Measurements and
Measurement Systems
ilg MEASUREMENTS
The measurement of a given quantity is essen­
tially an act or the result of comparison between the
quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and a prede­
fined standard. Since two quantities are compared, the
result is expressed in numerical values. In fact,
measurement is the process by which one can convert
physical parameters to meaningful numbers. The
measuring process is one in which the property of an
object or system under consideration is compared to
an accepted standard unit, a standard defined for that
particular property. The number of times the unit
standard fits into the quantity being measured is the
numerical measure. The numerical measure is meaning­
less unless followed by a unit used, since it (unit)
identifies the characteristic or property measured.
In order that the results of the measurement are
meaningful, there are two basic requirements : -
(/) the standard used for Comparison purposes
must be accurately defined and should be \ Measurements play a significant role in achieving
commonly accepted, and
(if) the apparatus used and the method adopted
must be provable. \ .
ggj SIGNIFICANCE OF MEASUREMENTS /
The importance of measurement is simply and
eloquently expressed in the following statement of the
famous physicist Lord Kelvin : -
“I often say that when you can measure what you are
speaking about and can express it in numbers, you
know something about it; when you cannot express in
it numbers your knowledge is of a meagre and
unsatisfactory kind."
The advancement of Science and Technology is
dependent upon a parallel progress in measurement
techniques Hie reasons for this are obvious. As Science
and Technology move ahead, new phenomena and
relationships are discovered and these advances make
new types of measurements imperative. New discove­
ries are not of any practical utility unless the results
are backed by actual measurements. The measure­
ments, no doubt, confirm the validity of a hypothesis
but also add to its understanding. Titis results in an
unending chain which leads to new discoveries that
require more, new and sophisticated measurement
techniques. Hence modern Science and Technology are
associated with sophisticated methods of measurement.
There are two major functions of all branches of
engineering: \ .
(i) Design of equipment and processes, and
(iz) Proper operation and maintenance of
equipment and processes.
Both these functions require measurements. This
is because proper and economical design, operation
and maintenance require a feedback of information.
. goals and objectives of Engineering because of the
feedback information supplied by them.
EBI METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS
I he methods of measurements may be broadly
classified into two categories :
(/) Direct Methods and (if) Indirect Methods.
1.3.1 Direct Methods
In these methods, the. unknown quantity (also
called the fheasurand) is directly compared against :
standard. The , result is expressed as a numerical
number and a unit. The standard, in fact, is a physical
embodiment ol a unq.
Direct methods are quite common for the
measurement of physical quantities like length, mass
and time. Suppose we want to measure the length el a
 2 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
bar. The unit of length is metre. A bar is so many times
long because that many units on our standard have
the same length as the bar. A human being can make
direct length comparisons with a preciseness of about
0.25 mm. Therefore, on account of human factors it is
not possible to make very accurate measurements. The
direct method for measurement of length can be
utilized with a good degree of accuracy but when it
comes to measurement of mass, the problem becomes
much more intricate. It is just not possible for human
beings to distinguish between wide margins of mass.
1.3.2 Indirect Methods
Measurement by direct methods are not always
possible, feasible and practicable. These methods in
most of the cases, are inaccurate because they involve
human factors. They are also less sensitive. Hence
direct methods are not preferred and are rarely used.
In engineering applications Measurement Systems
are used which require need of indirect methods for
measurement purposes.
INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
Measurements involve the use of instruments as a
physical means of determining quantities or variables.
The instrument serves as an extension of human
faculties and enables the man to determine the value
of unknown quantity or variable which his unaided
human faculties cannot measure, a measuring instru­
ment exists to provide information about the physical
value of some variables being measured. In simple
cases, an instrument consists of a single unit which
gives an output reading or signal according to the
unknown variable (measurand) applied to it. In more
complex measurement situations, however, a mea­
suring instrument may consist of several separate
elements. These elements may consist of transducing
elements which convert the measurand to an ana­
logous form. The analogous signal is then processed
by some intermediate means and then fed to the end
devices to present the results of the measurement for
the purposes of display and or control.' The above
mentioned components might be contained within
one or more boxes, and the boxes holding individual
measurement elements might bp either close together
or physically separate. Because of this modular nature
of the elements within it,/it is common to refer the
measuring instrument asza measurement system.
PH MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
The first instruments used by mankind were
mechanical in nature and the principles on which
these instruments worked are even in vogue today.
The earliest scientific instruments used the same three
essential elements as our modem instruments do.
These elements are :
(/) a detector,
(it) an intermediate transfer device, and
(iii) an indicator, recorder or a storage device.
The history of development of instruments
encompasses three phases of instruments, viz. :
(i) mechanical instruments,
(if) electrical instruments, and
(zzz) electronic instruments.
1.5.1 Mechanical Instruments
These instruments are very reliable for static and
stable conditions. But they suffer from a very major
disadvantage which is because, they are unable to
respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and
transient conditions. This is due to the fact that these
instruments have moving parts that are rigid, heavy
and bulky and consequently have a large mass. Mass
presents inertia problems and hence these instruments
cannot faithfully follow the rapid changes which are
involved in dynamic measurements. Thus it would be
virtually impossible to measure a 50 Hz voltage by
using a mechanical instrument but it is relatively easy
to measure a slowly varying pressure using these
instruments. Another disadvantage of mechanical
instruments is that most of them are a potential source
of noise and cause noise pollution. - ./
1.5.2 Electrical Instruments \
Electrical methods of indicating the output of
detectors are more rapid than mechanical methods. It
is unfortunate that an electrical system normally
depends upon a mechanical meter movement as\
indicating device. This mechanical movement has
some inertia and therefore these instruments have a \
limited time (and hence, frequency) response. For
example, some electrical recorders can give full scale
response in 0?2 5/ the majority of industtial FeCpr*rs '
have responses of 0.5 to 24 s. Some galvanometers can
follow 50 Hz variations, but even these are too slow
for present day requirements of fast measurement-
1.5.3 Electronic Instruments
. X’*-.X . X , \X /.X" ./ ’‘X _X
*Sk ’
These days most of the scientific and . industrial
measurements - requite very fast responses. The ■'
mechanical and electrical instruments and systems
cannot cope up with these requirements^The necessity
to step up response time and also the detection of
dynamic changes in certairi-pa'rameters, which Require
the monitoring time of the order of ms anil many 4
Measurements and Measurement Systems 3
times, gs, have led to the design of today's electronic
instruments and their associated circuitry. These
instruments require use of semi-conductor devices.
Since in electronic devices, the only movement
involved is that of electrons, the response time is
extremely small on account of very small inertia of
electrons. For example, a Cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO) is capable of following dynamic and transient
changes of the order of a few ns (IO-9 s).
Electronically controlled power supplies are used
to provide stable voltages for studies in the field of
chemical reactions and nuclear instrumentation.
Electronic instruments are steadily becoming more
reliable on account of improvements in design and
manufacturing processes of semi-conductor devices.
Another advantage of using electronic devices is that
very weak signals can be detected by using pre­
amplifiers and amplifiers. The foremost importance of
the electronic instruments is the power amplification
provided by the electronic amplifiers, which results in
higher sensitivity. This is particularly important in the
area of Bio-instrumentation since Bio-electric potentials
are very weak i.e., lower than 1 mV. Therefore, these
signals are too small to operate electro-mechanical
devices like recorders and they must be amplified.
Additional power may be fed into the system to
provide an increased power output beyond that of the
input. This has been only possible through the use of
electronic amplifiers, which have no important
mechanical counterpart. This is particularly important
where the data presentation devices use stylus type
recorders, galvanometers, cathode ray oscilloscopes
and magnetic tape recorders. It is a fact that hydraulic
and pneumatic systems may be used for power
amplification of signals. However, their use is limited
to slow acting control applications like.servo-systems,
chemical processes and power systems. Another
advantage of electronic instruments is thd-nbility to
obtain indication at a remote location which helps in
monitoring inaccessible or dangerous locations.'-The
most important use of electronic instruments is their
usage in measurement of non-electrical quantities,
where the non-electrical quantity is converted into
electrical form through the use of transducers.
Electronic instruments find extensive use in detection
of electro-magnetically produced signals such as
radio, video, and microwave. Electrical and electronic
instruments are particularly useful in the intermediate
signal modifying stage. Electronic instruments are
light compact, have a high degree of reliability and
their power consumption is very low.
€omm unications is a field which is entirely depen­
dent upon the electronic instruments and associated
apparatus. Space communications, especially, makes
use of air borne transmitters and receivers and job of
interpreting the signals is left entirely to the electronic
instruments.
Electronic instruments make it possible to build
analog and digital computers without which the
modern developments in science and technology are
virtually impossible. Computers require a very fast
time response and it is only possible with use of
electronic instruments.
Summarizing, it may be stated that in general
electronic instruments have
(z) a higher sensitivity, (z'z) a faster response,
(zz7) a greater flexibility, (m) lower weight,
(c) lower power consumption and
(pz) a higher degree of reliability1 than their
mechanical or purely electrical counterparts.
1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
There are many wraysin which instruments can be
classified. Broadly, instruments are classified into two
categories :
(z) Absolute Instruments, and
(z7) Secondary Instruments.
1. Absolute instruments. These instruments give
the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in
terms of physical constants of the instrument. The
examples of this class of instruments are Tangent
Galvanometer and Rayleigh's Current Balance.
2. Secondary instruments. These instruments are
so constructed that the quantity being measured can
only be measured by observing the output indicated
by the instrument. These instruments are calibrated by
comparison with an absolute instrument or another
secondary instrument which has already been
calibrated against an absolute instrument.
Working with absolute instruments for routine
work is time consuming since every time a
measurement is made, it takes a lot of time to compute
the magnitude of the quantity under measurement.
Therefore secondary instruments are most commonly
used. Absolute instruments are seldom useci except in
standards institutions while secondary instruments
find usage almost in every' sphere of measurement. A
voltmeter, a glass thermometer and a pressure gauge
are typical examples of secondary' instruments.
1.7 DEFLECTION AND NULL TYPE INSTRUMENTS
Instruments can be classified into two major
categories - deflection and null types depending upon
the way they present the result of measurements.
 4 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and
The instruments of this type, the deflection of the
instrument provides a basis for determining the
uantity under measurement. The measured quantity
produces some physical effect with deflects or
produces a mechanical displacement of the moving
system of the instrument. An opposing effect is built
in the instrument which tries to oppose the deflection
or the mechanical displacement of the moving system.
The opposing effect is closely related to the deflection
or mechanical displacement which can be directly
observed. The opposing effect is so designed that its
magnitude increases with the increase of deflection or
mechanical displacement of the moving system
caused by the quantity under measurement. The
balance is achieved when opposing effect equals to
cause producing the deflection or mechanical
movement. The value of the measured quantity can
then be inferred from the deflection or mechanical
displacement at the point of balance.
0.5
magnet moving coil
Fig. 1.1 Deflection type instrument
(PMMC type instrument).
For example, in a permanent magnet moving coil
(PMMC) ammeter, the deflection of the moving coil is
proportional to the current I, the quantity under
measurement. The torque ty acting on the moving coil
(See Fig. 1.1) is proportional to current I or Td = GI
where G is a constant, which is dependent upon flux
density, number of turns and area of moving coil. The
opposing effect is produced by a spring whose torque
T is proportional to deflection, 0 or T = K0 where K is
the spring constant whose value depends upon the
material and the dimensions of the spring. Under
conditions of balance, T =Td or deflection 0 =(G/ K)I
or current I =(K/ G)0.
The value of measured quantity, current I, in this
case depends upon the value of deflection 0, and the
constants of the meter, G and K. Thus, in order to make
the instrument direct reading i.e., it reads the value of
current I directly in terms of the deflection Q, it .will
have to be calibrated to take into consideration the
values of G and K.
Thus, we conclude, in a deflection type
instrument, the value of measured quantity depends
upon the calibration of the instrument.
1.7.2 Null Type
In a null type of instrument, a zero or null
indication leads to determination of the magnitude of
measured quantity. The null condition is dependent
upon some other known conditions.
In contrast to deflection type of instruments, a
null type instrument attempts to maintain the
deflection at zero by suitable application of an effect >.
opposing that generated by the measured quantity.
Therefore, for the operation of a null type of ■
instrument, the following are required :
(?) the effect produced by the measured quantity;
(n) the opposing effect, whose value is
accurately known. This is necessary in order
to determine the numerical value of the
measured quantity accurately ;
(Hi) a detector, which detects the null conditions
i.e., a device which indicates zero deflection
(balance conditions) when the effect
produced by the measured quantity is equal
to the effect produced by the opposing
quantity. The detector should be capable of
displaying unbalance i.e., a condition when
the effect produced by the measured
quantity is not equal to the opposing effect.
Also, the detector should have means
(automatic or manual) for restoring balance.
Figure 1.2 shows the elementary form of a d.c.
potentiometer. It is a null type of instrument wherein
an unknown emf, E , is measured. The slide wire of
the potentiometer has been calibrated in terms of emf
with the help of a standard emf source. The null
detector is a current galvanometer whose deflection is
proportional to the unbalance emf i.e., the difference
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
-O_ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I_ o_
a Sliding \
contact Galvanometer Slide wire
xG/ (Null dectector)
Ex (Unknown emf)
Fig. 1.2 Null type instrument (D.C. potentiometer).
 Measurements and Measurement Systems 5
between the emf E b across portion a b of slide wire
and the unknown emf E . As soon as the two are
equal, there is no current through the galvanometer
and therefore it shows zero deflection thereby
indicating null conditions. Therefore, the unknown
emf Ex is equal to Enb , which is directly indicated by
the calibrated scale placed alongside the slide wire.
1.7.3 Comparison of Deflection and Null
Type Instruments
Comparing the advantages and disadvantages of
the two types instruments.
(z) The accuracy of null type of instruments is
higher than that of deflection type. This is because the
\ opposing effect is calibrated with the help of
standards which have high degree of accuracy. On the
other hand, accuracy of deflection type of instruments
is dependent upon their calibration which depends
upon the instrument constants which are normally not
known to a high degree of accuracy.
(z’z) In th e null type of instruments, the measured
quantity is balanced out. This means the detector has
to cover a small range around the balance (null) point
and therefore can be made highly sensitive. Also the
detector need not be calibrated since it has only to
detect the presence and direction of unbalance and not
the magnitude of unbalance. On the other hand, a
deflection type of instrument must be larger in size,
more rugged, and thus less sensitive if it is to measure
large magnitude of unknown quantity.
(z'z’z) Null type of instruments require many
manipulations before null conditions are obtained and
hence are apparently not suitable for dynamic
measurements wherein the measured quantity
changes .with time. On the other hand, deflection type
of instruments can follow the variations of the
measured quantity more rapidly and hence are more
suitable for dynamic measurements on account of
their faster response. However, there are commer­
cially automatic control instruments (such as self
balancing potentiometers) that maintain a continuous
null under rapidly changing conditions and thereby
eliminate the need for manipulative operations.
Summarizing the above :
(?) Null type of instruments are more accurate
than deflection type instruments.
( .) Null type instruments can be highly sensitive
as compared with deflection type instruments.
(mi) Deflection type of instruments are more
suited for measurements under dynamic
conditions than null type of instruments
whose intrinsic response is slower.
ANALOG & DIGITAL MODES OF OPERATION
Secondary instruments work in two modes :
(?) Analog mode, and (z'z) Digital mode.
Signals that vary in a continuous fashion and take
on an infinite number of values in any given range are
called analog signals. The devices which produce
these signals are called analog devices.
In contrast, the signals which vary in discrete
steps and thus take up only finite different values in a
given range are called digital signals. The devices that
produce such signals are called digital devices.
Let us elaborate further on digital and analog
instruments and systems. In an analog system the
function varies continuously. A typical example of
variation is shown in Fig. 1.3. On the other hand, the
digital values are discrete and vary in equal steps.
Each digital number is a fixed sum of equal steps
which is defined by the number.
10
123456789 10
Independent variable -»
Fig. 1.3 Representation of an analog quantity.
In order to convert an analog quantity into a
digital number, the vertical displacement must be
divided into equal parts. For example, in Fig. 1.3, the
vertical quantities are divided into 10 equal parts and
each part has a length of 1 unit. When dealing with
digital numbers, a quantity between 0 to 0.5 is 0 while
a quantity between 0.5 to 1.5 is 1 and a quantity
between 1.5 to 2.5 is 2. For example, a point A on the
analogue curve is 5.5 from the origin but in digital
system it would be read as 5. From A to B is 6 and from
B to C is 7. It apparently seems that if we adopt digital
system, the errors involved will be considerable. But if
we divide each of the 10 steps into 10 equal parts, we
get 100 steps instead of 10. And if these 100 steps are
further divided into 10 parts each, we will have 1000
steps. This gives much better accuracy in converting
analog quantities into digital numbers. We can go on
subdividing further and further till the desired
accuracy is achieved. But it should be kept in mind
that a digital number is still a sum of equal units.
 6 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
In a digital system, magnitude lying within one of
these steps lose their identity and are all defined by
the same number. For example, if we have ten steps,
numbers lying between 2.5 to 3.5 i.c., 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9,
3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, would all be read as 3.
From the above discussion we conclude that the
difference between analog and digital information is
that the analog output is a continuous function while
the digital output is a discrete number of units. The
last digit of any digital number is rounded to ± 0.5 of
the last digit. It should also be marked that the
magnitude of the digital quantity is measured only at
the instant the reading is taken. One reading persists
till another reading is taken (unlike the analog
quantity which is a continuous function).
The majority of present day instruments are
analog type. The importance of digital instruments is
increasing, mainly because of the increasing use of
digital computers in both data processing and auto­
matic control systems. Since digital computer works
only with digital signals, any information supplied to
it must be in digital form. The computer's output is
also in digital form. Thus working with a digital
computer at either the input or the output, we must
use digital signals.
However, most of our present day measurement
and control apparatus produce signals of analog
nature, it is thus necessary to have both Analog to
Digital (A/D) Converters at the input to the computer
and Digital to Analog (D/A) Converters at the output
of the computer.
1.9 FUNCTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS AND
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
There is another way in which instruments or
measurement systems may be classified. This classi­
fication is based upon the functions they perform. The
three main functions are explained below :
1. Indicating function. Instruments and systems
use different kinds of methods for supplying infor­
mation concerning the variable quantity under measure­
ment. Most of the time this information is obtained as
a deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument. In
this way, the instrument performs a function which is
commonly known as indicating function. For
example, the deflection pf pointer of a speedometer
indicates the speed of the automobile at that moment.
A pressure gauge is used for indicating pressure.
2. Recording function. In many cases the
instrument makes a written record, usually on paper,
of the v^lue of the quantity under measurement
against time or against some other variable. Thus the
instrument performs a recording function. For
example, a potentiometric type of recorder used for
monitoring temperature records the instantaneous
values of temperatures on a strip chart recorder.
3. Controlling function. This is one of the most
important functions especially in the field of industrial
control processes. In this case, the information is used
by the instrument or the system to control the original
measured quantity.
Thus there are three main groups of instruments.
The largest group has the indicating function. Next in
line is the group of instruments which have both
indicating and or recording functions. The last group
falls into a special category and performs all the three ■
functions, i.e.; indicating, recording and controlling.
In this text, main emphasis is laid upon instru­
ments whose functions are mainly indicating and
recording, especially those instruments which are
used for engineering analysis purposes. The control
function will be analyzed in those cases where con­
trolling enters as an integral part of the indicating and
recording functions of instrumentation. The examples
of controlling instruments aye thermostats for
temperature control and floats for liquid level control.
f -‘-J APPLICATIONS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
In order to build up background for our later
detailed study of measuring instruments and systems
and their characteristics, it is useful to discuss, in
general, the various ways these instruments are put to
use. The way the instruments and measurement sys­
tems are used for different applications are as under :
A Monitoring of processes and operations,
A Control of processes and operations, and
A Experimental Engineering analysis.
1. Monitoring of processes and operations. There
are certain applications of measuring instruments that
have essentially a monitoring function. They simply
indicate the value or condition of parameter under
study and their readings do not serve any control /
functions. For example, an ammeter or a voltmeter
indicates the value of current or voltage being
monitored (measured) at a particular instant. ,
Similarly, water and electric energy meters installed in
homes keep track of commodity used so that later on
its cost may be computed to be realized from the user.
2. Control of processes and operations. A very
useful application of instruments is in automatic
control systems. There has been a very strong
association between measurement and control.
Measurements and Measurement Systems
In order that process variables like temperature,
pressure, humidity, etc. may be controlled, the
prerequisite is that they can be measured at the
desired location in the individual plants. Same is true
of servo-systems, i.e., systems connected with
measurement of position, velocity and acceleration.
A block diagram of a simple control system is
shown in Fig. 1.4. Let us assume that the output
variable to be controlled is non-electrical and the
control action is through electrical means. The input is
reference which corresponds to the desired value of
the output. The input is compared with the output
with the help of a comparator. The output is a non­
electrical quantity and is converted into a corres­
ponding electrical form by a transducer connected in
the feedback loop. In case the input and output differ,
there is a resultant error signal. This error signal is
amplified and then fed to an actuator, which produces
power to drive the controlled circuitry.
Fig. 1.4 Block diagram of a simple control system.
The corrective action goes on till the output is at
the same level as the input which corresponds to the
desired output. At this stage, there is no error signal
and hence there is no input to the actuator and the
control action stops. . /
Examples of this type of application are
numerous. A common one is the typical refrigeration
system which employs a thermostatic control. A
temperature measuring device (often a bimetallic
element) senses the room temperature, thus providing
the information necessary for proper functioning of
the control system.
3. Experimental engineering analysis. For solution
of engineering problems, theoretical and experimental
methods are available. Many applications require
application of both the methods. The relative affability
of the method depends upon the nature of the
problem. Experimental engineering analysis has many
uses and some are listed below :
(i) Testing the validity of theoretical predictions.
(ii) Formulations of generalized empirical
relationships in cases where no proper
theoretical backing exists.
(z'n) Determination of system parameters,
variables and performance indices.
(zu) For development in important spheres of
study where there is ample scope of study.
(u) Solutions of mathematical relationships with
the help of analogies.
L
; TYPES 0F INSTRUMENTATION systems
The advent of microprocessors has completely
revolutionized the field of instrumentation and control.
Microprocessor based systems are increasingly being
used for dedicated applications in process instru­
mentation. The introduction of microprocessors
results a new classification of instrumentation systems
and these are :
A Intelligent Instrumentation systems, and
A Dumb Instrumentation systems.
1. Intelligent instrumentation. This term has to
come mean the use of an instrumentation system to
evaluate a physical variable employing a digital
computer to perform all or nearly all signal and
information processing. In this system after a
measurement has been made of the variable, further
processing whether in digital or analog form is carried
out to refine the data, for the purpose of presentation
to an observer or to other computers.
2. Dumb instrumentation. In this system once the
measurement is made, the data must be processed by
the observer.
! 1-12 INFORMATION AND SIGNAL PROCESSING
The two terms "Information" and "Signals" are
usually considered as synonymous. However, they
have precisely different definitions.
\ A Information. It is the data or details relating
to an object or event.
A Signals. They carry the information about
magnitude or time relating to an object or
event i.e., a physical quantity.
1.13 ELEMENTS OF A GENERALIZED
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
It is important to have a systematic organization
and analysis of measurement systems. An instrument
may be defined as a device or a system which is
designed to maintain a functional relationship between
prescribed properties of physical variables and must
include ways and means of communication to a
human observer. The functional relationship remains
valid only as long as the static calibration of system
 8 Electrical and Electronic
. On the other hand, the performance
of a measurement system can be described in terms of
static and dynamic characteristics.
It is possible and desirable to describe the
operation of a measuring instrument or a system in a
generalized manner without resorting to intricate
details of the physical aspects of a specific instrument
or a system. The whole operation can be described in
terms of functional elements.
Most of the measurement systems contain three
main functional elements. They are :
1. Primary sensing element,
2. Variable conversion element, and
3. Data presentation element.
Each functional element is made up of a distinct
component or groups of components which perform
the required and definite steps in the measurement.
These may be taken as basic elements, whose scope is
determined by their functioning rather than their
construction.
1.13.1 Primary Sensing Element
The quantity under measurement makes its first
contact with the primary sensing element of a mea­
surement system. In other words, the measurand is
first detected by primary sensor. This act is then
immediately followed by the conversion of measurand
into an analogous electrical signal. This is done by a
transducer. A transducer in general, is defined as a
device which converts energy from one form to
another. But in Electrical measurement systems, this
definition is limited in scope. A transducer is defined as a
device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical
quantity. The physical quantity to be measured, in the
first place is sensed and detected by an element which
gives the output in a different analogous form. This
output is then converted into an electrical signal by a
transducer. This is true of most of the cases but is not
true for all. In many cases the physical quantity is
directly converted into an electrical quantity by a
transducer. The first stage of a measurement system is
known as a detector transducer Stage.
Fig. 1.5 Functional elements of an instrumentation system.
1.13.2 Variable Conversion Element
The output of the primary sensing element may
be electrical signal of any form. It may be a voltage, a
frequency or some other electrical parameter.
Sometimes this output is not suited to the system. For
the instrument to perform the desired function, it may
be necessary to convert this output to some other
suitable form while preserving the information
content of the original signal. We may cite an example.
Suppose output is.in analog form and the next stage of
the system accepts input signals only in digital form
and therefore, an A/D converter will have to be used
for converting signals from analog to digital form for
them to be acceptable for the next stage of the system.
Many instruments do not need any variable ■■
conversion element, while others need more than one
variable conversion element.
1.13.3 Variable Manipulation Element
The function of this element is to manipulate the
signal presented to it preserving the original nature of
the signal. Manipulation here means only a change in
numerical value of the signal. For example, an
electronic amplifier accepts a small voltage signal as
input and produces an output signal which is also
voltage but of greater magnitude. Thus voltage
amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element. It is
not necessary that a variable manipulation element
should follow the variable conversion element as
shown in Fig. 1.5. It may precede the variable
conversion element in many cases. In case, the voltage
is too high, attenuators are used which lower the
voltage or power for the subsequent stages of the
system. Further the impedance of the attenuator to be
matched to the input and output circuits and further
for multi ratio attenuator these impedance ratios are
constant irrespective of the ratio setting.
As discussed earlier, the output of transducer
contains information needed for further processing by
the system and the output signal is usually a voltage
or some other form of electrical signal. The two most
important properties of voltage are its magnitude and
frequency though polarity may be a consideration in
some cases. Many transducers develop low voltages of
the order of mV and some even pV. A fundamental
Measurements and Measurement Systems 9
problem is to prevent this signal being contaminated
by unwanted signals like noise due to an extraneous
source which may interfere with the original output
signal. Another problem is that a weak signal may be
distorted by processing equipment. The signal after
being sensed cannot be directly transmitted to the next
stage without removing the interfering sources, as
otherwise highly distorted results may be obtained
which are far from true. Many a times it becomes
necessary to perform certain operations on the signal
before it is transmitted further. These processes may
be linear like amplification, attenuation, integration,
differentiation, addition and subtraction. Some non­
linear processes like modulation, detection, sampling,
filtering, chopping and clipping etc. are also
performed on the signal to bring it to the desired form
to be accepted by the next stage of measurement
system. This process of conversion is called Signal
Conditioning. The term signal conditioning includes
many other functions in addition to variable
conversion and variable manipulation. In fact the
element that follows the primary sensing element in
any instrument or measurement system is called
Signal Conditioning Element.
When the elements of an instrument are actually
physically separated, it becomes necessary to transmit
data from one to another. The element that performs
this function is called a Data Transmission Element.
For example, space-crafts are physically separated
from the earth where the control stations guiding their
movements are located. Therefore control signals are
sent from these stations to space-crafts by a
complicated telemetry systems using radio signals.
The signal conditioning and transmission stage is
commonly known as Intermediate Stage.
1.13.4 Data Presentation Element
The information about the quantity undjer
measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel
handling the instrument or the system for monitoring,
control, or analysis purposes. The information
conveyed must be in a form intelligible to the
personnel or to the intelligent instrumentation system.
This function is done by data presentation element. In
case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are
needed. These devices may be analog or digital
Fig. 1.7 / Schematic diagram of a Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
indicating instruments like ammeters, voltmeters etc.
In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like
magnetic tapes, high speed camera and T.V. equip­
ment, storage type C.R.T., printers, analog and digital
computers or microprocessors may be used. For
control and analysis purpose microprocessors or
computers may be used.
Fig. 1,6 Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
The final stage in a measurement system is known
as terminating stage. As an example of a
measurement system, consider the simple bourdon
tube pressure gauge as shown in Fig. 1.6. This gauge
offers a good example of a measurement system. In
this case the bourdon tube acts as the primary sensing
element and a variable conversion element. It senses
the input quantity (pressure in this case). On account
of the pressure the closed end of the bourdon tube is
displaced. Thus the pressure is converted into a small
displacement. The closed end of the bourdon tube is
connected through mechanical linkage to a gearing
arrangement. The gearing arrangement amplifies the
small displacement and makes the pointer to rotate
through a large angle. The mechanical linkage thus
acts as a data transmission element while the gearing
arrangement acts as a data manipulation element.
The final data presentation stage consists of the
pointer and dial arrangement, which when calibrated
with known pressure inputs, gives an indication of the
pressure signal applied to the bourdon tube. The
schematic diagram of. this measurement system is
given in Fig. 1.7. ' . '
When a control device is used for the final
measurement stage, it is necessary to apply some
feedback to the input signal to accomplish the control
 10 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
objectives. The control stage compares the signal
representing the measured variable with a reference
signal of the same form. This reference signal has a
value the measured signal should have and is
presented to a controller. If the measured signal agrees
with the reference value, the controller does nothing.
However, if there is a difference between the
measured value and the reference value, an error
signal is generated. Thus the controller sends a signal
to a device which acts to alter the value of the
measured signal. Suppose the measured variable is
flow of a liquid, then the control device is a motorized
valve placed in the flow system. In case the measured
flow rate is too low than the preset flow rate, then the
controller would cause the valve to open, thereby
increasing the flow rate. If on the other hand, the flow
rate were too high, the valves are closed. The opera­
tion of closing or opening of valve will cease when the
output flow rate is equal to preset value of flow rate.
144 INPUT-OUTPUT CONFIGURATIONS OF MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
A generalised configuration in instruments and
measurement systems which brings out a significant
input-output relationship present in them is shown in
Fig. 1.8. Input quantities are classified into three
categories : ?V
(z) desired inputs, (z'z) interfering inputs,
(zz’z) modifying inputs.
Output component
modifying outputs
Fig. 1.8 Generalised input-output configuration of
measurement systems.
1.14.1 Desired Inputs
Desired inputs are defined as quantities for which
the instrument or the measurement system is
specifically designed to measure and respond. The
desired input, rD produces an output, component
cd = GDrD in accordance with an input-output
relationship symbolised by a mathematical operator,
Gd, which is defined as Transfer Function.
Gd is necessarily a mathematical operation to get
an output from a desired input. Thus if an input Y is
operated upon by a transfer function 'G', the output is
c = Gr. The transfer function may simply be a constant,
K, which multiplies the static input, r^, to get an
output cD = KrD to obtain either an amplified or an
attenuated output in linear systems. It should be
understood that a constant cannot be used for
describing the input-output relationships for non­
linear systems. For non-linear systems, the transfer
function is represented by either an algebraic or a
transcendental function. The input-output relation­
ships for systems subjected to dynamic inputs are
represented by differential equations.
In case, a description of the output 'scatter' or
dispersion for repeated equal static inputs is desired, a
statistical function is needed to represent the
input-output relationship.
The transfer function, Gp, is therefore represen­
tative of a wide range of functions from a constant in
the case of linear systems to a statistical function used
for statistical measurements.
1.14.2 Interfering Inputs
Interfering inputs represent quantities to which an
instrument or a measurement system becomes uninten­
tionally sensitive. The instruments or measurement
systems are not desired to respond to interfering inputs
but they give an output due to interfering inputs on
account of their principle of working, design and
many other factors like the environments in which
they are placed. The interfering input r, is operated
upon by a transfer function G; to produce an output in
the same manner as a desired input is operated upon
by a transfer function, Gp, to produce an output.
1.14.3 Modifying Inputs
This class of inputs can be included among the
interfering inputs. However, a separate classification
is essential since such a classification is more
significant. Modifying inputs are defined as inputs
which cause a change in input-output relationships for
either desired inputs or interfering inputs or for both.
Thus, a modifying input, z is an input that modifies
Gd and/or G;. The symbols GMD and GMI represent the
specific manner in which rM affects G.D and G;
respectively. These symbols, GMD and GM[ are inter­
preted in the same general way as GD and Gt are.
Measurements and Measurement Systems 11
The block diagram shown in Fig. 1.8 depicts the
concepts described above, the circle with a cross in it
represents the summing point. The two plus signs
shown indicate that the output of the summing point
is the sum of the instantaneous values of its two
inputs. An instrument or a measurement system may
be subjected to desired, interfering and modifying
inputs and therefore the output is the sum of
instantaneous output components resulting from
these inputs. An instrument or a measurement system
may have several inputs of each of these three types
and thus have several outputs. Hence, it may be
necessary to draw more complex block diagrams than
that shown in Fig. 1.8.
Let us consider an case of measurement of
differential pressure of a fluid with the help of a
L/-tube manometer using mercury as manometric
fluid as shown in Fig. 1.9. The pressures applied at the
two ends of the U-tube are P1 and P2. The differential
pressure is P = Pt - P2 and is given by the following
expression
~P2 =Sh(Pn,-Pf) ...(1.1)
where pm, p f = density of mercury, and fluid
respectively ; kg/m3,
g = gravitational constant ms”2,
h = scale regarding, m.
Scale
Fig. 1.9 Measurement of differential pressure with
manometer.
Let us consider that the fluid is a gas and therefore
the density pz is negligible as compared with pm.
Therefore, Eqn. 1.1 can be written as:
P=P,-P2=gPmh ...(1.2)
and P2 are the desired inputs while scale
reading, h, is the output. The product gpm relates the
output with input.
In case P} = P2, the differential pressure is zero and
therefore output i.e., scale reading, h should be zero.
However, there are examples when the scale reading,
h is not zero even though P} = P2, the differential
pressure, i.e., desired input is zero. This is on account
of presence of interfering inputs, action of two of
which is shown in Figs. 1.10 and 1.11. Figure 1.10
shows a manometer which is placed on a vehicle that
is accelerating. Although the pressures at the two ends
of the manometer are equal, a differential pressure is
created on account of acceleration and therefore the
scale indicates a reading, h. Thus, acceleration acts as
an interfering input.
Fig. 1.10 Acceleration as an interfering input.
Figure 1.11 shows another case of interfering
input. In this case, the manometer is not properly
aligned with the gravity vector because of the angle of
tilt. Therefore, there is an output, h, even though there
is no differential pressure. Hence, angle of tilt, 0, acts
as an interfering input.
Fig. 1.11 Angle of tilt as an interfering input.
The modifying inputs for the manometer are
ambient temperature and gravitational force. Ambient
temperature manifests in many ways in modifying
input-output relationship as given in Eqn. 1.2. Some of
these are :
(/) changes in ambient temperature change the
length of calibrated scale thereby modifying
the proportionality factor relating the input
(J’ - P2) with output h.
(zz) changes in ambient temperature change the
value density of mercury, p|;| and therefore
the proportionality factor relating the input
with the output is changed.
It is clear from Eqn. 1,2, that the proportionality
factor relating input with output depends upon the
value of g. Now the value of y i? different at different
locations. Therefore, a change in gravitational force
due to the changes in location of manometer like using
 12 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
it at different heights above sea level or putting it in a
space ship leads to modification of the input-output
X for the desired inputs. Also, since g can also be
interfering input due to angle of tilt as explained
before, there is modification in the input-output
relationship for the interfering input as well. Thus, it is
observed that effects of both the desired and
interfering inputs may be modified.
Let us consider the example of measurement of
strain produced on application of a force on a canti­
lever as shown in Fig. 1.12. The strain is measured
with the help of a strain gauge, which consists of grid
of fine wire whose resistance changes when strained
because of change in its length, and area and, also
because of piezo-resistive effect. The strain gauge is
-firmly cemented to the cantilever at the point where
thfcqstrain is to be measured. The strain gauge forms
one arm of a Wheatstone bridge. Let the unstrained
resistance of the strain gauge be Rl = R. The other
three arms of the bridge consist of resistances R-,, R3
and R4. The bridge is balanced if Rj/R3 = R^/Re­
Fig. 1.12 Measurement of strain using Wheatstone
bridge.
Let R2 = R3 = R4 = R and therefore when no strain
is applied the bridge is balanced and the output
voltage, Cq, is zero. When strained, the resistance of the
strain gauge changes according to the following
relationship: -X-
AR = GfsR (See Eqn. 25,68 ) ...(1.3)
where, AR = change in resistance of strain gauge ; Q,
Gf = gauge factor ; and s = strain.
From Eqn. 1.3, it is. Clear that the change in
resistance of strain gauge is proportional to strain.
Thus if the change in resistance of the strain gauge is
measured, the value of strain can be computed. The
change in resistance of strain gauge is measured with
the help of a Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 1.12.
This bridge has four arms, the strain gauge forms one
of the arms, each of rest of the three arms consists of a
resistance whose value is equal to R, the resistance of
the strain gauge when it is not strained.
When no force is applied to the cantilever, the
strain is zero and the resistance of the strain gauge is
R. Since, the resistance in each of the other three arms
of the bridge is R, the bridge is balanced and there is
no output from the bridge i.e., Output voltage eQ =0.
When a force, F, is applied to the cantilever, it
causes a strain, s, which in turn produces a change, AR,
in the resistance of strain gauge. This unbalances the
bridge, producing an output voltage, eQ, which is
proportional to strain, e, and can be measured using a
meter or an oscilloscope. The output voltage is given
by:
Gf
enU = — seI ; (See Eqn. 29.6) ...(1-4)
\ The desired input is obviously strain, e, which
produces a proportional output which is voltage eQ.
One of the interfering inputs is temperature.
Suppose there is a change in temperature at the place
where the strain gauge is located. It will cause a
change in resistance of strain gauge thereby
producing an output voltage even if the force applied
to the cantilever is zero and there is no strain.
Temperature has another interfering effect. It
produces a differential expansion of the gauge and the
cantilever since the two are not made of the same
material. This differential expansion produces a strain
and consequently an output voltage even in the
absence of an applied force.
Another interfering input is the 50 Hz field of
nearby power lines. This field induces voltages in the
strain gauge circuit producing an output voltage even
when the strain is zero.
The battery voltage is a modifying input since it\
changes the proportionality factor between the desired X
input s and the output e0 and also between the inter­
fering input (strain gauge temperature) and output eQ.
1.15 METHODS OF CORRECTION FOR
INTERFERING AND MODIFYING INPUTS
It is normal practice to try and nullify or reduce
the effects of interfering and modifying inputs. There .s
are many methods available that are adopted at the
designer's level and/or user's level. Some of these
methods are described below.
1. Method of inherent insensitivity. In this
method the instruments dr the measurement systems
are so designed that they are sensitive only to desired
Measurements and Measurement Systems 13
inputs and are insensitive to both interfering and
modifying inputs. This means that it is desirable to
make G, and/or GMD as nearly equal to zero as possible
so that even though and/or rM may exist they cannot
affect the output V ' . .
The approach adopted is not practicable in many
situations, but acts as a motivating factor in many
cases to use ingenuity for elimination of effects of
spurious inputs. For example, temperature is an
interfering input in the case of measurement of strain
with the help of strain gauges. The method of inherent
insensitivity motivates one for finding and using
materials for the strain gauges that have a very low
(almost zero) resistance temperature co-efficient. If
such a material could be found, the problem of
interfering temperature inputs is partially solved.
2. Method of high gain feedback. Feedback
systems play an important part in modern measure­
ment and control systems because they can easily be
adopted to perform their assigned tasks automatically.
The most significant advantage of using a feedback
system is that the use of feedback makes the system
response relatively insensitive to modifying inputs.
A non-feedback (open loop) system is shown in
Fig. 1.13(47). The transfer function for the desired
inputs is Gd and the desired input is rp.
(b)
Fig. 1.13 (a) Non-feedback (open loop) system.
(b) Feedback (closed loop) system.
.-. Output due desired input C = GDrD
Suppose due to modifying input like changes in
ambient temperature, the transfer function changes by
AGd and therefore the modified transfer function is
G,xri = Gn + AGn. The output of the non-feedback
systems changes to
C+ AC = (GD + AGD)rD = GDrD + AGprD
Output due to change in transfer function on
account of modifying input is,
t\C~6GDrp ...(1.5)
Figure 1.13(b) shows a feedback (closed loop)
system having H as the transfer function of feedback
elements.
The output corresponding to desired input is z
C = ~r
1+.GDH D
In the presence of modifying inputs, the output
changes to
.'v, (Gn + AGn) .</ ■
C + AC = —^-2------ D-— rn
■ l + (GD + AGp)H
1 + GdH + ^GdH 1 + GpH + &GDH
= -—''''' ~ rD (as A gd <<: Gb)
1 + GDHD 1+GdHd d\>\.
Output due to change in transfer function on
account of modifying output is,
AGd r
...(1.6)
AC =
1+GdH d
Hence, comparing Eqns. 1.5 and 1.6, it is clear that
in comparison to the non-feedback system, the output
in the feedback system, corresponding to change of
transfer function because of modifying inputs is
reduced by a factor (1+GDH). Now, if the feedback
systems are designed with a high gain feedback, H,
the value of output on account of modifying inputs is
considerably reduced.V
3. Method of calculated output corrections. The
use of this method requires the knowledge of
magnitude of interfering and/or modifying inputs and
also the mathematical relationships which describe
the way these inputs affect the output. With this
information it becomes possible to calculate the errors
in output caused by the interfering and/or modifying
inputs. Thus corrections can be applied to the measured
output to compute the output corresponding to
desired input. For example, for the case of
measurement of differential pressure with the help of
mercury manometer, the effects of temperature (an
interfering and a modifying input) on the scale length
and on the density of mercury can easily be calculated
in case the temperature is known.
The gravitational force is also an interfering and
modifying input for the manometers. The corrections
for this spurious input can easily be computed
provided the elevation and latitude of the place at
which the manometer is used ate known. The method
of calculated output corrections, though applicable to any
form of input, can only be used for inputs that are
essentially constant. ■
4, Method of signal filtering. The method qf signal
filtering is based upon introduction of filters in
 14 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

instruments and measurement systems. The filter situations the filters have to be designed so as to be
blocks the passage of unwanted signals in such a way selective i.e., they should pass the desired signals and
that the output on account of spurious signals is either reject or considerably attenuate the spurious inputs.
completely eliminated or is considerably reduced. The
filter may be introduced into any of the three major
stages of a measurement system, the choice, however,
depends upon the application. Schemes involving
Input Filtering have filters introduced into the input
stage of measurement system for interfering and
modifying signals. This is schematically shown in
Fig. 1.14.

Fig. 1.15 Schematic diagram for output filtering.

Electromechanical devices used for navigation,
aircraft and missile applications should be free from
any shock and vibrations since delicate instruments
are attached to the structures of these devices.
Figure 1.16 shows the manner in which the interfering
vibration inputs may be filtered out. The mass-spring
system is actually a mechanical filter which transmits
only a fraction of the vibrations from the vibrating
Fig. 1.14 Schematic diagram of input filtering.
structure to the measuring instruments. This is an
The interfering and the modifying inputs are example of input filtering.
passed through a filter whose transfer function is
ideally zero and therefore the outputs rj and
corresponding respectively to interfering input and
the modifying input rM are zero. Therefore, the output
that is available from the summing point is only on
account of the desired input.
Figure 1.15 shows the schematic diagram for
Output Filtering.
The output C, though a single signal, is
C ~ <~D + + Ci '. X
structure
where CD, CM, C; are respectively the outputs Fig. 1.16 Isolation of vibration sensitive instruments.
corresponding to desired, modifying and interfering
A thermocouple is used for measurement of
inputs. In many a situations, it is possible to selectively
temperature as shown in Fig. 1.17. In order that the
block CM and C; but allow CD to pass faithfully, the
output C'D = CD, the output corresponding to the
desired input. This is done by making transfer
functions for Cf and CM equal to zero.
Filters may take seyeral forms. If a filter is put
directly in the path of a interfering or a modifying
input, it may be designed to reject completely the
interfering and modifying signal. However, in most of temperature
the situations, the input to a filter contains both Fig. 117 Isolation of thermocouple reference junction
desired as well as the spurious inputs. In such from changes in ambient temperature.
Measurements and Measurement Systems 15

calibration of the thermocouple should hold good, any

changes in the ambient temperature should not have
any effect on the reference function. This needs a
thermal insulation which acts as an Input Filter, for
temperature or heat flow interfering inputs.
Figure 1.18 shows another example of input
filtering. Here, the 50 Hz magnetic field tries to
introduce an interfering input to a strain gauge bridge.
(b) Strain gauge signal plus
The interfering magnetic field is prevented from the the interfering signal
strain gauge with the help of a magnetic shield which
may take the shape of a box made up of a
ferromagnetic material.

Fig. 1.19 Output filtering of strain gauge bridge

signal by a low-pass filter.

designed to have a characteristic as shown in Fig-

Fig. 1.18 Magnetic shield for a strain gauge bridge
1.19(c) so that the desired signal (1 Hz in this case) is
for input filtering of power frequency fields. reproduced faithfully, while the high frequency signal
of 50 Hz is greatly attenuated. The output, which is a
Some examples of outputfiltering are given below: faithful representation of the desired strain gauge
Figure 1.19(a) shows an arrangement which is input signal is shown in Fig. 1.19(d),
used for measurement of strains that are mainly Figure 1.20(a) shows a pressure gauge whose
steady and do not vary more rapidly than 1 Hz. response is modified by the insertion of a flow
Ideally, the output signal should vary at the same rate restriction between the source of the pressure and
as the input. However, there is every likelihood that piston chamber as shown in Fig. 1.20(b). This
the output from the strain gauge bridge may pick up arrangement is useful for measurement of average
signals from 50 Hz power lines, thereby distorting the
output. Therefore, it is essential that the 50 Hz signal
eliminated so that there is no spurious signal applied
to the measurement circuit. ' \
Figure 1.19(17) shows the input signal to the
measurement system which contains the desired
signal arising out on account of the change in strain (at
a frequency of 1 Hz) plus the 50 Hz power line
interfering signal. A low-pass RC filter can be
50 Hz f ield

Strain gauge bridge

(a) Strain gauge circuit Fig. 1.20 Measurement of average pressure.
 16 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
pressure in a large air tank that'is being supplied by a
reciprocating compressor. The pulsations in the/air
pressure may be smoothened out by a pneumatic
filter. The variations in the ratio of output pressure PQ
and in the input pressure P i.e., | Po I P| with frequency
are similar to that of an PC filter. Therefore, the static
or slowly varying input pressures are accurately
measured while the fast variations are attenuated
greatly. The flow restriction is in the form of a needle
valve allowing easy adjustments in the filtering
process.
In some applications, the spurious input is a slow
varying signal. For such cases, a high pass filter is
used. Let us consider the case of a chopped radiometer
as shown in Fig. 1.21 in a simplified form. The
objective of this device is to sense the temperature, 0 ,
of an object in terms of the infrared radiant energy it
emits. The emitted energy is focussed on a detector, a
photo-emissive cell, which responds to this type of
radiation. The radiant > energy changes the
temperature, 0 r of the photocell. Since the detector is
sensitive to the changes in temperature, it will
Source of infrared
Chopped 9S
Chopped
0S only
Fig. 1.21 A highpass filter for infrared radiant energy.
produce a voltage e. which is amplified to e0 by an
amplifier. Thus if 0s, changes, the temperature of the
detector 0t/ changes,, with the result that q changes and
consequently the output voltage eQ changes.
The major problem with these devices is that the
ambient temperature 0ambient as well as the tempe­
rature of the source 0. affect the temperature of the
detector, thus affecting the output voltage eQ. The
effect is serious because the radiant energy to be
measured causes very small changes in 0rf. On the
other hand, even small changes in ambient tempe­
rature, 0ambi t may completely distort the output,
thereby completely shrouding the output signal. A
simple solution to this problem is the introduction of a
rotating shutter between the radiant source and the
detector so that the desired input is chopped or
modulated, at a known frequency. The modulating
frequency is chosen to be much higher than the
frequencies at which the change in ambient tempe­
rature occurs. The output voltage signal e.. of the
detector is a superposed signal with slow changes on
account of ambient temperature variations and a high
frequency signal whose amplitude varies in accor­
dance with 0s. As the desired and the interfering
inputs are widely separated in frequency band, they
can be conveniently and selectively filtered. For such
an application, it is desired that the filter used should
reject the slow varying,interfering outputs on account
of temperature variations, but pass fast varying
signals on account of variations in 0^. This requires the
use of a high pass filter. In fact such applications require
the use of an a.c. amplifier. Since a.c. amplification,
even otherwise needed, the use of an a.c. amplifier
with low frequency cut off solves both the problems
i.e., the problem of attenuation of a low frequency
signal and amplification of a high frequency a.c. signal
without distortion. A wide frequency band is
necessary and this is conveniently provided in the
arrangement shown in Fig. 1.21.
5. Method of opposing inputs. This method is
basically akin \to method of calculated output
corrections. The method of calculated output
corrections requires errors caused on account of
spurious input to be calculated and then corrections
applied in order to obtain output corresponding to the
desired inputs. The method of opposing inputs, on the .'
other hand, requires that the measurement system be ’
so designed that the outputs caused by spurious
inputs be opposed by outputs produced by
components physically built into the system that
exactly act the opposite way and cancel out the
outputs on account of spurius signals. \'
Measurements and Measurement Systems 17
Let us consider the case of measurement of strain
with the help of strain gauge bridge as shown in
Fig. 1.22. As explained earlier temperature is an
interfering input and there is an output on account of
changes in ambient temperature even though there is
no input strain. This effect can be eliminated by using
a dummy gauge in the adjacent arm of the Wheatstone
bridge. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.22.
Fig. 1.22 Use of dummy gauge for temperature
compensation.
Review Questions
1. Distinguish between the direct and indirect
methods of measurement. Cite examples to
support your answer.
2. List the advantages of electronic instruments over
electrical and mechanical instruments.
3. Distinguish between "Intelligent Instrumentation
Systems" and "Dumb Instrumentation Systems".
Cite examples to support your answer.
4. Describe the difference between deflection and
null tvpe of instruments giving suitable examples.
Discuss about their accuracy, sensitivity and suit­
ability for dynamic measurements. /
5. Explain the analog and digital modes of operation
of instruments. Explain how the resolution of
digital instruments can be increased.
6. What are the basic blocks of a Generalized Instru­
mentation System ? Draw the various blocks and
explain their functions.
7. What are "Desired", "Modifying" and 'Inter­
fering" inputs for an Instrumentation System ?
Give examples for each of these. Draw a block
diagram for showing their influence on the
. output.
The active strain gauge is installed on the test
specimen (cantilever in this case) while the dummy
gauge is installed on a like piece of material and is not
subjected to any strain.
The bridge is initially balanced and therefore
Rj/R3 = ^2/^4- Supposing a change in temperature
occurs, and the resistances of active and dummy 1
gauges change by ARj and AR2 respectively. In order
that there should be no output the bridge should be
balanced and this requires \
R] + AR| R, + AR2
AR. AR,
or —- = - \ -\ '< .
^3 ^4
Let R3 = R4 = R and therefore for bridge balance
ARj should be equal to AR,. Now if the active and the
dummy gauges are identical i.e., R = R2 = R and if the
dummy gauge in placed in the same environments as
the active strain gauge AR, = AR, and, therefore, there
will be no output due to changes in ambient
temperature.
8. Explain how the effect of Modifying and Inter­
fering inputs is minimized/eliminated in measure­
ment systems. Cite suitable examples.
9. Define "Input Filtering" and "Output Filtering".
Explain with suitable examples.
10. Figure 1.23 shows an electromagnetic type of
balance which utilizes the modulation of light
energy falling on a phototube for measurement of
\an unknown force. Draw a generalized block'
diagram of the measurement system and explain
the functions of each block.
source
Fig. 1.23 The electromagnetic balance.
 18 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Tick (a/) the most appropriate answer
1. The measurement of a quantity
(fl) is an act of comparison of an unknown quantity
with another quantity
(b) is an act of comparison of an unknown quantity
with a known quantity whose accuracy may be
known or may not be known
(c) is an act of comparison of an unknown quantity
with a predefined acceptable standard which is
accurately known
(d) none of the above.
2. In present day measurement systems
(fl) direct methods are commonly used
(b) use of direct methods is limited but indirect
methods are commonly used
(c) both direct and indirect methods are
commonly used
(d) all the above.
3. Purely mechanical instruments cannot be used for
A dynamic measurements because they have :
(fl) high inertia (b) large time constant
(c) higher response time (d) all the above.
4. The usage of electronic instruments is becoming
more extensive because they have
(a) a high sensitivity and reliability
(b) a fast response and compatibility with digital
computers
(c) the capability to respond to signals from
remote places
(d) all the above.
5. A null type of instrument as compared to a deflec­
tion type instrument has
(a) a higher accuracy (b) a lower sensitivity
(c) a faster response (d) all the above.
6. In an intelligent information system used for the
measurement of a physical quantity
(a) the digital computer must perform all or nearly
all the signal and information processing
(b) the observer must perform all or nearly all the
signal and information processing
(c) the digital computer is not required
(d) none the above.
7. In a generalized measurement system, the function
of the signal manipulating element is to
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (fl)
(<?) change the quantity under measurement to an
analogous signal
(b) change the magnitude of the input signal while
retaining its identity
(c) to perform linear operations like addition and
multiplication
(d) to perform non-linear operations like filtering,
chopping and clipping and clamping
(e) none of the above.
8. A modifying input to a measurement system can
be defined as an input
(a) which changes the input-output relationship
for desired inputs only
(b) which changes the input-output relationship
for desired as well as interfering inputs
(c) which changes the input-output relationship
for interfering inputs only
(d) none of the above.
9. In a measurement system, the open loop transfer
function is 10 and changes by 10 percent. If a closed
loop system is adopted wherein the feedback
system has a transfer function of 100. What will be
the change in output in the case of open loop and in
closed loop systems
(a) 10%, lOxlO’3 % (b) 10 %, lxl0‘3 %
(c) 100 %, 10 x 10~3 % (d) 100 %, 1 x 10’3 %.
10. In a permanent magnet moving coil type of
ammeter, the current is, /= °
NBA
where 0 = deflection, K = spring constant, N -
number of turns of moving coil, A = area of
moving coil and B = flux density of field produced
permanent magnet. Temperature is an interfering
input to the system. It is known that strength of
magnets reduces by 0.02 per cent per °C and the
strength of springs reduces by 0.04 per cent per 6C.
Which method should be adopted to apply correc­
tions for the interfering input ?
(a) Method of inherent insensitivity
(b) Method of high gain feedback
(c) Method of calculated output corrections
(d) Method of opposing inputs.
6. («) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (fl) 10. (<?)