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Phonetics: the study of the production and perception of speech sounds.
Phonology: the study of the sound systems of languages and the patterns they follow.
Morphology: the study of the structure of words and how they are formed.
Syntax: the study of the structure of sentences and how words are combined to form them.
Semantics: the study of meaning in language. Pragmatics: the study of how context affects meaning in language use.
Discourse analysis: the study of how language is used in context, including the social and cultural factors that influence it.
Psycholinguistics: the study of how language is processed and acquired by the brain.
Sociolinguistics: the study of how language varies according to social factors, such as class, gender, and ethnicity.
Historical linguistics: the study of how languages change over time.
In linguistics, a morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language. It is the basic building block of words and helps to convey
meaning in a language. A morpheme can be a complete word (such as “cat”), or it can be a part of a word (such as “un-“ or “-s” in
“uncertain” or “cats”).
Morphemes can be classified into two main types: free morphemes and bound morphemes. Free morphemes can stand alone as
words (such as “cat,” “happy,” “book”), whereas bound morphemes must be attached to other morphemes to form words (such as
“un-“ in “unhappy,” “-ly” in “happily,” or “-s” in “cats”).
Morphemes can also be classified according to their meaning. Content morphemes carry lexical or semantic meaning (such as “cat,”
“happy,” “book”), while function morphemes carry grammatical meaning (such as “-s” for plural, “-ing” for progressive tense, or
“pre-“ for before).
The study of morphemes Is called morphology, and it is an important area of linguistics that helps to explain the structure and
meaning of words in a language. By analyzing the morphemes that make up words, linguists can gain insights into the ways in which
meaning is expressed and conveyed in different languages.
Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist, introduced the concepts of Langue and Parole to explain the nature and functioning of
language.
Langue refers to the abstract, systematic, and structured aspect of language. It is the set of rules and conventions that determine how
words are combined to form meaningful utterances within a particular language. In other words, Langue is the underlying system of
language that exists independently of any particular speaker or instance of speech.
On the other hand, Parole refers to the actual use of language by individual speakers. It encompasses all the different ways in which
individuals use language in specific social contexts to communicate meaning, such as in speech or writing. Parole is the concrete
manifestation of the underlying Langue.
Saussure’s distinction between Langue and Parole is significant because it highlights the importance of understanding the underlying
structure of language as well as the way it is used in practice. Langue provides the foundation for Parole, and without an underlying
system of rules and conventions, communication would not be possible.
Moreover, Saussure argued that Langue is more important than Parole in the study of language because it is the underlying structure
that makes communication possible. He also emphasized that Langue is a social phenomenon that is shared by the members of a
speech community, whereas Parole is individualistic and idiosyncratic.
Noam Chomsky, an American linguist, also distinguished between two aspects of language, but used different terminology than
Saussure. Chomsky used the terms Competence and Performance.
Competence refers to the underlying knowledge of language that a speaker has, including knowledge of the rules and structures that
allow for the generation of an infinite number of grammatically correct sentences. This is similar to Saussure’s concept of Langue.
Performance, on the other hand, refers to the actual use of language in real-life situations, which can be affected by factors such as
memory limitations, speech errors, and contextual factors. This is similar to Saussure’s concept of Parole.
Chomsky’s distinction between Competence and Performance is based on the idea that the rules of a language are not always
immediately observable in the way that language is used in practice. Instead, he believed that there is an innate, universal
grammar that underlies all languages, which allows individuals to generate and understand an infinite number of
grammatically correct sentences.
Chomsky’s theory of generative grammar posits that the human brain contains a set of innate grammatical rules that are common to
all languages. This provides a basis for understanding the underlying structure of language and how it functions, which is similar to
Saussure’s concept of Langue.
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society, including how language is used in social contexts and
how social factors influence language use. Sociolinguists investigate topics such as language variation, language change, language
attitudes, language acquisition, and language policy. They are interested in understanding how social factors such as age, gender,
ethnicity, social class, and education influence language use and how language use, in turn, reflects and reinforces social structures
and power dynamics.
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Anthropological Linguistics, on the other hand, is a subfield of linguistics that focuses on the relationship between language and
culture. Anthropological linguists study how language use reflects and shapes cultural beliefs, values, and practices. They are
interested in understanding how language is used in social contexts and how it is used to construct and maintain social identities,
relationships, and power structures. Anthropological linguists often study non-western languages and cultures and are interested in
understanding the diversity of linguistic and cultural practices around the world.
Psycholinguistics is the study of the mental processes involved in language use, including how people acquire, comprehend, and
produce language. Psycholinguists use behavioral and experimental techniques to investigate language processing in both normal and
impaired populations, and they seek to understand how different factors, such as context, working memory, and attention, influence
language use.
Neurolinguistics, on the other hand, is the study of the neural basis of language processing, including how language is represented
and processed in the brain. Neurolinguists use a variety of techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI),
electroencephalography (EEG), and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), to investigate the brain regions and networks involved
in language processing. Neurolinguists aim to understand the relationship between language and the brain, and how this relationship
changes over the course of development and in response to brain damage or disease.
Stylistics is a branch of linguistics that studies the ways in which language is used in different contexts to create meaning, with a focus
on the aesthetic and expressive aspects of language. Stylistics is concerned with the ways in which language is used to convey
attitudes, emotions, and values, as well as the ways in which language can be used to create specific effects such as humor, irony, or
suspense. Stylistic analysis involves examining the linguistic features of a text, such as word choice, sentence structure, and figurative
language, in order to uncover the underlying meanings and intentions of the author or speaker. Stylistics is used in a variety of fields,
including literature, advertising, and media studies, and is an important tool for understanding the ways in which language is used to
create meaning and convey messages.
Macro linguistics is a subfield of linguistics that focuses on the study of language at a larger, societal level. It is concerned with the
ways in which language is used in different communities, cultures, and societies, and how it shapes and is shaped by social structures,
institutions, and practices. Macro linguistics is concerned with issues such as language policy and planning, language acquisition and
education, multilingualism, and language contact and change. It also examines the role of language in social and political processes,
such as identity formation, power relations, and social inequality. Some of the methods used in macro linguistics include
sociolinguistic surveys, discourse analysis, and ethnography. Macro linguistics is an important area of study for understanding the
role of language in society and how it impacts individuals and communities.
Mathematical linguistics also known as mathematical theory of language, is primarily concerned with developing formal models
of language using mathematical frameworks such as set theory, graph theory, and formal language theory. The goal of mathematical
linguistics is to create precise and rigorous models of the structure of language that can capture the underlying rules and principles that
govern language use. Mathematical linguistics is also concerned with the theoretical properties of language and seeks to understand
the fundamental properties of language, such as syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
On the other hand, computational linguistics is concerned with developing computational models of language that can be used to
analyze and process natural language data. Computational linguistics involves the use of algorithms and computer programs to
analyze, understand, and generate language. The goal of computational linguistics is to create practical applications that can be used in
areas such as machine translation, natural language processing, and speech recognition. Computational linguistics is also concerned
with the development of linguistic resources such as corpora, lexicons, and grammars, that can be used to train and test
computational models of language.
The Conventionalist view, also known as the Arbitrariness view, holds that there is no inherent connection between the words of a
language and the things they refer to in the world. According to this view, the relationship between a word and its meaning is arbitrary
and determined by convention or agreement within a particular community. For example, there is nothing inherently “dog-like” about
the word “dog”; it is only through convention and shared understanding that we have agreed to use this word to refer to a particular
type of animal. The Conventionalist view emphasizes the role of social and cultural factors in shaping language and meaning.
On the other hand, the Naturalistic or Essentialist view holds that there is a natural and inherent connection between words and the
things they refer to in the world. According to this view, the relationship between a word and its meaning is based on some underlying
natural or essential property of the thing being referred to. For example, proponents of the Naturalistic view might argue that the word
“dog” refers to a specific animal because there is some inherent property or essence of this animal that makes it a “dog”. The
Naturalistic view emphasizes the role of biology and cognitive processes in shaping language and meaning.
Philology is the study of language in written historical sources, with a focus on understanding the texts and the context in which they
were written. It is an interdisciplinary field that combines aspects of linguistics, literature, history, and cultural studies. The term
“philology” comes from the Greek words “philos”, meaning love, and “logos”, meaning word or discourse.
Philologists study texts in their original languages, which may include ancient and classical languages such as Greek, Latin, Sanskrit,
and Old English, as well as more recent languages such as French, German, and Spanish. They analyze the structure, grammar, syntax,
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vocabulary, and style of these texts, with the goal of understanding the historical and cultural context in which they were written, as
well as the literary and linguistic features that make them unique.
Philology also involves the study of manuscripts, the history of printing and publishing, and the development of literary and linguistic
traditions over time. Philologists may use a range of tools and methods, including historical linguistics, textual criticism, literary
analysis, and cultural studies, to help them interpret and understand the texts they are studying.
Etymology is the study of the history and origins of words, including their meanings and how they have evolved over time. It is a
branch of linguistics that focuses on the origins of words, their historical development, and their relationships to other words.
Etymology is important for understanding the development of language and the cultural and historical context in which it has evolved.
By studying the history of words and their meanings, we can gain insights into the evolution of language and the ways in which
language reflects and shapes cultural attitudes, beliefs, and values.
Etymologists use a range of methods and tools to study the history and origins of words, including historical linguistics, comparative
analysis, and philology. They may also use specialized dictionaries, linguistic databases, and other resources to help them identify and
trace the history of words.
A linguistic sign is a fundamental concept in the field of linguistics that refers to the basic unit of language, which consists of two
parts: a signifier (the physical form of the sign) and a signified (the concept or meaning that the sign represents). The relationship
between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary, meaning there is no inherent or natural connection between them, but rather it is
established by social convention and cultural norms.
For example, the word “chair” is a linguistic sign, where the signifiant is the physical sound or written letters that make up the word,
and the signifie is the concept of a piece of furniture used for sitting. The relationship between the two is arbitrary, as there is no
inherent connection between the sounds or letters that make up the word “chair” and the concept of a piece of furniture for sitting.
This relationship is established through cultural norms and conventions, such as the English language.
Linguistic signs are the building blocks of language and are used to convey meaning through speech, writing, and other forms of
communication. They are important in the study of language structure and meaning, and play a crucial role in understanding how
language works and how it is used to convey complex ideas and concepts.
Synchrony and diachrony are two fundamental concepts in the field of linguistics that are used to describe different approaches to the
study of language.
Synchrony refers to the study of language at a particular point in time, focusing on the structure and function of language as it exists
in the present moment. It is concerned with the relationships between different elements of a language system at a given time, without
reference to historical changes or development.
For example, a synchronic analysis of the English language would focus on the grammatical rules, vocabulary, and usage of the
language as it is spoken and written today, without considering how it has changed over time.
Diachrony, on the other hand, refers to the study of language over time, focusing on how it has changed and developed over the
course of history. It is concerned with the historical origins and evolution of language, and how it has been influenced by cultural,
social, and historical factors.
For example, a diachronic analysis of the English language would consider how it has evolved from its earliest origins, tracing its
development through different historical periods and cultural influences.
Structuralism is a theoretical approach that emerged in various fields of social sciences and humanities in the mid-20 th century. It is
based on the idea that the fundamental structures underlying human experience and behavior can be analyzed and understood through
their underlying patterns and systems of relationships.
In linguistics, structuralism emphasizes the study of the formal and functional properties of language, focusing on the underlying
systems of rules and structures that govern its use. It emphasizes the importance of analyzing the relationships between different
elements of a language system and how they function together as a coherent whole.
Structuralism is characterized by its emphasis on analysis and systematization, and its rejection of individualism and subjectivity. It is
often associated with the work of scholars such as Ferdinand de Saussure, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and Roland Barthes, who developed
influential theories and methods for analyzing the underlying structures of language, culture, and society.
Perspective grammar refer to a set of rules which restrict the user to already finalized rules and it is not allowed go against these rules.
For instance, it is against the given rules to end a sentence with a preposition and do not split an infinitive. Thus the perspective
grammarians would correct this sentence: Who did you go with? By changing it to: With whom did you go?
In linguistics, an agent is typically defined as a grammatical category that refers to the doer or initiator of an action or event. It is often
marked by a specific verb form or through word order in a sentence. In a broader sense, an agent can also refer to a person or entity
that carries out a particular action or task.
In linguistics, an allomorph refers to a variation of a morpheme that has a different phonological realization but the same grammatical
function. In simpler terms, allomorphs are different forms of a single morpheme that are used in different linguistic contexts.
Syntagmatic relationship refers to the elements that follow one another in a particular linear or horizontal sequence.
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Paradigmatic relationship refers to such relationships between those elements which are similar because they belong to same class or
category and always remain in vertical sequence.
In linguistics, a paradigm refers to a set of related forms or inflections of a word, typically organized based on their grammatical
function and properties. It includes all the possible forms that a word can take in a given language, such as different tenses, cases, or
conjugations.
In linguistics, an allophone refers to a variant pronunciation of a phoneme in a specific linguistic context. Allophones do not change
the meaning of a word but are instead considered to be different realizations of the same sound. They can vary based on factors such
as surrounding phonemes or stress patterns.
In linguistics, anaphora refers to the use of a pronoun or other linguistic element to refer back to a previously mentioned noun or noun
phrase. It is a common device used to avoid repetitive or redundant language in discourse.
Antonymy is a relationship between two words that have opposite meanings. It is a type of lexical relation in which the meaning of
one word is the reverse of another.
Arbitrariness is a characteristic of language in which there is no natural or inherent connection between a linguistic form and its
meaning. The relationship between a word and its referent is based purely on convention and social agreement.
In linguistics, assimilation is a process in which a sound becomes more similar to a neighboring sound in terms of its pronunciation. It
is a common phenomenon in spoken language in which the pronunciation of one sound is influenced by the phonetic environment of a
nearby sound.
Metonymy is a word used in place of another with which it is closely connected in everyday experience. Just as: He drank the whole
bottle (=liquid)
Peronym (also known as a meronym) is a term used in linguistics to describe a word that refers to a part of something larger.
Aponym (also spelled aptronym) is a term used to describe a name that is related to a person’s occupation or characteristic.
Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of sounds in speech, such as frequency, amplitude, and duration.
Auditory phonetics is the study of how sounds are perceived and processed by the human ear and brain.
Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced by the articulators in the mouth and throat.
A Voiced Sound is a speech sound that is produced when the vocal cords vibrate.
An Unvoiced Sound is a speech sound that is produced without vibration of the vocal cords.
Voicing refers to the vibration of the vocal cords during the production of a speech sound, which can create a distinction between
voiced and unvoiced sounds.
Places Of Articulation refer to the specific points or areas in the vocal tract where speech sounds are produced, including the lips,
teeth, alveolar ridge, hard palate, velum, and glottis.
Manners Of Articulation refer to the different ways in which speech sounds are produced, such as the degree and type of constriction
or airflow involved in their production, including stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals, liquids, and glides.
Backformation is a process in which a new word is created by removing a suffix from an existing word, such as the creation of the
verb “edit” from the noun “editor.”
Blending is a process of word formation in which two or more words are combined to form a new word, such as “smog” from
“smoke” and “fog.”
Broca’s Aphasia is a language disorder characterized by difficulty in expressing speech or writing due to damage in the Broca’s area
of the brain.
Broca’s Area is a region in the frontal lobe of the brain responsible for language production and speech comprehension.
Clipping is a phonological process in which a word is shortened by removing one or more syllables or sounds.
In phonology, a Coda is the final consonant or consonant cluster in a syllable, which follows the nucleus (vowel or vowel-like sound).
In linguistics, Nucleus refers to the central vowel or vowel-like sound in a syllable that usually has greater prominence or loudness
than other sounds in the syllable.
In phonology, an Onset is the initial consonant or consonant cluster in a syllable, which precedes the nucleus (vowel or vowel-like
sound).
Cognates are words in different languages that have a common etymological origin and share similar meanings, spellings, and
pronunciations. (English friend and German Freund)
Hyponymy is a semantic relation in which the meaning of a word (hyponym) is included in the meaning of another word (hypernym),
such as ‘apple’ is a hyponym of ‘fruit’.
Co-hyponyms are words that share the same hypernym and have a similar semantic relationship, such as ‘dog’ and ‘cat’ as co-
hyponyms of ‘animal’.
Hyponymy refers to the hierarchical relationship between words where one word (hyponym) is a type of another word ( hypernym),
while co-hyponyms are words that share the same hypernym but have different hyponyms, indicating a parallel or coordinate
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relationship between them. For example, ‘dog’ and ‘cat’ are co-hyponyms of ‘animal’, while ‘dog’ is a hyponym of ‘canine’ and ‘cat’
is a hyponym of ‘feline’.
In linguistics, superordinate refers to a word or term that represents a more general category or concept.
Conversion is the process of changing the function of a word, such as noun to a verb, as a way of forming new words, also known as
Category Change or functional shift. Vocation in They are vacationing in Florida.
The cooperative principle in linguistics refers to the idea that people should use language in a cooperative and rational manner to
communicate effectively.
Maxim Of Quantity is situation where speakers provide enough information without being too verbose.
Maxim Of Quality is a situation where speakers provide truthful information.
Maxim Of Manner is a situation where speakers provide information in a clear and concise manner.
Co-Text is the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence, also called the linguistic Context.
Creole is a variety of language that developed from a pidgin and is used as a first language by a population of native speakers.
Diachronic Variation refers to the variation in language usage and structure that occurs over time, often due to changes in social,
cultural, or historical factors.
Diglossia refers to a situation in which two different varieties of a language are used for different social contexts or functions, often
one being a prestigious high variety and the other a less prestigious low variety.
Displacement in linguistics refers to the ability to use language to talk about things that are not present in the immediate environment
or in the current time.
Divergence in linguistics refers to the process by which two or more languages or dialects become increasingly dissimilar over time,
often due to geographic or social separation.
Elision is the process of leaving out a sound segment in the pronunciation of a word
Diphthong is a sound combination that begins with a vowel and ends with a glide. (e.g. boy)
Epenthesis is the addition of one or more sounds to a word, often to make it easier to pronounce.
Eponym is a word derived from the name of a person or place. (e.g. sandwich)
Neologism: The process of creating new words is called Neologism.
Derivational Morpheme: Those morphemes which derive or make new words are called Derivational Morphemes. In simple words, a
derivational morpheme derive a word which is always in a different grammatical class from the original one.
Boy + ish = Boyish (Boy is noun but boyish is an adjective
Inflectional Morpheme: The morpheme which never changes the grammatical category of the word to which it is attached and are
added according to the grammatical rules of a language.
Jump + ed = jumped (Both are verbs)
Zero Allomorph refers to a morpheme that is phonetically null or lacks any explicit phonological representation.
There are four Allomorphs of -s which shows plural of nouns.
Deixis (Greek word for pointing) are lexemes which can be understood only with the reference to the speaker’s position in space or
time.
Personal Deictics refer to personal pronouns.
Spatial Deictics are this/that; here/there; come/go; bring/take.
Temporal Deixis refers to time like, now, then, yesterday and tomorrow etc.