of telling

1 Cf. A. S. Eddington: The Natura of the Physical World, New York, MacmiHan (1930), pp. HI ft., for a
c l e a r a n d p o p u l a r d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t i m e t r i a n t e in p h y s i c s . T h i s b o o k , t o g e t h e r w i t h A . N . W h i t e h e a d ' s Sy?>t-
bo!ism, Its Meaning end Effect, New York, Mac.millan (jg -'7), and Kurt Koffka's The Growth of the Mind, New York,
H a r c o u r t B r a c o ( 1 9 2 8 ) , t o g e t h e r w i t h m a n y h a p p y d i s c u s s i o n s of F r e u d i a n p r i n c i p l e ? w i t h P r o f e s s o r H . A . S h a w a t
Harvard, hive been helpful to me in revamping and expressing the Principie of Relative Frequency, though it has
o f t e n b e e n i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n c i l e s o m e of t h e m o r e s p e c u l a t i v e t h e o r i e s o f t h e Geslalt w i t h t h e f a c t s of l a n g u a g e .

[ 1 9 ]
 that A is an abbreviation except from the f a c t that it does not slow down. I need not point o u t
t h a t V W Y A Z are loosely ordered mental events, and should they through relative frequency o!
occurrence become sufficiently crystallized to j u s t i f y abbreviation, and should some other e v e n t
than A be used for the abbreviation, and should A likewise disappear from other sequences b y the
same process, A m a y utterly disappear from consciousness, and simply be carried on in essence by
the abbreviating symbols. T h i s is the structure of language to m y mind. A n d " m e a n i n g " is
really w h a t lies behind, or if y o u will, below the symbols. B u t before we proceed to quality a n d
intensity of mental events, let us sum up w h a t we h a v e said on the basis of our assumptions: the
greater the relative determinacy of order, the less the relative speedy and vice versa. T h o u g h this is a n
astonishing statement, I shall, none the less, p r o v e that i t is true, as an analysis of language will
show.
N o w , it follows from w h a t we h a v e said before that the greater the relative acceleration, the
greater the proportionate emotion, for emotion is b u t a lack of determinacy of order. V W Y A Z
are less determined in order than V W Y A B C D E Z , even though A B C D E are the only
events in determined sequence. I t seems almost as if the persons w h o coined u abbreviation" and
" e m o t i o n " were somehow conscious of the Principle of R e l a t i v e Frequency. W h a t happens to
A B O D E while abbreviated, I do n o t know (nor do you). B u t that they are not annihilated for-
ever is evidenced b y their chance occurrence again in that sequence in the stream of conscious-
ness. Surely such an exposition explains the significance of order, intensity, and meaning, b u t it
leaves quality o u t of the picture. A n d y e t quality is most important, for i t furnishes the motive.
One m a y proceed from A to B for one of several reasons. I t m a y be an escape from A because
A is unpleasant (in which case A has a negative quality); or one m a y proceed from A to B because
B is more pleasant (in which case B is more positive or is j u s t as positive with a greater degree of
intensity). W e m a y speak of negative as fear a n d positive as desire. A n d these two well recognized
qualities, as roughly as they are here stated, are really the propelling m o t i v e s behind the sequence
of events. W i t h a proper understanding of quality, we c a n ultimately gain great light on this
theory from previous studies of the neurosis, and, if this theory of emotion be correct, throw a
great deal of light o n the s t u d y of t h e neurosis. T h e reader m a y n o t understand the important
role of quality in life. H e m a y say t h a t he can understand w h y an individual should w a n t to p u t a
negative e v e n t behind him, or flee f r o m a low positive intensity to a higher positive intensity, b u t
w h y should h e wish to leave a v e r y high positive intensity for something else?
I n simple words, y o u h a v e said " I can see w h y a person w a n t s to escape an unpleasant e v e n t ,
or leave a pleasant event for a more pleasant event, b u t I cannot see w h y he should w a n t to leave
a v e r y pleasant e v e n t for one which is less p l e a s a n t . " I n short, w h y don't we a l w a y s do just w h a t
we like most to do? A v e r y frequent question in this world! L e t us try to answer i t according to
Relative Frequency. L e t us assume t h a t the e v e n t h a s a high positive intensity, + A . N o w let us
assume that there are, likewise, -f- B and + C , different, b u t approximate in intensity. L e t u s
now restrict our a c t i v i t y to t h e m : + A - f B + C - f - C + B - f - A + B - | - C + B , etc. Being
limited to three events, t h e y can h a v e only a limited number of permutations. N o matter h o w
hard y o u try, with passing time they will develop sequences, and with the high relative frequency
of the sequences, order will become more crystallized. W i t h increased crystallization or de-
terminacy of order, emotional intensity begins to decrease. A n d after the intensity diminishes
far enough i t will be less than t h e emotional intensity of e v e n t s other than A , B , C , and to these
other events y o u then proceed. F o r as you conceded a m o m e n t ago, y o u can easily understand
passing from pleasant e v e n t or e v e n t s to more pleasant events.
If y o u would like to experiment in the matter, p i c k out the most delicious article of diet, or the
most exquisite piece of music, or the m o s t refreshing form of exercise, mental or physical, and con-
 gge yourself to i t d a y on end, week on end. Y o u will become tired of it? I agree. F a t i g u e is a
ftinction of relative frequency and serves to keep y o u f r o m increasing t h e relative f r e q u e n c y too
g r t as X hope to explain when I have more available space. B u t in spite of the f a c t t h a t you are
Incoming tired of your favorite dish of lobster that y o u h a v e eaten daily f o r ten days, continue
gating lobster for another ten days. A n d now how do y o u feel a b o u t lobster? So y o u are sick of it
|itd don't w a n t another! A f t e r a further ten days of forceful feeding of lobster y o u would most
^ f i n i t e l y not w a n t a n y more a t all. T h e erstwhile high positive intensity has become a high
itegative intensity. T h i s is surely an e v e r y - d a y phenomenon, familiar to all. Over-indulgence
brings satiety. A n d yet, to m y mind, it is nothing b u t too rapid acceleration of the relative fre-
q u e n c y . T h e attendant derangement of the substrata gestures which m a y be broadly termed sick-
ness whether it be an upset stomach or cancer of the skin, is in m y opinion in the last analysis d u e
to nothing more than a breach in crystallized order, f r o m w h a t e v e r source or trauma t h a t y o u
wish. I n increasing the relative frequency of lobster y o u h a v e b r o k e n the strict order of the every-
•day; it is both the increased frequency of the one a n d the broken order of the other t h a t leads to
the resultant trouble. Certainly the fault is not w i t h the lobster; for customary activities are
appallingly different among individuals and everywhere w e notice t h a t w h a t is food for one m a y
h e poison for another. I t is regrettable to me that right a t this point where the physiological, men-
" tal, and evolutionary aspects of the Principle of Relative Frequency are becoming so pertinent we
must return to linguistic considerations. B u t before returning to linguistic considerations, let m e
say here for the sake of a n y mathematician w h o m a y p l a n to formulate the ensuing d a t a more ex-
actly, the ability of the highly intense positive to become the highly intense negative, in m y
opinion, introduces the devil into the formula in the f o r m of V — i . A n d now to linguistics.

Highly emotional mental events are rare. If t h e y are of negative quality, they tend to be rare
because of a natural desire to avoid them. If they are positiye, they t e n d to occur rarely because
of their tendency to shrink in emotional intensity when their frequency increases. A n d they b y
the same token tend to be manifold in v a r i e t y . For nothing c a n intervene between m e n t a l events
except mental events; and these intervening mental e v e n t s will be positive or negative or neutral,
and subject to the same general laws of abbreviation. T h i s tendency of mental e v e n t s to be rare
and manifold in variety I shall call the life tendency. I n simple terms it is the tendency to increase
experience b y a hazardous seeking for the new. B u t , opposing the life tendency, w h i c h increases
variety, is abbreviation which reduces number when frequency increases. I shall call this tend-
ency to decrease number a n d variety b y abbreviation when relative frequency increases, the
death tendency, being willing to agree if the reader insists t h a t this is roughly identical w i t h F r e u d ' s
death instinct, though I h a v e no space to argue the point. Life tendency and death tendency are
constantly counterbalancing each other, — emotional intensity o n the one h a n d versus the sta-
bility of meaning and order on the other. A s I look a t life, I think one can say t h a t the one tend-
ency takes us from our mothers' w o m b and with passing time hands u s over more a n d more to
the other tendency which gives us surcease in the g r a v e . I n m a n y w a y s we seem to be like the
physical universe, which we are told expands only to c o n t r a c t . B u t b e t h a t a s i t m a y . If i t be
true that there is this balance in mind between the rare occurrence of m a n y dissimilar e v e n t s a n d
the frequent occurrence of a small number of events, this balance is the basic law of life a s well as
mind. L e t us translate the law into terms of language.
L e t us take the word " a u t o m o b i l e , " and remember t h a t w e shall use as our measure the time
triangle. Shall we call the sounds the events? If y o u like; there are eight of them a n d the se-
quence i s A B C D E F G H . These sounds occur in other sequences, b u t their order in this se-
quence, as in other sequences, is v e r y fixed, and the emotional intensity of a n y one is practically
nil. Sounds are meaningless if not fixed in sequences. A n d each sound represents particular ges-

[ 2 1 ]
 tares o i v a r i o u s o r g a n s of t h e m o u t h , p l u s t h e s u b s t r a t a g e s t u r e s . T h e p h o n e t i c g e s t u r e s a r e c r y s -
tallized in a r r a n g e m e n t a n d sequence in time. A s a s o u n d increases in r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y , t h e s e
g e s t u r e s are a b b r e v i a t e d m o r e a n d m o r e , losing, t h e r e b y , w h a t I call consficuousness. S h a l l we
t a k e s y l l a b l e s a s t h e e v e n t s ? T h e r e are f o u r s y l l a b l e s in " a u t o m o b i l e " a n d the sequence m a y b e re-
ferred t o a s L M N O w h i c h is r e a l l y a n a b b r e v i a t i o n o f A B C D E F G H w h i c h are s u b s t r a t a
w h e n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t is of syllables. L , M , N , a n d 0 each occur elsewhere p r e s u m a b l y . Though
f a i r l y c r y s t a l l i z e d , a c c e n t t e n d s i n t h e l o n g r u n t o h o v e r a b o u t the r e l a t i v e l y r a r e a s I h a v e s h o w n
elsewhere. 1 L e t us a s s u m e t h a t t h e sequence L M N 0 , f o r one r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r , b e c o m e s rela-
tively more frequent. A n y one, t w o , o r three of t h e m e n t a l e v e n t s m a y b e a b b r e v i a t e d , those
g o i n g first w h i c h a r e less essential, t h a t is, w h i c h o c c u r in m o r e o t h e r sequences. So w e m a y t a k e
" a u t o , " o r " b i l " (as in I c e l a n d i c ) f o r e x a m p l e . I f " a u , " o r " a u t , " or " t o , " o r " m o " d o n o t o c c u r
a s a b b r e v i a t i o n s , i t m a y b e b e c a u s e t h e y a r e a l r e a d y a b b r e v i a t i o n s or s y m b o l s of s o m e t h i n g else
a n d would lead to confusion, or it m a y b e simply chance. C a n w e shorten " a u t o " f u r t h e r ? Yes,
b y semantic change, we can substitute " c a r . " T h i s tendency toward abbreviation and substitu-
tion is e v i d e n c e d b y t h e t e n d e n c y of s h o r t w o r d s t o be f r e q u e n t a n d long w o r d s rare. 2
B u t n o w l e t us t a k e t h e w o r d " a u t o m o b i l e " a s a single s y m b o l , X , a n d consider, a s s u b s t r a t a ,
s y l l a b l e s a s w e l l a s s o u n d s . V e r y g o o d , b u t t h e n w e m u s t h a v e a s t r e a m of w o r d s in w h i c h t h e
s y m b o l X o c c u r s a m o n g i t s f e l l o w s so t h a t w e m a y e s t i m a t e i t s f r e q u e n c y . I f all w e h a v e s a i d
a b o u t Rdative Frequency, a b b r e v i a t i o n , a n d s e m a n t i c c h a n g e b e true, t h e n in e x a m i n i n g a suffi-
c i e n t n u m b e r of w o r d s in t h e s t r e a m of l a n g u a g e , w e s h o u l d e x p e c t t o find m a n y d i f f e r e n t w o r d s
occurring relatively rarely, and only a f e w occurring relatively frequently. T h a t would be the
proof of the p u d d i n g ; a n d i t h a p p e n s t o b e true, regardless of h o w inflected or u n i n f e c t e d t h e
language m a y be.
I h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e w o r d s of 20,000 s y l l a b l e s of m o d e m colloquial C h i n e s e of P e k i n g ( t h e
s a m e selections of w h i c h t h e s o u n d s w e r e e x a m i n e d in P a r t O n e ) . T h e actual words with their
f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e are t o b e f o u n d in A p p e n d i x C . I h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e f r e q u e n c y of oc-
c u r r e n c e of all w o r d s in P l a u t u s ' Aulularia, Mostellaria, Trinummus, a n d Pseudolus,3 and the
w o r d s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e n u m b e r of their o c c u r r e n c e s m a y b e f o u n d in A p p e n d i x A . In addition,
I h a v e t a k e n R . C . E l d r i d g e ' s a n a l y s i s 4 of the f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e in A m e r i c a n n e w s p a p e r s of
selections t o t a l l i n g 43,990 w o r d s (exclusive of n u m e r a l s a n d p r o p e r n a m e s ) . I h a v e n o t used F . W .
K a e d i n g ' s 5 e l a b o r a t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e G e r m a n l a n g u a g e b e c a u s e u n f o r t u n a t e l y his r e s u l t s
a r e n o t in a f o r m s e r v i c e a b l e t o s t a t i s t i c s . B u t K a e d i n g a g r e e s ( p a g e 54 ff.) w i t h m y o w n r e s u l t s
a n d those of E l d r i d g e , t h a t m a n y w o r d s o c c u r r a r e l y , a n d o n l y a f e w f r e q u e n t l y . B e l o w are t a b u -
l a t e d t h e n u m b e r of w o r d s a n d t h e t i m e s of their o c c u r r e n c e , in C h i n e s e , E n g l i s h , a n d L a t i n —
t h a t is, in a n e g l i g i b l y i n f l e c t e d , in a s l i g h t l y i n f l e c t e d , a n d in a f a i r l y h i g h l y i n f l e c t e d l a n g u a g e , so
selected for their importance for future work. U n d e r each language the left-hand column gives
t h e n u m b e r of t i m e s t h e w o r d o c c u r s , t h e r i g h t - h a n d c o l u m n g i v e s the n u m b e r of w o r d s , e a c h o n e
of "which o c c u r s t h a t m a n y times. I n p a r e n t h e s e s a f t e r t h e n u m b e r of w o r d s in C h i n e s e a n d L a t i n
a r e g i v e n the n u m b e r of s y l l a b l e s . F o r C h i n e s e t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r of w o r d s in e a c h f r e q u e n c y
w h i c h h a v e o n e , t w o , three, etc., s y l l a b l e s is g i v e n w i t h a s m a l l n u m b e r a t t h e u p p e r r i g h t to d e s i g -

1 See supra, p. 1.
1 See infra, p. 23.
3 According to the Oxford edition. The elision of est withaprecedingwordisindicatedbyitalicsfe.g.inopiaj/);
the elision of es is indicated by apostrophe (e. g. pessumu's). Differences in vowel quantity were not recorded, nor
would their consideration seriously alter the statistics, as the reader will see for himself by examining the list of
words in the Appendix.
4 R. C. Eldridge: Six Thousand Common English Words, copyright i g n , privately printed at Niagara Falls,

New York.
s F. W. Kaeding: Haufiskeitsworterbuch der deidschen Sprache, Steglitz, bei Berlin, 1898.

CaaD
 CHINESE LATIN OF PLAUTOS

Average
Number of Words with their Syllables number of
Syllables

2046 (315' 1571' 144' 14' 2976 54!9 i-23)

(no1 358' 3') 1079 J19S .92)
494 23 1
316 ( 59 1 147* 9' 516 492 77)
too ( 24 1 »' 3") 294 299 05)
2') 212 161 60)
99 ( 39 l 58*
66 Is) 151 126
( 24 1 41* 53)
( 16 1 105 87
41 25") 39)
( io £ 69
25 14' 1') «4 44)
l> 86 54
3° ( I3 1 15* I4) 35)
20 ( '31 in 4S 43 32)
25 ( I4l !,•) 40 44 29)
22 ( I51 7') 37 36 3°)
10 ( 6> 4«) 13 25 13 33 3°)
14 ( 7' 7s) 14 28 14 31 '9)
13 ( 5' «•) 15 26 15 '3 07)
10 ( 4' 5' i4) 16 17 16 25 4°)
10 ( 6' 41) 17 18 17 09)
6 ( 21 4') 18 IO 18 .04)
5 ( 4' >•) ig 15 19 (2.18)
5 ( 5') 16
4 ( 3' i4)
2 < 2'! (2.08)
5 ( 4' 1') 23 23
3 ( 2> **) H 24
4 ( 31 1*) 25 25
4 ( •> 3') 26 26
6 ( 4» 2') 27 27
(2.00)
6 ( 4' 2') 28 28
2 ( I1
2
9 29
JO 3°
31 31
32 32
33 33
34 34 (2.05)
35 35
36 36
i1 i') 37 37
i1 2s) 39 38
40 39
41 40
( i') 42 41
43 43
44 44
45 45
46 46
47 47
48 48 (1.70)
40 49
5° 5°
51 Si
52 53
54 54
55 55
56 56
58 58
(»•) 60 61

61-4290 71 62-514 71 (1.40)

[ 2 3 ]
 nate the number of syllables, thus permitting u s to see the tendency of long words to occur rarely,
which we should expect from the Principle of Relative Frequency and A b b r e v i a t i o n . Where the
number of syllables is not marked, the words are monosyllables. I n L a t i n the parentheses em-
brace the average number of syllables of all the words h a v i n g the given occurrence.
T h e astonishing thing about this marked tendency is not t h a t i t is new — for i t is well-known
among linguists and as self-evident as gravitation. T h e astonishing thing is that i t should occur
to anyone to build up a law of language and mind upon it. B u t even more astonishing it is that,
like gravitation, there is not only a pull t o w a r d abbreviation, b u t the pull toward abbreviation
I— varies in an orderly fashion as the frequency increases. T h a t is, regardless of whether the lan-
I guage is highly inflected or not (and this is v e r y important to show the functional interrelation-
' ship of morphology and syntax), the number of words decreases with a marked similarity u p o n
i increase of usage. B u t the overwhelming disclosure is this, t h a t the formula for abbreviation is
ab* = k, a formula e x a c t l y identical to t h a t of gravitation.
F o r we can plot these figures on double logarithmic charts, marking off on the horizontal axis
the actual number of words w h i c h occur a t a given frequency, and marking off on the vertical axis
the frequency with which the words occur. T h e charts for the w o r d s in P l a u t u s and English are
given opposite on p a g e 25. T h e upper c h a r t on p a g e 26 is for Chinese words. T h e lower c h a r t
on page 26, f o r Chinese syllables, should be disregarded. T h e reasons for its inclusion are g i v e n
below. T h e diagonal line represents the formula ab* = k , a n d the reader can judge for himself if
this does not pass through the indicated points with reasonable closeness.
T h e deviations from the line a b ! are in all three cases r e m a r k a b l y slight. If it deviates in E n g -
lish a t the v e r y low frequencies, t h a t is because Eldridge omitted proper names and numerals
which are as m u c h words as a n y of the others. B u t the slight deviation is due to two other causes:
(1) the natural probability of error; (2) the fact t h a t they are based on written language a n d n o t
spoken or thought, and hence the authors of the selections, in m a k i n g a n y erasure for re-writing,
have artificially distorted w h a t was the normal course of events.
Y o u m a y a s k , " w h y did y o u not also p l o t t h e w o r d s w i t h h i g h frequencies which, accord-
ing to the lists o n p a g e 23, w o u l d m a k e t h e diagonal line suddenly j u m p , and not follow the
straight line of t h e f o r m u l a a b s = k i n the w a y y o u indicate b y the dotted line on all three
charts? F o r P l a u t u s , for example, y o u did not include words w h i c h occurred more often than
fifty times. A n d so too, correspondingly, for E n g l i s h and C h i n e s e . "
Y o u will find t h a t the line would j u m p a t exactly t h a t p o i n t where, according to the formula.,
fractional words are called for. I shall call this the scattering point a n d it is where the problems of
syntax, morphology, and semantic Change meet. For w h e n w e say t h a t the square of the frequency of
occurrence times the number of words possessing thai frequency remains constant, we must perforce
have, with high frequencies, fractional words which do not exist. T h i s demand of the formula for
fractional words is represented b y the sudden spurt of frequency w i t h ever greater intervals in
between.
T h e chart for Chinese syllables I include here simply because t h e present publication seemed
ideal for the inclusion (in A p p e n d i x D ) of the frequency lists of Chinese syllables and tones, of
which I shall m a k e future use in a t t e m p t i n g to show t h a t t h e degree of inflection of a language is
possible of rough computation.
I t is with true regret t h a t m y space now necessitates conclusion, without m y even broaching
the question of language as a perception. If one chooses to regard w h a t I call a sequence as a
Galalt, or t o c o m p a r e m y definition of emotion w i t h t h a t of the F r e u d i a n school, well a n d good.
T h a t I have not done so myself is p a r t l y because I wished the Principle of Relative Frequency to

L 241
 FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE.

OF THE WORDS IN T H E

LATIN OF PLAl/TUS
(Avl-UUftRIA, MosTELLSRIft ^EuOOLUS
4 TRINUMMUS.)

FRE&UENCY OF OCCURRENCE

OF THE W O R D S IN

ENGLISH
(ACCOROIN* TO R.C.ELOFUDGEJ
 1 [ 1 1 1
1—f
FREBVJENCV OF OCCURRENCE
! m

OF WORDS IN fs
(00 CHINESE

%
S.

' i w

I B
0
F
0
c
c

I£
u
*

1
N

s
NUMBER OF WORDS ^

1 IlltlllU l 'OH m w X i

FREFTUENCV OF OCCURRENCE.

OF SYLLABLES w
CHINESE
\

N,

kN V
•
M
B
Efi_ t
R
F

1
-1. - 1
¡Ji

s
c *
•i
DUMBER OF S Y L L A B L E S _
-!
/ 1 1 IIIII1L 1 top fna
stand on its own feet, and p a r t l y because some of the theories of the Gestalt, as I understand them,
definitely do not agree w i t h the phenomena of l a n g u a g e as I observe them.
A n d as we h a v e argued of words, so we m a y argue of phrases, clauses, sentences, regarding in
turn the phrase, the clause, the sentence, as the s y m b o l , a n d considering the words as substrata,
even though in doing this, order a n d abbreviation p l a y a less perceptible role. T h e w o r d seems
roughly to be that unit of consciousness in which the degree of determinacy of order a n d the in-
tensity of emotion are within such a range as to be b o t h perceptible. A n d where does the Prin-
ciple of Relative Frequency stop? I t stops where neither order nor value are existent. I n other
words i t is all pervasive in life. 1 believe t h a t from the single cell to the most highly organized
society of individuals the law prevails t h a t F r e q u e n c y times Conspicuousness is C o n s t a n t .
 F R E Q U E N C Y OF OCCURRENCE
OF W O R D S
I n P l a u t u s ' Auluiaria, Mostellaria, Pseudolus, and Trinumtnus

-quid 514 jam 19 r quill 94 uolo 74 male 56 nos 44

ego 506 hoc 188 sum 94 di 72 raeura 56 dum 43
me 482 quam 170 nisi 93 bene 70 intro 55 ea 45
est 473 sed 170 edepol 9J aedis 68 ille 54 facere 43
ut 445 esse 169 quidem 91 homo 67 ab 53 sine 43
te 408 nam 169 a 88 quo 66 ei 53 aurum 41
et 373 id 159 cum 88 uis 66 eo 53 pro 41
si 349 neque 145 es 86 an 64 mea 53 uos 41
In 338 ita 140 aut 84 hominem 64 se 51 credo 40
coil 308 hercle 134 hodie 84 quia 64 uerum 51 huic 40
mihi 305 ne 12g er S3 haud (hau) 63 hanc S» magis 40
tu 300 ubi 123 etiam 8i argentum 62 nec S° dare 39
-•tibi 296 mi 122 tine 79 istuc 62 i 49 igitur 39
qui 295 modo 114 hue 7« res 62 meo 48 malum 39
ätque 27 S quae 113 sit 78 at 61 iaciam 47 nomen 39
nunc 250 rem 108 de 77 quis 61 immo 47 dicam 38
quod 24S quom 102 ffli 77 scio 61 pater 47 numquam 38
nie 312 haec 101 hunc 76 sis 58 nihil 46
ad 199 sunt 98 is 75 ilium 56 pol 45

7 Words Occur 37 T i m e s
earn ergo meam omnes quem sibi

£ Words Occur 36 Times

heus meus potest quad

3 Words Occur 36 T i m e s
m fuit operam

6 Words Occur 34 Times

iilic lubet opsedo

4 Words Occur 33 T i m e s
enim ero tuom

3 Words Occur 32 T i m e s
apud omnia

8 Words Occur 31 T i m e s
sic simul uideo

4 Words Occur 30 Times

bac per

4 Words Occur 29 Times

mmis re

12 Words Occur 28 Times

autem factum habeo illud turn
dabo equidem foras ibi tecum uero

[ S O
 9 W o r d s O c c u r 27 T i m e s
ammo mecurn profecto
intus postquam quando

7 Words Occur 26 Times

argen ti prius tua

1 1 Words Occur 25 Times

ha bes inquam probe seruos
ibo minas quoque suo

9 Words Occur 24 Times

adeo mulierem pacto qur
erus ob perii

8 Words Occur 23 Times

fui istaec licet

8 Words Occur 22 Times

fieri Iuppiter 3 post tute

10 Words Occur 21 Times

ilico ni opera
metuo nolo opinor

16 Words Occur 20 Times

eccum gratiam ipse mores pnmum recte
facit hominum ire omnibus qua siet
faenus illara miser

1 1 Words Occur 19 Times

dote filio minus smt suom
fidem bomini omnis solus Tranio

21 Words Occur 18 Times

amicum die facis nemo quibus tace
audio dicere nummum uiginti
caue diem ¡stum quas uxorem
eras egomet multo

21 Words Occur 17 Times

adest dbri fac noui opus
possum
dedit eho fecit numquid opus* si m
dies erat in mo rtales nunciam peregre uti
diu erura inter

25 Words Occur 16 Times

fUiam istx omnium pnu quam
filium malam Philolaches Pseudole semper
bona fore manu placet uerbis
caput illo negoti porro
inde nescio

1 3 Words Occur 15 T i m e s
aedes lepide med num patrem satin
facio loqui nempe oportet quidquid uerba
item

Í3* 3
 :
jgjgf-..
3 1 W o r d s Occur 1 4 T i m e s
Syísaulescens dudum foro maJo plus Simo
eius forum mane quantum tui
i * »equora man us sat tuis
epistukm his
- .¿»Etat™ idem meis sciam uelim
faxo
fores maii pectore scire uolt
» -ittitror

idtö
33 W o r d s O c c u r 1 3 T i m e s
certum eugae ilia minis oculis
ecquid facinus istis • minus rebus
egone facta istoc multa salutem
i> us
argento eiius fiat loquere nobis Stasime
aun estis fide manum nusquam uides
etsi fiiius

36 W o r d s O c c u r 1 2 T i m e s
cor dotem iussit officium sequere
-álii
corde eloquar Leno pudet sumboium
SÉHucam det facias marume quamquam tantum
dicas faciunt meae quemquam ted
|!harmides dicta genus molestus saluom uelle
consilium die iiiuc nimium señera uobis

44 W o r d s O c c u r 1 1 T i m e s
aduorsum capite Harpax minae praedícas seruom
aetate certe hicquidem mod is puere solet
ago cupio i Iiis multum quadraginta tandem
alhim dem ingenio mutuom reddam ueniat
arnent dixit istas neu rogitas uera
amor esset loquor ostium rogo uerbum
Ballio fateor mala postea scin uidi
bonum fit

43 W o r d s Occur 1 0 T i m e s
>. annco decet habent meas probus sororem
: ausculta emit habere miles Pseudolus sumus
bono epistuias habitat misero quidum tene
censeo Euclio hisce miserum quoniam tuae
coquom face istam nostrum saluos uiam
coquos /orte iube omnem sane uidetur
da frugi lenoni palam soror ultro
datur

54 W o r d s O c c u r 9 T i m e s
abeo dedisse gratia morem perdant Scapba
ac eas habeas moribus Phoenicium sequor
aduenit ere istac moror posse sicut
ait exemplum istos natus propera sub
aliam extempio melius nihili Fseudolum terra
continuo iaciant mentem nimio quoiquam tun
crucem feci mérito nugas redde uirtute
dari fiet mille obuiam redi uolui
dat fuge modum optumum ioga uolunt

69 W o r d s O c c u r 8 T i m e s
accipe aulam eos magna pectus rus
admodum cape facile magnum pedibus sciaa
adulescentem censes feceris malus perdidit sermonem
aedium cito fecisti mei Phiito spondeo
«gas consilia gaudeo mirum postulas stulte
agat conuenit gnatus negotium potin thensaurum
ain credam hos nequam pridem uah
alia debet huius occidi propere uideor
aliquem ducere ibidem omni quaero uitam
axmcis ecquis iste oppido rationem uostra
attinet eheu it OS ruri utrum
audire eorum Lesbonice

[33]
 87 Words Occur 7 T i m e s
accipere date factis mater patris sex
actunuí deaeque fecisse maxumam peto sient
aequoms/ déos ferre misere plane spes
amica dici ñliae misit potes suis
amicus dicito foris more propter taceas
aquam dictis frater nequiquam quanti uelis
arbítratu e genere nulla queo uenire
audacter ecastor illius nummo quinqué uia
Callicles eloquere inteilego nuptias quisque uino
certo epistula Iouis nuptiis repperi uiuere
certumsí erga ius omne responde uiuo
contra eri lege opturoe sciunt uix
coqui eris Lesbonicum partem seni usquam
credere faciat locum patre seruo utrumque
dabit facito manibus

126 Occur 6 T i m e s
accepisti ausculto Fides manufesto praeter sortem
adiré Callidamates foret Megadore prope speculo
aduenis censeas foribus meos proxumo st!
adulescenti cuncta fuerit mortuom Pseudolo súbito
aeque cura gnatam mulier quapropter sui
agere dabis guato muflís quippiam summo
agit dabitur hem namque quisquís sumptu
agrum dederis hominis negat quoiusmodi taces
alio des homoii neminem ratio teneo
alios do horum nequeo rogas tibicinam
alius domo ingeoium nescis rusum tribus
alteram dos interim nostras salua uendidit
amabo ducam Ioni nouom sapis uenio
amare duco ipsi oculos scelestus uiden
amat duo ipsum olim scies uidere
amicos egestatem itidem paz scit uiri
amoris emi iubeo petit secum uita
amplius etiamne loquitur placide sedulo uocant
aperite faceres lubens possis sentio uoles
audi facies tudos postremo sin usus
audin facite maiorum praedico soleo utinam

161 Occur 6 T i m e s
abis canes gentium mentionem petunt sinam
accepisse cena geratn metuara Philippum sino
adônitatem cesso géras meturo Philolachem siquidem
aduenio coctum gnate militi pistrinum soli
aduenisse condirionem habe mioime possim strenue
aduorte culparn habuit multos possunt stultus
aes dedisti hi neuis postulo suos
aetati dicant huiius nihilo potissumum tamquam
ager dignum iamne noctu praedam tenes
agi tu r dimidium incedit noster pretio Theoprapides
aibat disperii inimicos nostra principio totum
aiio dixeris inprobis nostrae probo triginta
aliis docte inspicere nullam proinde uae
aliquis doctum iratus nuptura. properas uideas
amantem ecce itaii occasio quaerit uidisse
amanti eras lenonem opere quidque uin
amet estne lepida oportuit quique uirgínem
amicitiam ezi loco optuma quorum uitae
amocem Cabulam loquar optumo redeo ullam
anum faxint Lysiteles ordine rerum unam
apscede fero Macedonio paene reuortar uoluit
apsente fides magister parí te r saepe uortant
Athenis flocci xnagnam patri sciant uortat
auferam fuat magnis patriam secus uox
boues fur malis pessume sententia urbe
Calliclem furem maxumo petam serui uxor
Callipho futurum Megaionides petere seruitutem

[ 3 4 ]
 299 W o r d s O c c u r 4 T i m e s
abe&ni clam facto magtio parui scelesta
ábeat clanculum factuntt/ maiorem pati sceleste
abin cogito f actus malae patiar scilicet
addecet commodum famam maxumum pauci sdmus
aderit conduxit feram Megadorus pauper sermone
ádhuc consili /erat melius pedes sies
adueoi consilio ferunt memini penes signum
adueníetis corruptum filia menses perdidi simile
¿duenientem credidi filial meque perge similis
aquiescente credis frustra meridie periisse simus
-astas culpa furcifer metuont periit Solent
: agedum cures fures meumj* perit solum
agite currere gloriara minoris Philematium specta
agitis dam.no gnatae miseret piget speculum
aiebat danunt gnati miserls placeat Strobile
alias dapsilis gnatum mittam Polymachaero- sua
alicunde dato gradum mitte pla^ides suamque
aUquantum datura habeam mittere populi Surus
aliquid daturum habui mitti populo tabellas
alíquo deceat hae mones possint taceo
alter dedero heia mot a m possit talentum
álteri Delphium heri mortalem potare temperi
alterum demum heu pote
mortal is tempestas
amant denuo hosce potero
mortuosi temp us
amato r deum potui
iltae muliere tergum
ambo potuit
dicat illaec mucus totus
ambula prae
dictum indicium nemini tris
amo praeda
diues inímicum nomine tune
animi praesens
divitias ioíuriam noscere ualide
aperit praesenti
dolos insidias nostro uellem
apstulisse preti
domino interii nouisti uelles
argumenta procuJ
dormi tum iauitus nouo ueneris
astant proloqui
duas ipsa noxiam ueniam
astat promisi
attulit duce istanc nullo uenisse
ducit istinc oblitus pueri ueri
audes pultabo
audis eadem itaque occepi uesperum
ecfodiam iubes quaeras
aula occlude uicissim
quamuis
auro egon iaborem oculi uideam
quidnam.
bis émisse leges oh uidisti
quiduis
erilem legibus o n u s tam uinum
quindecim.
bonae erili Ienone oppidum uir
quippe
bonam esses Lesbonico oras uirgini
quispiam.
bonis Eucli'onis liber orat uiros
quoiius
caelum euenit liberauit ornamentis uiuis
quoius
cantharum experiar liceat ornata unguentis
redearn
capere exsequi licebit ornatus uolturios
refert
caueas extra litteris ostende reliqui uoluptas
Cbannídem fac/Iius longe pactum saltern uostram
circumducere facinora ludo par sapio uostrum
ciues factiones magni pars uterque

492 W o r d s O c c u r 3 T i m e s
abduxit aio argentario carnufex conlocjui danista
abest alibi argenteam centum conspicio darem
abii aliquam arraboni certa consulere data
abite aliter attat cetera contempla debentur
accedam allatum attuli ceteris copiait decern
Accheruntem altéra audiui ceterum coquere deinde
accipiam amabit aufer cibum cordi deliciae
adesse amabunt auribus circumspice cornicem demissis
ad finis amatorem ausim cluet credat dentes
aduecti amicae auxilio coepit crederet detur
aduenienti amice Baiiionem colas credideris dices
aduentu amittat beluam comissatum crepuit dicit
aduorsa angiportum beneficium comoediis crux dicto
aduortite antenac beneuolentem compellabo cupit dignu's
aedificare antidhac bibam concedam curare dique
agito actiquom bibere concessero curera dis
agnum anus Calidore. condimentis curo diuinis
agro apstrudam CaUicIi condiunt curram diuites
ah apstulerit canem conductus cursuram dixeram
apstuli capio congrediar custodes dixisti
aiebant aram capitis conloquar damni dixti

[ 3 5 ]
 4Ô2 "Words O c c u r 3 T i m e s — Continued
gratias lucri optutmum/ propemodum speciem
doleo
gregem maceEum optumus propero spero
dolis
gynaeceum machaera orationem prosus sponden
dolo
do'ium habeat magisque orator proxuma stas
dominum haben magnuñee oro proxumum stulta
habeto malas otiose publico su m a m
donicum
dormit habitatio malos otium puer sumes
dotis habitet maneam paenissume puero sum mis
drachumam haeret matrem paenitet pugnam sump tus
herbas matrimonium pallium pulchre super
dubitas
duint homine maxuma parata quaeris surge
dulce hominibus mel parentes quaeritas suspicer
eat honorem raendariis pañetes quaerunt tabéllis
ebrium hospes mendacium parum quaestioni tanta
ecfecta hostis mentiar paucis qu attu o r temere
ianua messis paullo queat terram
ecierri
ianuam metu pauperem quicquid tetigi
edim
ibit mihique peccaui qukum tibisi
edunt
egere ign oseas milite pecudes quidam totae
eget iflinc m ¡litis peculio quoquam tria
ehern iUorum miseram pecunia quoquo tri um
elocutus illunc morae peius ratem tuas
emoriar impera mortuis pendere recipere tuorum
empta Imperium mortuos perdas recipe tutelam
eram inaais mos perdídisti recipit uale
erus innoxium mox perdit recta uelint
eu inops mulieres perductet reddere uelit
eueniat insanum mulierum pergam regem uelut
eueniunt insidiis nate perpetuom reliquit uenalem
exemplis insipientior nato pessum reperire uendidisse
existumat interdius nauem pessumis repudium uenerit
exit vnUTta n ecau i t petas roges ueni
expeto inuenire neget Philulachetem sacruficem uenbaus
expetunt inuentum Neptune pietatem saluere ueniunt
exturbauit inuito nequior pigeat sapere uerberas
fabri ipsam neuolt piscis sauia uerbero
fabula istae noctesque placent sce\erum uestis
fabulae istunc norme plenam scelus uetera
fabulare ite nosce pone sciât ueteres
fabularier ito nosmet poplo scibam uetus
facie iubet nostram poscam scibo uicino
facturus iudicem DOS tris poscere scite uictu
factusf Iuno nouisse poseo sei uidentur
fallaciis iure nouos posset Seleucia uidet
familia iusserat nullum possies sempiternum uillaro
familiam iussero nullus posthac senecta uirgo
fassu's iussi numerum postulat sententiam uiuom
faxis laníos nummos postules serio uiuos
fecero Iaudant occasionem postulet sero uitium
feres lenonis occepisti poteris seruat ullum
fcrme lepidis occulto potior seruatum unguent a
flagitium lepidum occupatus praeceptis seruem unguBs
fori Lesbonici oculum praesente seruet uno
formido les odio praetorem seruis unus
Fortuna liberos olet primumdum simitu uoltis
fugiam liberum opino prior sinas uolumus
fustibus liceret oportere probum sola uostrorum
futurumsf ligna opperiar profectus soles uter
gerere liquet opgeruare promisit sollicitât utor
gestio lubeant opsignatas proraitte somnis utut
graphicum lubenter opgonium promittere somno uxores

1198 Words Occur Twice

abducere accepti actum adgrediar adulescentia agitat
abduceres acceptum adde adiit aduorsus agninis
abduceret accersam addideris adleçauit aduortas agundae
abeamus accerse adducam admjsit aegre agunt
abeas accessit adduxi admoenire aegrotant aiunt
abibam acdpias adeam adsiet aequius aliae
a bierit accipiat adeas adsiste aequo alieno
abire accubas adferre adsum agedum alienum
accepi accubat adferret adueniat agerem aliorum
accepit acerrume adfinem aduenire agimus aliquanto

[36]
 1198 W o r d s O c c u r Twice — Continued
aliqui auídis clamoris cupis campse faenori
alto aunculo clitellarios curas ebrius fallaciam
-amaos aunculus cogita cu rassis eccere falladas
amantum aurem cogitare curriculo ecíecero . falso
amara auris cogites dabin ecfecturum fama
amas auspicio cognatos dares ecficiam famem
amatares ausu's cognosco das ecfodiebam familiae
amatonbus au turnen t coloniam daturin edicam íamiliarem
ambas au tumo columine debetur edico farailiaribus
ambos bacchanaí coiunt deceptus edictioaem fano
ambulacrum Ballioni comedit decretum edidi fan um
ames beatus comes dedam edit fastidit
amici beneuolens comeíf dederat edixit fatere
amisisti bénigne comitia dederim educat fatetur
amoUmini bibat commendaui dedírnus eduxi faxim
amoue bibi commentusí dedistin egeris faxit
• amplexabere bibite comminisci dedíta egredere fecerit
ancillas bonaque commit tam deferam egreditur fecisset
angíporto bonos commoda deferre eire femina
ángulos bonus commode defodit eiulans fert
animai bonu-rf commutet defrudaui eloquor ' fidei
animam cadam compedis deludificatují eraere öducia
animatus cades compendi emigrauit ßduciae
demonstrauit
ánimos cáelo concede demutabo fidus
emptae
anno emuuxti fieret
Calidorum conceptis denique
annon fiunt
calidum concíliarem dent enicasso
annuos
Callicle concrepuit derisum enicem fies
annum
callidum condalium deseram eodem lodere
anu
canto condam deserunt eosdem foedus
aperi
aperis capiam coüdecet desinat erant fretus
appareat capias condidi desponde erimus fructus
appeilabo capiatur condimenta despondisse errabo frugem
appellare capillum condio deuorti erras frumenti
apscessero capiti condita dice erunt fu
apsentem caram conducibile diceret eruom fuerant
apsenti Carysto conductor dicuii t essent fuerat
apsoluam cassam confer differam esto fugiat
apsolutos castigatorem confido digitum Euclionem fugis
apsque cauere confregi dignam EucHoni fumus
apstuleras caui confregit dígnis eumpse funditus
apstuleris caussae conspectu dignumj/ eumque fustem
apstuiit caussaeí/ conspectum dignus euocem futura
aqua cautum conspicatus díscipuiis exanimatus gallo
arbitrare cedit consuadet distrahitur excruciari gallum
arbitran ceiata consulis diui exercitor gaudiis
arbitro celatum consulit diuidere existumo gere
arborem cenat consutis díuinam exite gerit
arca censeam conueniant diuitem exitium germanam
arcano censeat conueniunt diuitiis exorare gesserit
argén tari um censebam conuiuarum dixerit exorari gesta
argumento censen conuiuas dixero exoritur gladium
arte censuí conuiuis dixin exarna-uit gloriosum
artero cera copia dixisse experior gnata
artibu' cerebrum coque doce experiri grandem
artis cernitur coquinatum docta expetis grandis
aspice certi coquinum docuit expetit gulam
aspicias certiorem coquo doctos exprobras gutturem
asta cerussam coram dolet exsolatum habebo
astas ceteri corium doli exspectatus habemus
astato Charine cornix dolorem exspectetis haberem
astu Charinus corona dominus exstinguere haben
astutum Charmide coirumpit domisí exta habitare
Athenas chlamydate coruos dono fabrorum hahito
atiamento chlamydatus crapulam dormiam facerem harum
attulerit circum creaant dormiens faciamus harunc
attúlxsti circumspicedum credas dormitet faciet bastís
auaritia cita crede dormiunt facílem herba
auarua citius crederem dotaüae faciiesí hoccirte
auctox ciuibus cribrum duc faciundum honore
audacissume ciuitas crucior ducat facta« honoris
auíeren clamas cubitum ducis facti hortum
auferri clamat cult rum duorum facturura hospitem
augent ci ami tant euncti duritia factu's hospitium
clamore cupiat eae faenore hostíbus

C37:
 1198 W o r d s Occur Twice — Continue^
iamdudum iura memorem nominat paullum potis
ibis iusseram mendacia noua pauperi praecipio
ignem iuuentute mensa nouistin pauperibus praedices
ignis iuues meopte nouit pauperiem praedones
ignobilis iuzta mercatus nudius peccatis praemium
iliac labore mercedem nugari pecauisse praequam
illas labra mercedis nugator peculi praesensit
illa st labris mercimoni nullust pecuniam praestituta
illequidem lacrumas merenti nummus pedem praeterea
illisce lacrumis meres numquis peiiurum praeterire
illos laetus meriti nutricem peiorem prandium
imagine lapidem merui obiurigem pellegam primo
imaginem latum meruisti obnozius pellegere principium
imperas legionem metuas occasio st peni príorem
imperatumrt legiones metuere occidam penus probant
imperauit lepidam metuit occidis pepulit probare
imperia Lesbonicus míhiraet occidisti percontabor probiorem
impero libera mihis/ occipias percontare probis
impetratum liberare militarem occludam perconteris probos
impetraui libere mina occupabo perdere probrum
impleuisti liberi minimi occupes perdiderit prohibet
lmprobi liberis minimo ocius perdis proin
impulsu linguam minore octoginta perditum promam
incedere liquido mira odi perditus promus
incenatus litterae miror odos perduci propius
incipit litterarum misereat offendet perductorem proprium
indeque loca miseria olant perduint Pseudoluií
indicem locare misericordia olere pergin publice
indignum locaui missa oleum pergulam publicum
indiligens loces mitto omitte periclis pudeat
indoctus loci mittunt omnino periclum pudere
industria locis modí onera peñere púdico
inest locus molestos onerabo perierint pudicum
ineunte longior mulestum onustos perierit pugna
infamiam longius moles tumr/ operae periimus pulchra
infectum longum moneo opes periisti pulchrum
infeliz lubeat monere opperiri perlubens pultando
infitias lubido monitum opportune permities pultare
ingetii lubidojí montis opsignatum permitto pultas
ingere luco mora optes perpetuo purpura
inhiat lucro mora ta optestor persequi purpuram
inicere ludis moriuntur optigere peruorse purus
inimici Lysiteli mortui optigit pessumi puteo
inimicis maiore mulieri optuere pessumo putes
inopia maledictis mulierís optulit petat puteum
Inopiam males/ mulioncs optumi petiraus putus
inprobi malitia mulos opulento petito quadrilibrem
inprobior mamma-madere multas opulentus Philolachi quaerere
inprobum mammia munditiis orare Philtonis quaeritat
inprudens mancupio mundo oratio pignori quaes ti
inpune mandatum murenam oratum pinguior quaes tione
inpure mandauit narrauero Orcus piraeura quaestum
inquito mani natali ores placere qualis
inridere manta natalis ornamenta places quandoquidem
inrides manufestarium natum ornatu quanta
insciens mastigia nauci otio planissume quanto
instituí mauellem necesse pakoam plateam quantum;?
intemperiae maxumaíí necne para Plautus querere
interest mearum negas parant pluris quicquamsí
interuisam mezst neges paratus • plu rum um quidlubet
intra mecastor negó parce poeta quiesce
inueniam media nemost parcum poUicitusí quietus
inueniat medio nequeam parcus popli quippini
inuenio Megadoro nequeas parsimoniam porta quit
melior nequis participem portam quoia
louem meliora nequiter participes porticum quoiuis
ipsuSKá meliores nescias partitudo possem quonam
irem memineris nescioquem parumper postid quondam
ista meminisse nescit paru mí/ postilla quot
istius memor neue patinae postis radvcitus
isto memora nilne patinas postremum rape
itane memorant nimisque patrissat potat rapere
itur memorare noli patronus potesse ratione
iubeam memoras noluit paullisper potestate ratu'

[38]
 1198 W o r d s O c c u r T w i c e — Continue^
scitum soluta sycophan ta tuto r uisne
rectam tutum uisum
reetius scorta somnias sycopbantam
somnum sycophantari ualere uiues
red scortis
sonitu sycopbantam/ líales uiuet
reddet scortum
sorori sycophantiae ualet uiuit
reddite scripsit
spectatores sycophantiam uapulabis uiuitur
redditur scriptam uiuont
scriptum spernit sycophantias ubinam
redeat ulciscar
semel stabulum tacerc uectus
tedii uebicla ulcisci
semul Stapbyla tactioi/
redusse uehit ullo
redit senatu Stasimus talentis
uellet uüus
xefer senatum statum tali
uenalis umbia
referre sene stimulis tangere
uendas umbram
regiones senes sto tangerem uni
regionibus sentit stultitia tantis uendidi
uocare
ren untiant seque stultitiam tantisper uenis
uocas
leperio sequimini suae tanto uentrem uocat
repperisse sermo subdole tantumdem uentri uoce
repperisti sermonibus subolet teneam Venu' uocem
seruant sumboluJÍ tenebras uenusta
répudiés uociuas
seruas sume tenent uerberibus uoco
respexis
seruassint sumet teneor uerborum uocor
respice
respicias seruiam summa tenet uereor uolat
restas seruio summas tergi uestem uolentibus
seruire sumía os tergo uias uoltu
rex
seruit sumne tcrtiam uiatico uoluisse
rogitem
sescenta sumpsit tertius uicini uoluntate
sacra
seu sumptum test uicinia uorte
sacrum
saeuiter sextus superfit tetigistin uicinum uortit
saginam sicine suppetat Thensauro uicinus uosmet
saiuam siem Surorum thensauros uicísti uoster
saius Siluani surrupias tigna uictor uostras
salutat Simia surrupui time uictum uotat
salutis similem surrupuisti tis uictumas uotet
Simoncm suscenseo tolerare uigila urbem
sanus
sitis suscensui tot uile usui
sapiens
sitne suscita tota uincam utamur
sapit
sodalem suspendere totidem uincunt utendam
sarcinam
solere suspicarier trabo uini utere
satine
solide suspicio triduom uiris utimur
sceiestiorem
solio suspicionem Trinummo uirtutem utram
scibas
sciet solitum suspicor turba uirum
scires soiitun sutor turbare

6429 Words Occur Once

abituru's accubans adaxint adfero adiurasti
abalienare
accubantis adcurare adferrier adiutorem
abalienarier abitus
abrípite accubes adderes aàîeit adiutrice
abalienatur
abrogant accubitum addidero adfertur adiutum
abdiderunt
accubo addidit adferto adiuua
abducant abusus
accumbas addito adfigi adiuuabere
abducas accederes
accedito accumbe additum adñnes adiuuare
abducat
acceperam accumbere additur adfini adiuuas
abducet
acceperim accurarier adduc adfinitate adlegatu
abducito
accurassis adducerem adfini um adlicere
abducitur acceperis
accusas adducite adflictas adloquar
abducturum accepto
accusem adduint adflicter adloqui
abducturus acceptor
accusites addunt adfligi admemordit
abduxisse accersat
accersunt acerui adduxit adfuerunt adminicium
aberat admittam
aberis accesseris aceti adegero adglutinant
accessi acidissumi ademit adgredíunduií admonitus
abes admordere
abeundum accessio acie aderat adhibendurí
accheruntis acrem adero adhibet adorna
abeunt
accidisse acriorem adesses adhibete adpetit
abierunt
accidunt acriter adessunuit adibit adplicare
abhinc adplaudere
abibo acciperem acrius adeste adigit
acta adeundi adii adportas
abiectas accipi'
accipient actam adeunt adiisse adposita
abiero adprime
abiisse accipies actast adfatim adiisti
acturu's adíectat adimerem adprobare
abiisses accipite
acturus • adfer adimit adpropera
abiisti accipito
aculeus adferat adit adsedero
abimus accolae
acutis adferet adiungit adsentabor
abiret accommodem
adaeque adferetur adiunxeris adsentari
ahit accuba

[39]
 1198 W o r d s O c c u r Twice — Continue^
adsentatrix agitant amoliri apsens Asia auidos
adsequere agninam amolirier apsinthium Asiam auidum
adsequitur agno amore apsolue as ¡n¡ auis
adsidam agnos amores apstandus/ asinis auius
adsidui a g o us amori apsterreres asinos auo
adsiduo agrumque amorin apstine asinus auom
adsint agundam amouerem apstineant aspee ta auorsari
adsistite ahena amouerim apstineas aspellit auortere
ad sit ahenum amoueris apstinebit asperneris auosque
aduenae aibas amoues apstineo aspexerit áureos
aduenam aiebas amplectare apsünere aspexi aureum
aduenat albitudinem affiplexator apstrudat aspicedum aurichalco
aduenerit alere ampliuscule apstrudebat aspicere aurium
aduento aleret angina apstrudere aspiciam auruíex
aogmam apstrusisse aspicio aurumque
aduentum Alejandrina
angiporta asseres ausculta bo
adulescentiae Aiexandrum apstulero
aflguillai/ auscultan*
adulescen tiaeque algu apstulerunt assus
aiiimae auscultas
adulescentis aliato apstulisti ast
axiimati
adulescentulum alicubi apsumpta astate auscúltate
anime
adulescentuluii aliéis apsumpti astitisse auscultes
animis
adulescenturn alienas apsumptum astíterunt ausum
animumque
adulta aliena tur aquai astrinxeris ausus
axiimu'
adultam alienis aquilinis as t u t e autumas
animuii
aduocare aliouorsum anne ara atríensem autumaui
aduocato aliqua annis Arabia atríensi autumet
aduorsari aiiquantisper annona Arabiam atriis auxiii
aduorsatrix aliquos anno rum Arabiaîi atrum auxiliarier
aduorsatus aliquot annus araneas attactam auxilium
aduorsis alis arvtecesseris arañéis attatae babae
aduortam aliunde antemnas arbiter Attíca Bacchas
aduortes allata anteueniat arbi trabare Atticam balineas
sduortetis alia tai/ anteperta arbitramini Atticis balineis
aduorti aliatuí/ antepotens arbitrantur attigatis BaUione
aduortitis alJigem anteueni arbitrarem attinere Ballionia
aduortito alteras anteueniam arbitrarer attingere BaUionis
aduorto alterca tío Anthrax arbitrarier attuleris ballista
aedem alternae antidibo arbitraris auaritiam barba
aedificantur altero antidit arbitratus auctorem barbare
aedificatio altrim Antimachus arbitremini auctoritas barbarus
aediâcato altrinsecus antiqua arbitremur auctorque basílica
aedificiis alumnus antiquae arbitren tur aucupes basilicum
aedilium aluom antiquam arbitrer aucupet bat
aegritudine amabas antiquis arbore audacem bellator
aegritudinem atoantes antiquo arbores audacia bellatores
aegritudo a mantis antiquos arce audacia;/ bellum
aegroti amarem anu* arcessam audacior belua
Acgypto amaret anui arcessas audax beluae
Aegyptum amarumque anuli arces sebat audeam beluata
aemulos amata aperient arcessere audeant ben ef acta
aequa amato aperio arcesserem audeat benefactis
aequali aniatori aperitin architectonem audebit beneficio
aequalis amatur aperiuntur arculam audias beneuolente
aequiperabilis ambabus apertas arcularii audiens beneuolentibus
aequiperet ambae apiscitur arcum audies beneuolentis
aequissumum ambages Apollo ardus audíetis benigneque
aequomque ambiguo argentaria audireque benigniorem
aequos ambiguom argentata audisses benignitate
aerumnas ambitio apparere argentea auditin benignius
aerumnis ambobus apparet argenteis auditum benignum
Aeschinum ambulatis appellabis argenteos auditores betam
Aeschrodora amburet appellassea argentos/ audiueris bibe
aestate arnicas appellat argutusf audiuimus biberis
aetatis amicissumam appellaueras argumen t a q u e audíuisti bibes
aetatuia amicissume appellem Argus audíuit bibisti
aetatulam amicitia appétit argute auem bibíto
aeternum amicorum apponam argutias auferas bibitur
afluam amíctus appone argutum auferat bibunt
agant amicu's apponito arma auferre biíariam
Agathoclem amicuí/ apponunt armis auferres bilingui
Agathocli amiseris apscedam artae aufert bitere
agebat amiserit apscedere artes aufugiat blanda
agetis am i tto apscedite artibus aufugisse blande
agi amnem apse ess erit artoptam augebis blandiloquentu-
agitandumj/ apsconditum asellum aui lus

[40]
 5429 W o r d s O c c u r O n c e — Continued
blandís cantas cauto circumspectat comis concepisti
blsuditerne cantat cautos circumspectatrix comítatem conciet
blanditur cantharus cecidit circumstabant comitatí conciiiabulum
blandios cantheríis cecidero circumuectus comitem conciliati
blandus cantores Cecropio drcumuortant commeatum conciliauerit
can trices cedis circumuortor commemini concilles
blandurf
caperratam cedodum eis commeminit concinnat
blitum
borabax capessere cedunt cisteüatrices commémora ccnclaui
bonan capesses celebra citis commemorabilem conclauia
bonasque capitale celem citu si commémorant concluium
bone capital i celere cjuem commémoras conclusos
bonisne Capitolio celerem ciui commémora turn concordior
bonítf eapitur ceJeri ciuis commemoraui concexit
bonumíí capiundas celerior ciuitate commendaueras concredere
capram celeriter clama commendauit concrederet
bos
bouem capsit celerius clamitatíoíi commensi concredidi
bracchia capta celes clamo commentu's concreditum
bracchium captandums/ celo clamores commentus concreditunu/
brassicam captas celocem clara commerci concreduo
captat cenaene claram commeream concubinatum
breuis claro
breuem capti cenandum commenta concubium
clarum commeritum concustodiui
bubula cap ti 0 cenas
claudam comiùerui condemnabo
bubulam captioni cenati
claudus cocdiam
bubulcitarier captum cenaverat commigrauit
c lauem condicio
bubuli capturum cenavero comminatu's
clauim condicione
bubulis captus cenes comminlscere
clauis condidici
bubus cara censebit comminiscor
clementi condigne
bucaedae carbunculus censebo commissurum
clepe
bustirape carcerem censet commiztam condimentumsí
cliens
c' carent censetur commodi conditam
clientes
caculam careo censione commodis condite
clitellas
cadas carinarii censu dueant commodius conditum
cadere canora census cluear commonerier conditumsí
cado carissumum centuriata cluent commoni condiuero
cadum carissumus¿ cepero cluentibus commonitu' condormiuimus
caeca camaria cepisse clupeum commoror conducatur
caecus camarium cepit clupeus commune conducebas
caedere camuficium cepolendrum coagmenta commun em conduce
caedite caros ceram cecáendrum communi conducta
caedito carum Cercobuius coctam communia conducta^/
caedundum caruisse Cerconicus coc taque communicesque conductum
caeno cassidem Cererin coctumrí communis conducunt
caenum caste Cereris cogatis commutauit condulpicant
caeruleos castigabilem certast cogere commutemus condus
calamita tis castigabit certior cogit commuto conduxi
calamo castigare certis cogitando comoedia conectite
calator castigatum certissumus cogitas comparebas confeci
calceolaríi castrandum certius cogítate comparem conferam
calet casum certos cogitato compares conferemus
Calidori catam certusí cogitatumrf comparet confessu'
Calídoro catapiratería cerussa cogitaui compecti coDÍessu's
Calidorus cataractria ceterae cogite t compecto confestim
callent cati ceteros cognati compeUarem conñciet
callet catum cetum cognatum compella t conficimus
Callias catus Chares cogn ornen ta compellit confidentem
Callidamatem caudicali Charrnidatus cognosce compendium confidenter
Callidamati caueam Charmidei coimus compilor confidenterque
Callidemides caueant Charmidi colere complexui/ conñdentia
callidiorem cauebo cblamyde colitis compluris confidentiae
Callimarchus cauendum cblamydem Collabus compositumj/ confidentiloquius
Callinicus cauendumrí chorago eolio comprehendite confidit
CaUiphone caueo Chrysidem Collum compressiones confige
CaUippus cauerem cibo colorem compressisse confirmabimus
callum caueres cibují colorís comprimere confirmare
Campanica cauero cícímandro columen compñmenda confit
Campans cauet CUiciam comburere comprimor confiteor
cínaedus comedent comprimunda coníodere
campos cauiiiam
caupones círciter comederit tonare confringit
cáncer
causificor circumcirca comedis conatus confudit
candef acere
circumdari comedunt concastigabo confugere
candida caussam
circumdücam comesse concedere confugiant
candido caussasi
rircumducat comessum concelebrare confugisti
candor em cante
circumduce comessurus concenturiat congerronem
cantantem cautiojí
cantari cautiores circumspectabam concenturio congerrones

[44]
 6429 W o r d s Occ O n c e — Contin
cupidum deridebo
congerunt contemplât costae decorari
cupiebam
congestae contemplo cottabi dedecorant derideo
cupienter
congestum conteram cottidianum.T¿ décorum derideri
cupies
congialem conterere cottidie decretumî/ deridiculum
cuppes
congliscat contiens coxerint decumus deripiamus
curabit
congrediri contigit crassam decumo desedisti
curabitur
congrio continens crassas decus deserat
curabo
congrione continere crassis dedas deserere
curant
con g r a m contione crassitudine curantur dederam deseres
cohibcrent controliam crastini c u r a ta dederamque deseret
conicere controuorsia crastinum curatam deducam deseruerunt
coniecit contuderunt creas curate defaecato deseruit
coniectura contui crebri curatioí/ defaecatunu/ deseruitque
coniuent contumeliam crebro curatum defendat desideres
coniunctus conturbabunt credatis curaui defetigo desidia
conlaudant contutu credibile curer deficatam desidiam
conlaude conuenerat crediderim curiae deformata desine
conlegit conuenero credidero curialium defossa desiste
conlibitum conueni credier curio def rudes desistum
c onligatis conueniam crédito curiosam defrustratur despoliatoc
conligi conueniat creditum curis defrutum despondeat
conlinunt conueniebatne crediturus curre degam desponderi
conlocata conuenimus creduas dego despondes
conlocaui conuenire crepent currendumsí dehibuisti despondi
conlocem conuenisse creta curren ti dehinc despondisti
coalocet conuenistin crimen curriculum deices despondit
conlocutu's conueniundujf crimina curro deiuuare desponsatam
conlutulentet conuentum criminaret cursim deis desquama
conqueritur conuicium crinis cursori delatum destinant
conqueror conuiuae Crinnus cursu delectauerit destinat
conquiescere conuiui croccibat curuo délicat u's destinatam
conquiestito conuocaui cruci custodem deliciis destiteris
conquiniscet conuocem crudabiliter custodelam deliciisque destitisti
cooquiniscito conuoco crucíatu custos deliquimus desubito
conrepserit copi crucíatum cyathum deliquit deterior
cooscius copiaeii cruciatur dabam Delphio deteriorem
conscribito copiam cruda dabimus Delphis deterrui
conscriptam copias crudum dabisne deluctaui deterruma
conscriptis copulantur cruminam dabunt deludam detexit
consectarier coquas crura dabuntur deludís detexitque
consenserunt coquant cruricrepidae damnare demás detexundam
consequere coquat cubandums/ damnoseis demeret detraxe
conseruauit coquinare cubat damnum demeritas detrudi
conseruomm coquite cubem danistam demerui detrusti
consident coquo' cubiculum danisticum deminuam detuli
considero coquont cubilare dant demonstra tae deturbauit
consign abo corbulis cucule daret demonstretis deu'
•consignemus corcotarii cuculus daretur dempserat deueneris
consiliis corcotis cudere Dareum demumí/ deuenires
consiliri corculum culcitulam datam demutant deuincis
consistam cordique culina datare demutauit deuincit
consistunt coriandrum cu liéis dataria denegem deuinxere
consociauit Corinthiensem cu Ileo datas denis deuorari
consolatur corio culpan datat denos deuoravi
conspexeris cornibus culpent datis dentatum deuoret
conspexi cornu culpes datu denumerato deuorsum
conspicari cornua cummam datum's denumerauero deuorteris
conspicere corolla cumque datus deorsum deuortor
conspicoï coioüas cumulatissume dea deorum dexteram
•constituatur coronam cunctae debebas deosque dexteras
constitueram coronas cunctam debent depellar diabathrarii
constrictis corpora cunctis debeo dependí Diapontius
constringam corporis cunctos debere deperit dicebat
consudaueris corporum cunila deberet deplorabundus dicendumrf
consuetudine corpus cunis debes deprome dicet
consuetudines corrigere cupi' deblaterauisti deponat dicetis
consuetum corrigis cupiam debuit deportatum dicimus
consulas corrumpat cupias decedam deportere didsne
consuiui cormmpe cupidae decent deposiuit dicitur
contabefacit corrumpi cupide deceret depromi dicta tor
contechnatus corrumpiter Cupidinem decidunt depromptum dictatorem
contemnam corrupisse cupido deciens depugnat dictitatur
contemnit corruptor Cupido declaramus deputas dictu
contemnor coruom cupidos declinaui derepente díctums<

[42:
 6 4 2 9 W o r d s O c c u r O n c e — Continued ,
-dictura doctior eatvdem elleborum essu èxistuma
dicturum doctlr/ eant eloqui este existumas
dídici doctius eapse elotnm estur exît
diebus docuisset eaque eludificatus euasurui/ exmouetis
^íecuiae doctrinam eatenus elue euenat exoptatissume
{jjei doctus ebeat eluito eueniant exoptem
^ierecta docuit ebibere emam eueniet exoriatur
'di erecta dolent ebibit emat euenisse exorarier
¿jerecti dolerem ebore eme eueniunt exordiri
différant doleres ebrio ementitus euentus exorem
cilarf doletne ebrios emeram eugepae exomas
cílis doliarem ebriuíí emeras eundem exornata
íHgitis dolium ebur emeres Eunomia exoraatis
• ; dígitos dolore eburata emerit eunt exornatum
dignissumumj/ dolose eccam emeritum euoca exornauero
dilectum doloso?/ eccas emicare euocabo exornetur
dfluont domare ecciílam emigra euocadum exomo
dimidiam domini eccilíum emigrauímus euocarem exortus
-dimidiumj/ domiusque eccos emisimus euocate exossabo
dimminuam domos/ ecfeceris emisset euoluam. exótica
Dionysia dona ecfecissem emissiciis euomunt expediam
©ipíuio donabo ecfecisset emistin euortat expediant
Dircam
donatis ecfectum emite euortisset, expelle
disceptator
dormías ederantur emittam euortit expensi
disddxum
dormiat ecfercite emittar exactus expenso
disciplinas/
dormibo ecferendum emittat cxaedificaret experirier
discipulam
dormitaren t ecferet emitiere exaedificatas expertem
dasaputina
dormitas ecíert emitti exaedificauisset expertus
discipulinae
dormita tor ecficere emittis examussim expetam
discípulos
disco dormitatur ecficio emolumentum exaudiat expetant
dorsum ecfici' emoriri exballistabo expetas
disconducit dotata ecfitít emortualem excesseris expetebant
discrucior dotatam ecfoderis emortuam excetra expetessam
discunt dotes ecfodio emortui exciderunt expiare
discupio dotibus ecfugi emortuom exciet expietis
disperdidit drachuma ecfugias emortuos excipies explica tam
dispertirem drachuraarum ecfugiet empti exdssos exploratorem
dispertirier drachumis ecqua emptujn exduit expolitae
dispertiuisti drachumissect ecquam enica exclamai expoli un t
dispudet dromo ecquas enicet exclamem expostulare
disputa duarum ecquem enitor excludito expotum
disputaui dubiís edemus enixe excruciant erpressam
disputa ta dubitem edentulae enumquam excrucior exprobrem
-disque ducas edes enuntiarem excucurrerit expugnatum
•dissignata ducant edi eon excurato expugnauit
dissimulabam ducendi ediscat eosne excusare expugno
dissimulabo ducenos edisne eost excuscmus exputem
-dissimuiando ducentae edixeram epistulasque excutedum exquaere
dissuadetur ducerem edoceam epithecam excutiunt exquiratur
d i s trac do duces edoceas epulae exdorsua exquire
«fótrasissent duci edu ctam equidem exeat exquirendi
distringam ducíto egerínt equo exedint exquirere
disturb ducitur egerit equos exegerim exradicitus
ditiis ductarem egestas eradicarier exegit exsignauero
ditior ductarier egetne erepsisti exemi exsiliatis
diuidam ducunt egetur erile exempla exspectabam
diuides ducuntur egj erilio exemplo exspectare
diuidi duim egisti erilis exercent exspectat
diuis duit egit eriperes exercitum exspectatior
diuitior dulcía egredior eripis exercitus exspectes
diao dulciferum egrediuntur eripuit exeundum exspecto
diuom duobus eidem errasse exheredem exspuant
diuorse duos eine errata exhibam exstat
diuorti duplicis eiulas erret exhibent exstillent
diutius dura eiusrnodi erro exhibes exstinctum
dixerim duraui elabitur errare exibo exstingui
dizimus durius electili erumne exigas exstruito
dixis dux elegans erunt exigat exsulatum
dizistis duxeris Eteusium esca exigere exsurge
dixtine eademque eliciunt escás exii exsurcexi
doceas eadems/ eligí escendisti exillis extempulo
docent eaepsae elinguandam esne exin extentatum
docet eamque elixus essetne exinde exterge
doctaca eamus elíeborosusí essitabunt exis extimueras

C 4 3 ]
 6429 W o r d s Occur O n c e — Continued
extis feras fluont fuitne glandium hereditas
extolli feratur foco fulguritae gloriae heres
extollunt ferebat focum fullo gnaruris hesternum
extrudit ferentarium fodi fullones graderere hiberna
extrusisti feret foedarim fullonius gradibus hicin
extudi feriam foede fulmentas gradietur hieine
exturba ferias follem fundamento gradu hiemem
exturbasti ferio fontem fundamentum Graece hilari
exuuiis ferit forabunt fundes grandinem hilarus
exussum ferocem forent fundis grandibo Hilurica
faba ferratile formal fundus gtandior hircum
faber ferreis formicis fungaris graphice hircus
fabris ferret formidas fungatur graphicus hirquina
fabrum ferriteri formidolosas fungi gratiae hiscunt
fabulabimur ferriterium fors fungino gratiasque historiam
fabulatasi ferritribaces fortasse fungit gratiis hiulca
fabulor ferrum fortem furandum gratis hocine
facete fertur fortis furatum gratulator hodie;/
facetis feruefaciunt fortiter furcilles g ra turn holera
faciebat feiuont fortuito furibus grauabor holitores
faciem festínate fortunabunt furinum grauaris bolus
facient festine fortunam furum grauem hominirf
facÜJumum festinet fortunas furtificas graui' homo's
facimus festino fortunatam fusti grauida homunculi
facin festo fortunataque galea grauior honeste
facinorum feta fortuna tas Gallicis grauiter honestet
facitis 6am fortúnate gallina grauius homo
factam fiamus fortunatorum gallinácea greges Honor
factio fictor fortunatus gallinacio Grumio honori
factiosum fictorem fortunatu's gallinacius gurguliorf honos
factius fjcturae frangat gallinae gustare hora
facto;/ fideli frangere gallus gustato horriola
factu fideliam frangí tis garriré gustauerit horridularum
facturi fidelis frate gaudeant gutta horti
facunde fideli tasque fratrem gaudeas guttam hospite
faeceos fideli tatem fratri gaudent gymnasium hospiti
faenoris fideliter fraude gaudere gymnastica hostias
faenusculum Fidi fraudem gaudia habeant hosticas
falas fidicinas fraudulenta gaudüsque habebam bostilibus
fallaciae fido fraudulente gaudium habebis hostisne
fallere fierem fraus gemiti habemur huccine
fallis fierent fricari gemitu habeon huiusmodi
faUunt fieres frígida genera habitas humani
falsa filias frit genere;/ habitatum humanis
falsidicum finem frons generibus habitauit huncine
falsis firma frontem generum habitent iaceam
falson firmiora frugalior geniumque habiti iaceant
famae firmiorem frumentariis gens habiturum iacebis
famas firmitate frumento gentium;/ habituru;/ iacentem
fame firmi tatem frumentum genua habitus iacentis
fameque firmum frustramini genuerunt habuerim iacere
fames firm us frustrationes gerat habuisti iacitur
famigeratio fissile frutex geratur habuitne iactari
famigeratori fissorum fuant gerebat haecine iamque
famigeratorum &xae fuas geretur haecj/ ibam
familiariter flabelliferae fuco germana habae ibas
fartim flagitabere fue gerrae hahahae ' ibat
fas flagitare fueram gerundum hallec ibir/
fatear flagitator fueris Geryonaceo hamum ibitur
fauces flagiti fuerunt gessi hapalopside ictus
faucis flagitio fugam gessisse hara idcirco
fausta flagris fugat gessit hariolus identidem
faxem flagritribae fuga tis gestam harpaga ideo
febrim flammarii fugere gestant harpagatum idne
fecerim flare fugereque gestandu;/ harpagauit idoneum
fecerunt fleam fugin gestas Harpage idoneus
fecimus •fleas íugit gestasl baipago lasonem
felat flentem fugitat gestire Hedylium ignarissumis
feliciterque fleueris fugitiuam gestis herbasque ignaui
felix fioccum fugitiue gestores herbis ignauia
femin as floreas fugitiuo;/ gignitur hercle;/ ignauiam
feniculum fluctibu' fugitorem glabrae Herculem ignauissumus
ferant fluctus fugiunt glabriorem Hercules ignauom
ferare fluctusque fuisti gladio Herculi ignauos

[443
 6429 W o r d s O c c u r O n c e — Continued ,
-jgnorandurf incommodi íniurium integumentum iocus laetitia
gnlgnosco incommoditates iniuste intellegara Iónica laetitias
r^gnota incommodum inlexit intellegas Ioue laeto
jgnotam inconciliare inlocabilem intellegere ipsissumus laeua
inconciliastin inluuies intellegis ipso lacuam
"Hffcet inconsultu inmanem intellegit ipson lamberas
increpitauit inmemor intempestiuos ira lamentare
"ílianc lanarius
1 íllef/ incumbat inmemorem intende iram
incursent inmoene interbibere irasci latiii
UJidnej/
incus inmortale interbitat irati languorem
ifflic'í/
incuses inmortalia intercedat irato linterna
lllisí incutíes inmortalis intercepi iratum lapides
aioc indagator ínmundus interduim ires lapidi
Imago indaget inmuni interdum iret laqueo
Imber indaudisse inmunis interfecero isque Larem
imbre indaudiuerit innocentem interfjciant isse large
-¡¿ibremque indicabis inopem interfieri ist largiri
ímbres indicant inopia^ interibí istacin largiter
4mbncesque indicare inpia interiit istacine largitu's
ímbrim indicassis inpium interimam istest Lari
imbuas indice inportunam interminatusí istiusmodi Iaruae
ynmigrat indidem inpoti intermissum istocine lasciuiae
íjmmgraui indidi inpransus intermortui istorum laserpici
inmutare indidit inproba interpellatio itan lassus
^mmutassis indignis inprobae interpolare iterant late
impeliere indipisces inprobe interpoles iterari latebis
imperabo indipiscor inprobiores interp retari iterum latebricolarum
impera ta indue ti inprobissumum interpretes itidemque latebris
-imperator indoles inprudentein interrogare itinera latebrose
imperatum indomito inprudenti interrumperc ituruí* latent
ímperauerim indotata inpudens interstringam iubeat latera
imperes indotatam inpudice interuias iubebis lates
ímpetus indotatas inpurae interuorteret iubebo Iatitabat
imperio induitur inpura-te intestina iuben latiu'
imperiosus indunt inpuris intestinis iubent latrocinatum
imperitas indusiarii inque instituta iuberes latu
impertió indus triae inquinaui intolerabiles iubeto latuit
-impertit industriis inquit intolerandum iucundumíí lauabo
impetrabilis indus trior inrideas introiérit iudex lauat
impetrabit induxeris inrideat intuli iudicare lauatio
impetrare induxerunt inridet intuor iudicium lauationera
iiopetrari inriqua iudico lauatum
in' inuasit
impetrassere inueneris iugis laudari
inepte in ructas
impluat laudas
ineptus insaniam inuenerit iuisse
impluit laudasse
ineusebeme insaniaeque inuenero iunculae
imponam laudauisse
infamis insanin inueni iurando
imporias laudem
infecta insanis inuenias iurandum
imponentur
infectores insatietatibus inuenies iurauistin laudent
imposisse
infensae inscendam inuenietis iuratori laudis
impulsor
inferi insciente inuenimus iuratus laudo
impulsore
impune inferiorem inscita inuenires iussisse Lauerna
inanem infert inscite inuenisse iusta laui
inaniis infidelis inscitissumus inuenisti iustus lauis
inanilogistae infidum inscribit inuento iuuabo lauit
incedo inñt insepultum inuentu iuuas lautaque
incedunt infortunio inseruibis inuenturum iuuerit lectae
incenati infortunium inseruire inuentu's iuuentis lectisterniator
incendes infumo insidiantur inuestigare . iuuentutem lecto
incendor ingenia insimulas inuideat iuxtaque lectus
inceptat ingenuom insipiens inuident labella lectusí
incerta ingerimus insipientiaj/ inuidere labellis legam
incerti ingredere inspectas inuides labitur legeiit
incerto ingrediri inspec tasque inuidia laborent legerupa
incertumíí ingreditur insperata inuidus labores legerupam
incessi inhiauit inspice inuisam labori legioni
incidí inhonestis inspiciat inuises laboris legis
indpissis inibis instipulatus inuitet labos lemniscos
incitas inicit instrenuos inuoca Lacina lenam
inclementer iniecistí instruere inuoco Laconicam lenoniam
inclutae iniimus Ínsula inuolem Iacrumam lenonium
incohatam inimico Ínsulas inutilem lacrumans lenoniumí/
incoiae inimicus insulsum iocaris lactibus lenonius
incommode iniquióre insuper ioculo laetantem lenonum
iniuria integra iocum laetiñcantur lepidas*

C 45 3
 6429 W o r d s OccurO n c e— Continued ,
meministin mimtare mordicibus
lepidi \uc'i maVi&cus
meminit minor morer
Iepidissume lucrifugas malim
memorarier minusculum mori
Iepidissummn luctator malique
memorat mirabilis morigerae
Jepido luculentum malitiam
memorato mirare morigeru's
lepidus lucus roalitias/
memoret miran morior
leto ludam malorum
memoriam miremini morologis
leuem ludere malumque
leues ludibundus malum;/ men mirimodis moros
mendacem mi rum;/ morosos
leuiorcm ludicram malu;/
libella ludlficabo mammicula mendaciloquius mis mors
mendaciloquom Misargyrides morsiunculae
libellai ludificat mandasse
mendax miscent mortales
libellam ludificatorem mandata;/
mendicabula misceres mortarium
libello ludificatu' mandatus
liberam ludvficatust mandatus/ mendicare misces mortem
libérant ludificauerit maneat mendice misera mortua
mendicis miserae mortuam
libérasse luditicetur manebo
mendico miseras mortuo
liberasso ludimus manere
mendicus misereret mostra
libera;/ ludiu;/ manesne
mens misereri mostrare
libérât ludus manicas
mensam miserescat moueant
liberate lumbrice maniplatim
liberaui lupos mansi mense mÍ5eri moues
liberet lupus mantant mensulam miseriae mouet
liberorum luscus manubrium mensum miseras mucci
liberosque lustrantur manufesta mentiré miseritumji muía
mentís miserius mulcari
libertam lutitant manulearii
libertas luto manuleatam men ti tu;/ miseros mulcet
meosque miserrume muli
librara luto;/ manum;/
mequidem miserrumeis mulierculam
libro lutum manuplares
mera miserrumus mulieremque
licentiam iuxantur manuplaris
licetne Luxuriae mare mera;/ mi se rum;/ mulsi
mercatum misi multabo
licetque Lyconides mari
mercatura misisse multae
lictum;/ macchaera maria
lignean maccidem maris mercaturan misissem multam
mercede;/ misisset multasque
limbularü Macedoni maritumis
limen Macedonia Massici mercimonio missus multauit
liaeam Macedoniensem mastigiae mercuí misti muí ti
merear mittatur multiloquom
Unguis Macedonius materiae
merendam raitteres multipotenti
lin teones macérant matronae
meiens mitteret multoque
linteum macero matronarum
linum macet matronis merere mittimus muñera
meret mittis munerigerulí
linquere Machaerio matula
liqueant machinas matulam meretricis mittit murmurât
liquida mactant matura meretricium mixtum murobatbarii
liquidu-r/ mactari maturam meretur modesti murrinam
liquitur macto maturate merita modestia murum
litationem madeam mauelim meritam modes tiam musice
litem madefactatis mauelis meritus modicis mussari
litteram madent mauelit meritu;/ moenia mussitabas
litteras madeo mauis meruerunt Molas mutabit
litterasque madet mauolo meruisse moles tam mutam
locassem madide maxumas merum moles tiaeque muttire
locassim madidum maxumi messem molestu's mutuam
locata madulsam maxumi;/ messim molestu;/ mutuis
locos maerens meai meteie molles mu tumi f
loco;/ maerore mean metimur mollior myropolae
locuples maeroris meaque metit moUiter nac
Iocutus maestitiaeque Medea metuant mollitiis nactus
longae maestitudoque mediam metuculosa molocinarii naenia
longi maesturi medicabo metuebam mone nanctu's
Iongissuma mage medicamento metuenda moneas nare
longo magisterio medico metuis monendu's narrabit
loquaces magnas meditabar metus monet narrabo
loquendi magnisque meditabor meu's monstra narras
loquentis magnuâcus meditati migrare monstrare narrat
loquerer magnus medita tu m migrat monstres narrato
loqueris maiiores mcditatus minin montem narraui
lora malaque medullitus mi lia montes narret
loris malcdicis mehercle miliens moramur narro
lubeat malefacta Melinum militariis morare natalem
lubentissumo maie fi ce mellam militaris moratur nati
lubitum maléficos mellillae militem moratus natu
lubuit maleficura memento müuinis morbo natura
lucem maleque meminerunt miluom morburn naui
lucernam malesuada meministi miluos morbus nauis

C46D
 6429 Words Occur Once — Continued
nouam obrepat pari tas
ûebuJam onerem optumis
obrepseris opturat parricida
aecdum nouarura oneris
nouas obrepsisti opulentiae parsi
âecessitas onus
obsonas operaes/ opulentiores parsimonia
iiecuilum nouercam
J,. : obuenerit parsimoniae
noueris operamque opulentissumus
obuoluto operas/ orabo parsis
"'negabo nouerisne
nouerit obuortat operi orant parsissem
negauit
nouicium occasiuncula operiri orasque parta
negiegens
; »Regentes nouorum occedamus
occepistis
operito oratione partas
Beglegentiam nox opibus orationis parte
éegleçere noxia occepit opifex oratios/ particeps
. aegotiis occep turns/ opinione orauit partura

i
nu
negotio nubant occessit oporteat ordinem parturit
negotiosus/ nubent occideret opperiam orditur parua
negotis/ nucem occiderit opperiare ordo paruis
negotiums/ nuda occidimus opperibor ore paruisti
.íu' occidit
lient nugacissume opperire orgiorum paruolus
Neptuni nugae occidor opperitui oritur paruom
Neptuno nugamini occipiam opperitus oriundi paruoms/
nequams/ nugare occipiat opplebo ornatum pascite
-. nequaquam nugatorem occipítio oppletae ossa passim
. nequeat occisa

I
: nequeunt
nugatori oppletus ostendam passum
nugatorias occisus opponam ostenta rier pastum
Neri occlusa ostendi patagiarii
nugatorium Opportunitas
neruo occlusae ostentat pateant
nugatur opportunius
nugigerulis occlusioremque opportunum ostio patefeci
nesdat nugis occlusii opportnnus otiosse patere
nescioquid nulli occulant oppressiunculae otiosus paterer
nescioquo nuUiw' occultabo opprimât oues paternam
aesciunt nullums/ occultandaes/ opprimitur ouis paterni
neutrubi numeras occultatum opprobra pacem paterque
nidoricupi numera tae occultassis opprobrarier pacisci patibulatum
nihilís/ numeratis occuitum oppugnando pacta patientia
nimiae numeratum occulunt oppugnas pactam patientissumums/
nimias nummis occupassis opsaeptas/ pactas/ patinis
nimioque nummorum occupato opscurasse pactionem patior
nimirum numnam occupatu's opsecraúeram paedagogus patiunda
niteant numqui occupauit opsecrauisset paenulasí patiundums/
nitidior nundinales/ occupias opsecrauit palams/ patres
nitidiuscule nuntiaret occurrit opsequentem pallam patria
nftidiusculum nuntias occurro opsequentis pallas patrium
nitorem nuntiate ocelle opsequi pallío patrone
nituntur nunties occlJo op se rendo palliolatím patrono
niue nuntiet oceliu's opseri pallíos/ patronum
aobilerf nuntietur oculata opseruabo palpum pauca
nobilis nuntii oculeus opseruauit panem paucas
nobiscum nuntium oculicrepidae opseruemus pañis pauciores
noceas nupsísti oculisque opsessor panticesque pauciorum
noceat nupta oculus opseueris pantopoüum paucorum
nocet nuptiae oderit opsidione papaueFem paue
noctem nusquams/ odiosas opsignatam papillarum paullulum
noctes nutrice odiossaeque opsignato parabit pauperant
noctis nutrix odiosus opsisti parabo pauperculum
noenum obambulatum odorem opsit parare pauperioris
nolebam obdormiui odores opsonate parasite pauperiorum
tiolint obducam offendam opsanari parasitos pauperis
nolit obest officio opsonauit parasitus pauperrumum
nolui obicere offigantur opsoni parat paupertate
nominabo obicias offudam opsoniumque paratae paupertatem
üomini obicitur offusam opstant paratas/ pauperum
nonum obiciunt oggerunt opstinauit paratis pauxillo
noram obiectare ohe opstringit paratragoedat pauxillulo
ooscitat obiectas olent opstrinxero paratum paiurillum
nosco obiectasí oleo optegere paraui peccarim
cosque obiectent oles optempérem parcere peccata
nosse obiectes oliui optemperas parcior peccatum
obiurgandus oliuom optines parcissumum peccauisti
nostramo obiurgans Olympico optio parcunt pectori
nostri oblectem omine optrudere parent peculiaris
nostrorum oblinam omittis optrunco parerem pedisequa
üostros/ obiitum ómnibus/ optuerier pari pedísequos
nota obnoxios onerabi' optumam pariant peiiurare
üotis obnoxíosae onerat optumas parietem peiiurauisti
üotisque obojuisti onere optumas/ parietum peiiure

C47]
 5 4 2 9W o r d s O c c u r O n c e — Continued
pergite petet pluma pótate precator
penun
pergitin petis plúmbeos p o t a tum prehendam
peiiurissume
pergraecaminei petitum plumbeum potem prehenderit
peiiurius
pergraecamini Phanisce plura poterat prehendunt
peiius
pergraecari pharetram pluribus poteriís prehensi
peior
pergraphicus Phiiemo plurimis poterit premam
Peliam
pergunt Philemoni pluris poterunt pretium
pellego
perhibeatur Philippeum plurumae potestas pretium;/
pellcrem
pericli Philippus plurumi potestatem primaria
pellis
periclum;/ Philolache plurumis poti primoribus
pellucet
periclo Philolachei plurumos potiatur primus
pendam
periculo Philolachesne plusque potiorem principi
pendeant
periissem Philolachete pocula potitus priuatae
pendens
periisses PhiJolacheti poeniceo potuisti priuatum
pendentem
perinde Philolachetis polliceor praebeo priuos
pendes
perire philosophatum pollicetur praeberi proauo
pendet
peris philosophatur pollicitatio praecellet probasse
pendis
peristromata Philtonem pollicitos praecepi probesí
pendo
peritissumus Phoenicio pollucibiliter praecepta probior
penetrarem
perlongums/ Phrugia Polymachaero- praeceptor probiores
penetraui
permadefecit phyrgio plagidem praecidam procedere
penetrauit
permanascere pice Polymachaero- praecipere procellae
penitus
permanauit picis plagidi praecipitauit processerunt
pensilem
pernam picta polypos praecipitem processi
peperceris
pernegare p i c tam ponam praecipue processit
peperisse
pernegat pictum ponat praecipuos procreandis
peperit
pernego pictura pondo praecurram procudam
perambula
pernoui pietas ponere praedae procurator
peracuit
pernouit pietati ponitur praedatoribus procures
perbene
peraix pietatis Ponto praedicem prodegeris
perbitere
perperam pigere Pontum praedicet prodi
perbonam
perpessu's pigmentum ponunt praedicitur prodigi
perbono
perpeti pigra populärem praediti prodire
perbonum
perpetiar pila populares praedo prodit
percepi
perpetíor pilum populum praefectum profanum
percoles
perpetraui pinguiorem porcinam praefectus profecturus
percontabere
perpetuae pipulo porge praeficio proíero
percontari
Pirenam poriciam praefulcior proferto
percontarier perpétuât
pirum porree t a m praegnatem proferunt
perculsu;/ perp lacent
piscator porrexi praehiberem profesto
percussi perplexarier
porta;/ praemandatum proficisci
percussisses perpluant piscatu
portenditur praemature profugiens
percussit perpluit pisca t u m
porticus praemostrauit profúndele
percutiam perpluont piscium
portitorem praemostro progigni
perdat perpotasse pistillum
portitores Praenestinus prognatum
perde perpotaui pistor
portitori praeoccupabo progredimino
perderes perscrutabor pistrino
portorium praeoptauisti progreditur
perdidero perscrutatus pius
portu praeponeres prohibeas
perdidici perse rutaui placari
portum praeripiam prohibere
perdidisse persentiscat placeam
poseas praerodat prohibes
perdita persequor placeant
posee prohibessis
perdoces perspecta placenda praerodatis
poscerem prohibessit
perdocte perspexi placeo praesagibat
posceret promat
perduellibus perspicue placida;/ praesegmina
poscis promere
pertegito placido praesensisset
perduellis posiueris
perterruit plagas praesentaria promeres
perduim posiui
pertimescit plagigera praesentariis promerita
perduxerunt posses
pertundat plagigeruli praesentarium promi
pereat possidere
perturbât plagipatidae praesentem promiscam
peregri possidet
pertussum planam praesentes promiseram
peregrina possiet
peruenant plateae praesertim promisisse
peregrinos possimus
peregrin um perueneris plaudite praesidebo promissi
possumus
peruenerit plaudo p r a estât piomittitis
peregrinus poste
peruenisti plaudunt praestinem promptas
perendie
peruiam;/ plaustro rum posterorum praestituta;/ pronuper
perendinum
peruigilat plausum posticulo praesto propemodo
•pereo
peruium plebi posticulum praestolabor properant
perfacile
peruolgatunLî/ plenas posticum praestrigiator prop erare
perfeceris
pessuiis pleno postidea praeterhac p ropera te
perferam
pessuma plenum postulare praeuortar propera to;/
perfidiam
pessumu's píen us Postumus praeuortaris properes
perfidias
peste plerique pota praeuortere properet
perfidiis
petaso plora potandus prandero propinare
perfossor
petasus plorans potantis prandio propinqua
perfrigefadt
pete plorat potarier p r at a propinquitate
pergere

[48]
 6429 W o r d s O n c e — Continued l

propíor putidum quotumo relinqui reuocamus sapies

-pfopitia puto quouis relinquo reuocas sa reina
propitii q radebat reliquiae reu'que sarcinatores
-wopolae quadrigis radicibus remisit Rhadamantem sarcire
;£ r0 prio quaedams/ rapacidarum remittam rides sarciri
propterea quaen rapax remittal ridetis sarmenta
piopromptu quaepiam rapiam remitte ridicularia Sarsinatis
ftforogare quaepiams/ rapi' remittere ridicule sarta
-firorogatur quaeq' rapitur remoramque riuabo satellites
tjroscmditur quaequomque raptas remoran tur rogamus satias
íjrosilui quaeram raptores remoratur rogandi satietate
prosint quaerat latkraesque renuntiabo rogant satius
^ prospere quaere ratis renuntiantur rogare satius/
propereque quaerebas rauim renunciare rogat saucaptidem
prospicere q uaererem rean tur renuntiatum rogaturu's sauiis
prostibulum quaerite rear renuntii roget sauium
prostituam quaeritem rebitur reor rogitant saxo
prostituat quaeritemus recens reparcunt rogito saxum
prosum quaeritet recenti repente ruant sea b rae
proterritum quaerito recepit repentino rubicundo scaenam
pro thyme quaeritur recipiam reperias ructare scaeuast
pjotinus quaerundum recnarmida reperiatur ructus scalpurrire
protollet quaesso recita reperiri ruere scandit
-protractum quaestio recludat reperit rufus Scaphae
proueniant quaestus reclude repertam rumicem Scapham
prouenit quaeuis recommentatu's repetas rumori scapulis
prouidero quali recomminiscar repetundi ruont scatat
prouinciae qualine Recordatu' repetunt rustici scelera
proumciam qualubet recten reposcam rusticus scelestae
prouincias quamobrem recurre reposco rusus scelestam
prouocas quamue recursem repperero sacerrumus scelestior
prouorsus quantas redactu si repperissem sacrilege scelestum
prox quantilio reddat reprehendam sacris scelestu's
proxumam quantillum reddatur reprehende sacruficassem scibis
proxumas quantis redderem reprehendit saeclo sciens
proxume quaquam redderes reprehensi saeculum scindant
pioxumumsf quaque Teddes reputes saepissume scindere
proxumus quartus reddeturne reputo, saeuiendum scintillam
pube quasique reddi requintas saeuomque scirpea
publicae quassas redd ¡di rere sagina scita
>publicisne quater reddit resciscat sagittas scitis
pueros quempiam redditae resciuerit sagittatis scitius
puerum quemque reddituru's resciui sagittis scitne
pugnabo querimonia redditurus resciuisse saGat scito
pugnis queunt reddundum resciuisti salicto scitus/ —
pulchram quian reddunt resecroque salillum sciui
pulchrior quibara redduxit resigna tas salit sciuin .r
pulchriores quiddam redemi resonat Salsipotenti scortintur
pulchrius quiddarm/ redhibere respicere saisis scribatii- ^
pulmento quietae redierit respiciam saluae scribuntür^
pulmentum quieto rediero respicis saluete scrobes : •
pulpamentis quinam rediget respondeam saluomque scrutari —
puitabit quinauicenaria redigunt respondeat saluomi/ scurra
pultadum quineto rediit respond endi Sal us scurras
pultandi quingentos redipisci respondeo salutabant scuta
pultaui quiñis reditio respondí salutant secat
puitem quintibi rédito respondisset sal u tare secreto
pultiphagus quintus rediturum responset salutas sectatur
pumex qui's reducem r esponsiones salute sector
pumiceos quisquanu/ referam responsum saluti secunda
pungit quoad referas res tat salutigerulos securi
Púnica quocum referxet restim saluto securim
puplicis quodam refers restinguas sanae sedebas
pure quoiam refertur restio ' sanctaj/ sedem
purget quoidam reges restiteras sanctums/ sedens
purigant quoii regi restitit sandaligerulae sedent
purpurata quoipiam reginae restituís sanein sedentarii
purpurissum quoiuismodi regione retiñere Sangarionem sedet
puta quoium regno retinen sanguinis seduxi
putas quoiums/ regredere retullit sapiat seges
putat quomodo relictae retunsas/ sapienter segnities
putatur quopiam relicui retunsumrf sapienti segregant
putefacit quotiens relicuos reueniat sapientia segregent
putent quotumas relinques reuenit sapientiam segreges

[ ]
 6429 W o r d s 0< O n c e — Coniinu
suauisauiatio supsequar
Seleuciam sinito speres suauitate
sintne spernere supsequere
semita Subbalüo
senectus siquid spernis supsequitur
subblandiebar
senectuti siris Sphaerio supsequor
subditiuom
senis sistendae splendorem supsíet
subducemus
sistere spolia supstruont
senserim subducta
seoserit sis ti spoliera subegero suram
sensi sita sponsione subegi surdu'
sensim sitast sponte subest Sure
sensit si ti spopondi subeunt surgara
sententiasque situm spurcificum subigere surgedum
sentiat situimí s ta subigis surgunt
sepeliui siturf stabile subigit suris
septem siue stabit subigor Su ro
sep turnas siueris stacta súbitos* surrupere
sepulcro sobrie s ta mus subitum surruperem
sequitur sobriu' stant sublegam surruperent
socco Stasimum subleui surruperes
sera
serere socerum stat subleuit sunuperet
sermonatus socienno statin sublinat surrupio
sermones sociofraude statis sublingulo surrupuisse
sermoni socordiamque statuam subniger surrupuit
Socratem statuisti subolebat susceoseas
sermonisque
sodalis Statur subolem suscenses
serua
sodalitate stemuas subueni suspendito
seruanda
stilis subuenisset suspendium
seruando sodes
stimulatricem subuenistl suspícamini
seruari sol
stimulatrici subuenit suspicentur
seruasso solam
stimulorum succieuere suspicetur
seruator solas
stimulum sucopbantis suspicione
seruaueio solé
sudor sustinent
seruaui soleam Stipendium
sues sustinet
seruauisti soleant stipularier
sulco susum
serue solearü Stirpe
sumas sutures
seruent soleas stolide
sumen sycopbantae
seruiant soleatis stolidius
sumere sycophantiose
seruitum solitus Strata
sumeret symbolo
seruitus solitu's stratioticum
summam
seruitutis solstitiali stratioticus Syrus
summatum
seruiui solstitialis stratu' tabern a
suramus
seruiunt soluam strenui tabernáculo
sumpsero
seruorumque soluere strenuom tabern am
sumpsi
seruosne soluite strenuosos tabulas
sumpsimus
sescentae solutum strepitaîi tacebo
sumpsisse
sesquipede soluturmí strigibus tácente
sumpti
seuerumque somniatis Strobilum tacet
sumptibus
seuocas somniauit Strobilus taciturnitati
sumptui
sexaginta somnu' Strolum tactu'
sumptumque
sextum sonant strophiarii taesuauí
sumptumsí
sibique sonat strophiis taeterrume
sumptusque
Sibulla sonitum structa supellex taetriorem
siccoculum sonitus studeat superant taetrius
siccus sopor studeo superare tale
Sicyone sorbereque studes superauit talenta
Sicyonem sorbitione studet superbe talento
Sicyoni sororis stultam superbum tametsi
signis sors stul ti supercilium tangam
signo sospitalis stultiloquentiam superi tangeres
sileatio sospitent stultis superiores tangite
Siluano sparsa stultitiae supero tantam
simia spatium stultitiarf superstes tantas
Simiae specieque stultitiis suppeditat t a n tillo
Simiam specimen stultius suppetant tantillum
Simoni spectabit stultum suppingi tanton
simulacrumque spectant stultu's supplex tan tu
simulant spectare suadeam supplicabo tantumsí
simulas spectato suadeas supplicat tappetia
simulauit spectatorum suades supplicatum tarde
simules specto suadetur supplici tardus
simultatem speculabor suarum suppositicium tarpezitae
simulter speculatum suas supremi tarpezitara
sinapi s speculatur suasore supremum tarmes
sincerum speculoclaras suaui supremus taurus
singillatim Spemne suauior taurum
sinistera speras suauis tecbinae

c o ]
 5429 W o r d s O c c u r O n c e — Continued
tuaique uein uicerit uisitatus uoluptates
tuams/ ueis uici Visso uolup tati
tuapte uela uicine uisu' uoluptati'
tuar/ uelintne uicinos uiuam uoiuptatibu'
tuisque uellent uicit uiuamus uolup ta tum
tuli uellicat uictibus uiuat uolutaui
tulissent ueluti uictis uiue uomitum
tumultuoso uenales 'uictitabam uiuito uorem
tune uenalium uictitare uite uorsa
túnica uenderes uictoria uitia uorsabatur
tunicam uendidisti uictorum uitilena uorsari
túnicas uendito •uicturaque uitio uorsa tur
tuomrf uenditurum .uictus/ uitulinam uorso
tuo st uendundusf uideare uituperarier uorsoriam
turarme ueneficae uideat uituperas uorsus
turbae ueneficu's uideatur uiuam uorsute
turbant uenenis uidebis uiuere uorsutus
turbat ueneram uidebo uixerít uortere
turbauimus uenerare uidebunt uixirous uorterit
turbauit uenerim uidelicet uixisse uorti
turbellas uenias uidendum uixit uortitur
túrbidas/ uenient uidendumsí ulciscare uostrae
túrbidos ueniet uideon Vlixem uostrarum
turbines uenibit uideri Vlixes uostro
turbo ucniisse uideto ulmearum uostros
turget ueniret uidetque ulmeis uotem
turpes ueniri uideturne ultumas uotes
turpi uenisti uidit umerum urbani
turpilucricupi- uenítne uigilans umiditate urbanus
dum uenti uigilanti unae urbis
turpitudinem uentriosus uigilas unctí urit
tuquidem uenturum uigiliam unctitant urnam
turtures uentus uigilias unctiusculo uspiam
tu's uenustates uigiliis unctor usquams/
tus uerberabilissume uigilo undam usquequaque
tusculum uerberare uües/ undique usquin
tutin uerberari uiliores unguem ussurae
tutor uerberarier uilissumus/ unguendam USSUJÍ
uaginam uerberate uim unguis usu
ualeat uerberauisti uinarium ungulas usum
ualen uerbeream uincere uniuorsis usura
ualent uerberonem uinces uniuorsum usurpari
ualeo uerbií/ uincite unos usurpaui
ualete uerbo uinciti' uoca USUJÍ
ualui uerbumst uinctam uocabo utar
ualuisti uereare uinctus uocari utare
ualuistin uerecundari uindex uocauerit utenda
uana uerecundiam uinolentum uoces utendums/
uanidicis uerumsí uiolarii uocis uterum
uapulem uerus uirgarum uocitantur utibile
uapulo uesanum uirginis Volcano utibiles
uaria uestibulum uirgis uolebam utile
uasa uestipica uiris uolebas utitur
uasis uestitu uiritim uolgo utra
uastities uestitu's uirium uolpes utramque
uaticinamini uetere uiro uolsus utrique
uberi ueterem uirtus uolturium utrisque
uberrume ueteris uirtuti uolueram utrumuis
uberrumos uetulae uirtutibus uoluere uxorio
ubiquomque uexillum uirtutis uoluimus Xytilis
uecturam ui uisam uoluisses zamiam
uehar uiaticum uise uoluisti zonarii
uehementer uicem uisitata uolup zonarius
uehunt

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