Engineering Failure Analysis 139 (2022) 106472

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Failure analysis of oscillating hammer mill used in the

sugarcane industry
Ricardo Aparecido Sasso a, Guilherme Yuuki Koga a, c, Dennis Coelho Cruz a, b,
Gustavo Figueira a, Piter Gargarella a, c, *
a
Federal University of Sao Carlos, Graduate Program in Materials Science and Engineering, Sao Carlos, SP, Brazil
b
Federal University of West Bahia, Center for Exact Sciences and Technology, Barreiras, BA, Brazil
c
Center for Characterization and Development of Materials (CCDM), Federal University of São Carlos, Sao Carlos, SP, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Sugar-alcohol industries are affected by unexpected and costly interventions caused by loss of
Steel efficiency of key components, stoping the production for maintenance. The main station suffering
Coating severe degradation is the shredder, where rotating hammers are subjected to abrasive wear from
Corrosion
mineral contaminants and corrosion from the sugarcane juice. This work presents a failure
Wear
Tribocorrosion
analysis of hammers removed from an on-site shredder of a sugar-alcohol industry in Brazil. First,
Agroindustry the materials were chemically and microstructurally characterized. Second, the resistance against
abrasive wear and corrosion in sugarcane juice was assessed, respectively, by dry sand/rubber
wheel test, and cyclic potentiodynamic polarization. Finally, the results were discussed in
conjunction to propose the cause of the failure of the rotating hammer. The base material was a
carbon steel (~0.3 wt% C), protected by a ferrous coating with high content of Cr (22.2 wt%) and
C (4.4 wt%). Ferritic stainless steel (410 stainless steel) was included in the study due to its
increased use in sugar-alcohol industries. The coating showed greater resistance to abrasive wear
compared to the carbon steel and 410 stainless steel. The superior wear resistance of the coating
was ascribed to the large fraction of hard carbides, which acted as effective reinforcement to
prevent excessive removal of the soft matrix. 410 stainless steel performed better against the
corrosive effects of sugarcane juice, due to the Cr being distributed in solid solution in a single
ferritic structure, which ensured the formation of a protective passive film. Nevertheless, the
coating was susceptible to corrode, since carbides in excess cause interfaces depleted in Cr,
representing preferential points for corrosion. The cracks initially present in the coating allowed
the penetration of the sugarcane juice, and subsequent detachment of the coating by impact,
exposing the base material to severe abrasion and corrosion with large volume loss. Greater
control during the coating preparation process and the use of base material with greater corrosion
resistance such as 410 stainless steel could significantly extend the life of the hammers.

1. Introduction

The production of sugarcane derivatives in Brazil grew by 26.7% in 2019 compared to 2018, having the lowest costs of obtaining

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: piter@ufscar.br (P. Gargarella).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2022.106472
Received 11 December 2021; Received in revised form 17 May 2022; Accepted 19 May 2022
Available online 30 May 2022
1350-6307/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.A. Sasso et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 139 (2022) 106472

sugar and ethanol in the world [1]. Brazil is the leader in sugar and ethanol production, with approximately 337 million tons produced
annually [2]. Besides being environmentally friendly compared to conventional oil-based fuels, the economic importance of sugarcane
in Brazil is the generation of jobs during the harvest of sugarcane, and also in the maintenance of machinery and equipment at the mills
between harvest [3].
The extraction of sugarcane juice is performed by shredding, Fig. 1a. The first stage is the cutting with knives followed by the break
down (kneading) of the parenchyma cells through the shredder hammer, Fig. 1b [4]. The hammer has its performance reduced due to
the corrosive effect of the sugarcane juice, the high speed of impact with the cane, and the accentuated wear on the edges due to the
incorporation of mineral contaminants (stones and sand), causing severe material loss from the component [5].
The progressive and continuous wear of hammers is responsible for the reduction of the shredding productive capacity, leading to
maintenance for repairing or replacement [6]. During maintenance, the entire production is stopped for approximately 3 h, causing a
significant loss of production [7]. These tools are recovered by applying hard coatings at the tips and edges of hammers through
manual metal arc welding. The application of welding in these regions aims to increase surface hardness and durability [8].
Yin et al. [9] studied hammers manufactured with tungsten carbide tips used in sugarcane mills, where they observed wear,
fractures, and fatigue cracks on the surface of the material due to the impact at high speed against mineral impurities in the process
(rocks, sands, etc.). The authors concluded that the fractured areas significantly reduced (by 10%) the functionality of the hammers.
Podany, Džugan, and Vacik [10] simulated four types of welds applied to shredder hammers with different contents of C, Si, Mn,
and Cr. All welds exhibited high hardness and good impact strength, except for the weld with higher Cr content, which showed crack
propagation. After pin-on-disk tests, the sample with the lowest Cr content was indicated by the authors for use in hammers thanks to
its good hardness and low specific wear rate of 4.53 × 10− 5 mm3/Nm.
The defibrating hammers are subjected to severe friction with the sugarcane branches and mineral impurities, suffering pro­
nounced wear, especially on the impact surface. The mechanical loads on the hammer base are heterogeneous in terms of magnitude
and type of effort. Mechanical loads arise from impact and friction with the dragging of sugarcane and impurities, damaging the
hammer base from denting and fracturing, creating a non-linear wear profile, which is more pronounced in the region of initial impact
[11].
Sugarcane juice has also a complex composition. It contains chlorides and can be slightly acidic (pH ~ 5) [12], and potentially
corrosive to the metallic engineering components, which generates high costs associated with downtime for maintenance [13]. The
sugar-alcohol industry uses low-carbon and stainless steel materials in its equipment. Wesley et al. [14] investigated the corrosive
effect of sugarcane juice on ferritic stainless steels AISI 439 and AISI 444 compared to AISI 1010, which was less resistant to pitting
corrosion, pronunciated by the adhesion of bacteria (Brevibacillus, Parabrevis, Bacillus, and Nitroformans) present in sugarcane extract.
Durmoo et al. [15] evaluated the behavior of stainless steel AISI 304L immersed in sugarcane juice, pH 5.6, for 2 days, and observed the
occurrence of pitting corrosion. The extract was characterized to be composed of a variety of acids (citric, malic, glycolic, oxalic,
among others) and non-negligible level of chloride (1300 ppm). Wear and corrosion are permanent threats for several metallic types of
equipment used in sugarcane plants, arising from the sugarcane juice itself, and by the mineral impurities, difficult to be completely
eliminated. However, little is still reported about the exact failure of oscillating hammers in-field, supported by tribological and
electrochemical analyses.
This work presents a failure analysis of an oscillating hammer mill used in the sugarcane industry. The base metal and the hammer-
forming coating were characterized by chemical analysis (optical spark emission spectrometry and combustion technique), optical and
scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and hardness measurements. Corrosion tests in sugarcane juice and abrasion wear

Fig. 1. Illustration of a) the shredder used to mill the sugarcane through the b) rotation steel hammer.

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with dry sand against a rubber wheel were also carried out to provide information about the component degradation. Cyclic poten­
tiodynamic polarization was performed using fresh sugarcane juice, with the base material (carbon steel), coating, and 410 stainless
steel considered as working electrodes. The resistance of the materials against abrasive wear was assessed through dry sand/rubber
wheel apparatus. Despite being wear-resistant, the coating was prone to corrode in sugarcane juice, with no passivation upon anodic
polarization, due to the excessive formation of hard carbides enriched in chromium. The base material, carbon steel, was soft and
suffered extensive abrasive wear and corrosion in sugarcane juice. 410 stainless steel, although corrosion-resistant in sugarcane juice,
was considerably abraded in wear testing. The cause of failure was proposed based on the tribological and electrochemical analyses,
which is useful to guide for better coatings, procedures, and materials for extended endurance of oscillating hammer mills.

2. Material and methods

Samples were obtained from a shredder hammer supplied by a sugar alcohol industry, Brazil, after the end of its lifespan. They were
cut with dimensions of 60 × 30 × 10 mm from the base metal and hard coating. A sample of 410 stainless steel with dimensions 60 ×
25 × 10 mm was used for comparative purposes because of its recent use in the equipment of the sugar alcohol industry in Brazil, where
corrosion and wear are an inherent threat. After preparation, the samples were subjected to chemical analysis (optical spark emission
spectrometry and combustion technique), abrasive wear in a dry sand against rubber wheel apparatus, and corrosion in sugarcane
juice.
The metallographic preparation of the samples was performed by cold mounting followed by griding with sandpaper with a particle
size from #320 to #1500, and polishing using a 1-μm alumina suspension. Chemical etching using a 2% Nital solution for 3–6 s was
applied to reveal the microstructure. For X-ray diffraction (XRD), the samples were prepared to obtain a flat and polished surface, and
analyzed in a Bruker D8 ADVANCE diffractometer, with Cu-Kα radiation in the range of 2θ from 5◦ to 90◦ . Chemical analyses were
performed by optical spark emission spectrometry in SPECTROMAXx equipment, except C and S that were assessed by combustion
technique in a LECO CS-844 Series Elemental Analyzer. The samples for chemical analyses were cut with dimensions of 10 × 10 mm
and grinded to remove possible contaminants at the surface. To provide addition understanding on the analyzed microstructure,
CALPHAD calculations were performed with the help of the ThermoCalc software and the TCFE7 database.
Hardness measurements were performed as recommended by ASTM E10-18 [16] with the Heckert HPO250 model hardness tester,
with a Ø 2.5 mm spherical steel penetrator, using a load of 187.5 kgf and penetration time of 15 s, observing a distance of four times the
diameter of the printed cap between the indentation centers. Five measurements were carried out on AISI 1030 carbon steel and hard
coating.
To evaluate the wear resistance of materials, dry sand abrasive against a rubber wheel was used, according to the parameters of
procedure D of the ASTM G65-16 standard [17]. The applied load was 45 N, in a time of 30 min limited to 6,000 rotations, and the
speed of the rubber wheel was 200 ± 10 RPM. Sand with a granulometry of 50/70 AFS was used, at a flow rate of 300 to 400 g per
minute. Fig. 2 presents the particle size distribution and the morphology of the sand particles. Due to the different specific weights of
the materials tested, according to the standard, it recommends evaluating the results of wear resistance by volumetric loss (in mm3),
and the mean value and standard deviation were used in the discussion from testing in triplicate. The worn surfaces were evaluated by
confocal microscpopy in a LEXT 3D Measuring LASER microscopy OLS4100 Olympus, and by scanning electron microscopy in a
Quanta 400 FEI microscope.
For the corrosion tests, a conventional three-electrode electrochemical cell was used, with a platinum counter-electrode and a Hg/
HgO 1 M NaOH reference electrode to avoid the contamination of the electrolyte with chlorides from the reference electrode. The
surfaces of the working electrodes were prepared by gradual grinding up to 2000 grit, followed by polishing using a suspension

Fig. 2. Abrasive particles used in the wear test: a) particle size distribution obtaining, and b) SEM image, secondary electron signal, of the dry
sand particles.

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containing Al2O3 particles (1 μm). Samples of AISI 1030 carbon steel and the hard coating of the shredder were used as a working
electrode in a Gamry 600 + potentiostat for data acquisition. The 410 stainless steel was also included for comparison. The tests were
carried out on a fresh sugarcane extract, naturally aerated, at room temperature. Table 1 details the chemical composition of the
electrolyte used.
All cyclic polarization analyzes were programmed to start after 60 min at open circuit potential, starting from a potential of 200 mV
below the open circuit potential in the anodic scan to a current limited to 1 mA/cm2, and the scan was reversed in the cathodic di­
rection up to the starting potential, employing a forward and reverse scan of 1 mV/s. Tests were repeated at least twice to ensure the
reproducibility of results.
The corrosion current density (icorr) was estimated through the Tafel extrapolation of the cathodic and anode branches around the
corrosion potential (Ecorr), except for the AISI 410 stainless steel that did not exhibit clear Tafel behavior in the anodic region; icorr was
thus estimated from the extrapolation of the cathodic branch back to the corrosion potential. The transpassivation potential (Etransp)
was identified as the potential at which a marked increase in current density occurs after a clear plateau of current density. The
protection potential (Eprot), on the other hand, was the one in which the current density drops to values below the passivation current
density (ipass). Both Etransp and Eprot only occurred for 410 stainless steel, which displayed passivation upon anodic polarization. The
electrochemical parameters of interest (Ecorr, icorr, Etransp, ipass, and Eprot) were presented as mean and standard deviation of three results
obtained from three different polarization curves.

3. Results and discussions

First, the individual characterization of the hammer components (coating and base metal) is presented to discuss the micro­
structure/phase formation. Second, the resistance of the materials against abrasive wear and corrosion in fresh sugarcane juice is
discussed based on the chemical composition and microstructural features. Finally, a degradation mechanism of the oscillating
hammer is proposed.

3.1. Materials characterization

Tables 2 presents the results of the chemical analysis of the studied materials compared to their respective reference materials. It is
observed that the values are close to those found in the standards ABNT NBR NM 87 [18], and AWS 5.5-96 [19], for a 1030 carbon
steel, and high Cr and C hard ferrous coating, respectively.
The base material and 410 stainless steel (reference material) have 0.27 wt% and 0.16 wt% C, respectively. On the other hand, the
3.65 wt% C content of the coating favors the formation of hard carbides enriched with Cr, generating an adjacent Cr-depleted interface,
susceptible to corrode.
Note, also, the presence of high content of Cr in the coating (22.2 wt%) and 410 stainless steel (12.3 wt%), both therefore with
content above 10.5 wt% Cr, the minimum value for traditional stainless steels to spontaneously form a passive film, if in solid solution.
Fig. 3 shows the hypoeutectoid microstructure of the base material, with a ferritic matrix and pearlite. The pearlite was observed in
horizontally narrow bands (Fig. 3 on the left), an effect caused by the rolling of the raw material [20]. Ferrite has equiaxed grains, as

Table 1
Result of the inorganic quantitative analysis technique in the variation in the composition of
sugarcane juice.
Components Analytical variation

Minimum Maximum
% %

Sucrose 8.0 20.0

Reducers sugars 0.3 2.5
mg/100 ml mg/100 ml
Ashes 250 600
Calcium (Ca) 8 30
Magnesium (MgO) 10 30
Potassium (K2O) 80 250
Sodium (Na2O) 30 60
Phosphor (P2O5) 7 40
Iron (Fe2O3) 2 10
Aluminum (Al2O3) 2 5
Chlorine (Cl) 15 30
Sulfuric oxide (SO3) 30 50
Silica (SiO2) 10 50
Proteins (N × 6.25) 150 400
Gums 20 50
Pectins 20 100
Waxes, fats 50 150
Starch 55 50
Organic acids 50 150

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Table 2
Chemical analysis results (wt%) by optical spark emission spectrometry, except the C and S, determined by combustion technique.
Base Metal Carbon steel (ABNT NBR NM 87) [18] Coating (C, Cr e Si) Hard coating (AWS 5.5–96) [19] 410 Stainless Steel

C* 0.27 0.22 – 0.28 3.65 4.4 0.16

Mn 1.18 0.30 – 0.60 – 0.3 0.38
P 0.14 0.040 max. – – 0.05
S* 0.15 0.05 max. 0.11 – 0.07
Si – – 2.44 0.3 0.38
Cr – – 22.2 27.0 12.3
Mo – – 0.36 – 0.08
Ni – – 0.26 – 0.19
W – – 0.21 – –
Cu – – – – 0.08
Fe Bal. Bal. Bal. Bal. Bal.

shown in Fig. 3 on the right. Pearlite is composed of two phases, ferrite and cementite, which have ductility and high hardness,
respectively. The combination of these two phases in fine pearlite colonies provides the material with reasonable mechanical strength,
high fatigue resistance, and intermediate fracture toughness [21]. Considering the composition of the base material (Table 2), the
volume fractions of ferrite and pearlite were estimated using the Fe-C phase diagram as 61% and 39%, respectively, which agrees with
the volume fraction observed in Fig. 3. X-ray diffraction results in Fig. 4a reveal that the major phase in the base metal is body-centered
cubic structure ferrite (CCC).
Fig. 5 shows the hypereutectic microstructure of the coating, formed by primary Cr carbides (M7C3) in a eutectic matrix. It is
noteworthy that the coating has a Cr content of 22.2 wt% and 4.52 wt% of C (Table 2); this high Cr content, combined with a high C
content, produces hard carbides with hexagonal morphology in the structure [22]. According to Buchanan [23] and Hutchings [24],
achieving a uniform distribution and a small space between the carbides prevent the abrasive particles from effectively penetrating the
tough matrix, leading to an improvement in wear resistance. Buchely, Gutierrez, León and Toro [25] emphasize the importance of
minimizing the difference in the hardness of the matrix and the carbide, since the austenite matrix needs to have a hardness and ability
to plastic deformation sufficient to support the hard and brittle carbides, and therefore, without this support, the carbide tends to
crack. Pintaude et al. [26] concluded that carbides behave as reinforcement and protection of the matrix against the action of abrasive
quartz particles, when the carbide grains are small, greater material removal occurs. The authors also explain that a possible sequence
of mechanical events generates microcracks in the carbides by the action of abrasive particles, which favor the removal of carbides
from the matrix.
The carbides (M7C3) have a uniform morphology throughout the layer, dispersed in a continuous eutectic phase. X-ray diffraction
results of the coating, shown in Fig. 4b, confirmed the presence of ferrite, austenite, and chromium carbide, Cr7C3. The ferritic phase is

Fig. 3. Microstructure of the hammer base material with 200X (a) and 1000X (b) magnification.

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R.A. Sasso et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 139 (2022) 106472

Fig. 4. X-ray diffraction pattern of the hammer base material (a) and hard coating (b).

Fig. 5. Microstructure, from optical microscpoay, of the coating with 1000X magnification.

justified by the high content of Cr (Table 2), an alphagenic element, in addition to Si and Mo. The austenite phase is justified by the
high content of C (Table 2), a gammagenic element, in addition to Ni and N. The formation of chromium carbides, on the other hand, is
favored by the high content of C and Cr.
CALPHAD calculations were used to understand the microstructure development of the hard coating. Considering that the hard
coating is deposited through welding, mid-high cooling rates may occur. The Scheil diagram, shown in Fig. 6, can indicate the phases
formed under that cooling condition. The first phase to be formed is the M7C3, which consist on a (Cr,Fe)-rich carbide, followed by the
formation of austenite (FCC_A1). At the end of the solidification, a small amount of M6C is formed, which corresponds to a Mo-rich
carbide. This carbide was not verified by XRD due its low fraction content, lower than the XRD detection limit.
The presence of ferrite in the hard coating can be explained by the solidification path at the thermodynamical equilibrium in the
Fig. 7. The ferrite (BCC_A2) is formed below 930 ◦ C, and whilst ferrite is being formed, the austenite content decreases. The Cr sol­
ubility on ferrite is lower than on austenite, which leads to an increase in the (Cr,Fe)7C3 with the formation of ferrite. At lower
temperatures around 500 ◦ C, the (Cr,Fe)7C3 decomposes into ferrite and Cr3C2 (M3C2). As the hard coating is welded, the heat aported
by the new layers on the previously welded layers leads to an increase in the temperature, resulting in the formation of ferrite and
additional Cr-rich carbides.
Analyzing the base material/coating interface through Fig. 8, it is observed that the region adjacent to the fusion line, on the
coating side, presented a transition zone composed of a homogeneous brighter region, whose morphology suggests that there was
epitaxial growth of austenite from the base metal, with a possible oxide layer at the interface, indicating that there was no effective
metallurgical bond. It is also observed the presence of austenite dendrites in the entire volume of the coating, which according to
Hernandes [27], belongs to the Fe-Cr-C system. The transition zone is a well-studied region in welding when it comes to dissimilar
materials, as it presents characteristics of the base material and coating [28].
The reference material, 410 stainless steel, is composed of ferrite with a homogeneous microstructure (Fig. 9), without a second
phase clearly seen. The ferrite is due to the ~12.3 wt% of Cr content and the low content of C (0.16 wt%) and Ni (0.19 wt%), as shown

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Fig. 6. Scheil diagram of the hard coating, considering the composition detailed in Table 2.

Fig. 7. Solidification path of the hard coating, considering the composition detailed in Table 2.

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Fig. 8. Weld interface (base material/coating) microstructure with 1000x magnification.

Fig. 9. 410 stainless steel microstructure after etching with Villela solution.

in Table 2.

3.2. Wear resistance

Fig. 10 shows the results obtained from Brinell hardness tests for the AISI 1030 carbon steel (base material) and the hard coating.
For comparative purposes, the hardness values of the reference material (410 stainless steel) and quartz (SiO2) were included.
The materials with lower hardness were AISI 1030 carbon steel and 410 stainless steel due to the low content of C, Fig. 10. Their
hardness difference refers to the small fraction of pearlite in AISI 1030 carbon steel, and the Cr solid solution strengthing in the 410
stainless steel, even if this steel is hardenable by quenching to form martensite. The high hardness of the coating is due to the presence
of hard carbides (Cr7C3), with reported hardness between 1200 and 1600 HV [31], which is similar to quartz (SiO2) (1103 and 1260
HV [32]). According to Kotecki and Ogborn [33], higher hardness does not necessarily imply in abrasive wear resistance, being the
microstructural features a better indicator. The microstructure of the coating is characterized by carbides in fraction, size, and dis­
tribution effective to restrain the penetration of abrasives into the softer matrix; note that the matrix is also considerably hardened by
the remaining substitutional and interstitial alloying elements.
The results obtained in the abrasive wear tests are shown in Fig. 11. 410 stainless steel and AISI 1030 carbon steel were the
materials that presented the highest specific wear rate (6 to 7 × 10− 4 mm3/N⋅m) as they did not have hard reinforcements to resist
abrasion, corroborating the work of Nahvi, Shipway and McCartney (8.27 × 10− 4 mm3/N⋅m) [34] and Hawk, Wilson, Tylczak and

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Fig. 10. Brinell hardness values of AISI 1030 carbon steel (base material), hard coating, reference material (410 stainless steel) [29], and quartz
(SiO2) [30].

Fig. 11. Specific wear rate in the dry sand wear test against rubber wheel standardized by ASTM G65-16, procedure D, for AISI 1030 carbon steel,
hard coating, and 410 stainless steel.

Dogan (7.18 × 10− 4 mm3/N⋅m) [35], unlike the hard coating that had the lowest specific wear rate (0.96 × 10− 4 mm3/N⋅m), lower
value than that found by Czupry’nski (1.98 × 10− 4 mm3/N⋅m) [36]. As mentioned earlier, M7C3-type primary carbides act as rein­
forcement to protect the ductile matrix of ferrite and austenite against the action of abrasive quartz particles.
Fig. 12a, b, and c show the surfaces of AISI 1030 carbon steel, hard coating, and 410 stainless steel, respectively, before the dry sand
wear test against rubber wheel and, Fig. 12d, e, and f, for the respective materials after the experiment.
Fig. 12d and 12f show the worn surface of AISI 1030 carbon steel and 410 stainless steel, respectively. Abrasion at low stress by
scratching, according to Misra [37], is essentially the primary mechanism of surface volume loss compared to other abrasive wear
mechanisms. The worn surfaces analyzed by optical microscopy present scratches caused by hard particles of dry sand and possible
fragments of the surfaces, which plow the material, making grooves on the surfaces.
Note that the worn surfaces of AISI 1030 carbon steel and 410 stainless steel, represented by Fig. 12d and 12f, showed a higher
concentration of scratches when compared to the coating (Fig. 12e). This is consistent with the specific wear rates obtained (Fig. 11),
where the hard coating has greater resistance to abrasive wear at low stresses due to the amount of C and Cr carbides in the alloy, with
phases with greater hardness in the microstructure. The hard coating showed cracks and pores on the surface (Fig. 12e), which are
typically formed during cooling shortly after the welding pass and arise due to the high residual stresses generated. According to
Cieslak [38], Fe-Cr-C alloys are susceptible to solidification cracks, which act to relieve welding stresses. Fig. 13 presents results from
confocal microscopy of the worn surfaces. Both AISI 1030 carbon steel, Fig. 13a, and the 410 stainless steel, Fig. 13b, displayed similar
scars that resulted in mean Ra values between 12.1 and 12.8, considerably superior to that of the hard coating, Fig. 13 (Ra = 6.8 ± 0.5
μm).
Fig. 14 depicts the scanning electron micrographs of the worn surfaces. Scratches from the abrasives are a common feature
regardless of the type of material tested, as seen from images from secondary electron signals (SE): Fig. 14a) AISI 1030 carbon steel,

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R.A. Sasso et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 139 (2022) 106472

Fig. 12. Surface before (upper images) and after (lower images) wear tests for AISI 1030 carbon steel (a,d), hard coating (b,e), and 410 stainless
steel (c,f).

Fig. 14c) 410 stainless steel, and Fig. 14d) hard coating. However, the hard coating is reinforced by a secondary phase as seen in
Fig. 14f, which restrains the material removal compared to the AISI 1030 carbon steel, Fig. 14b, and the 410 stainless steel, Fig. 14d.
In summary, the type of wear identified in the three materials analyzed can be classified as abrasive wear at low stresses of 3 bodies,
closed system, by scratching, and probably, the wear micromechanism acting on the three materials was microcut, caused by the
scratching of the hard quartz particles (SiO2) on the metallic surface, promoting a loss of material equal to the wear volume. The wear
resistance of AISI 1030 carbon steel is low, similar to the reference 410 stainless steel. They do not have any hard phases that can
protect the softy matrix, in addition to having lower hardness compared to the coating, a material with high wear resistance due to 27

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Fig. 13. Micrographs from confocal microscopy of the worn surfaces of: a) AISI 1030 carbon steel, b) 410 stainless steel, and c) hard coating. Values
of the average roughness (Ra) presented as mean values and the standard deviation from analyses from three different regions, being the mea­
surement in a line perpendicular to the abrasive wear (see yellow line). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 14. Scanning electron micrographs of the worn surfaces of: (a,b) AISI 1030 carbon steel, (c,d) 410 stainless steel, and (e,f) hard coating. SE
stands for secondary electron, and BSE for backscattered electron signal.

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wt% Cr, with the formation of hard phases (M7C3) that act as reinforcement and protect and reduce the removal of the ductile matrix of
ferrite and austenite.

3.3. Corrosion resistance

In terms of corrosion, the results of the cyclic polarization tests of the materials studied are presented in Fig. 15 and summarized in
Table 3. As mentioned, these experiments were carried out using sugarcane juice with pH values of ~5.5.
The AISI 1030 carbon steel and the hard coating presented a similar behavior, where the anodic branch progressed without a
passivation plateau until reaching 10− 3 A⋅cm− 2, where the polarization was reversed. No protection potential was observed for those
samples. Despite the higher Cr content of the hard coating, there are small differences between the corrosion current intensity (icorr)
and the corrosion potential (Ecorr) of both samples, as shown in Table 3. A distinct behavior was observed for the 410 stainless steel.
This sample presented lower icorr values and nobler Ecorr values compared to AISI 1030 carbon steel and hard coating. The 410 stainless
steel presented a clear passivation plateau around 0.0 VHg/HgO, evidencing the formation of a stable passive film until the trans­
passivation around 0.375 VHg/HgO. When polarization was reversed, the 410 stainless steel exhibited protection potential at 0.088 VHg/
HgO.
Cr is the prime alloying element to guarantee the passivation of Fe-based alloys. The poor corrosion resistance of AISI 1030 carbon
steel is because it does not have Cr, an alloying element that confers resistance to corrosion, not presenting passivity in the typical pH
range of sugarcane juice [39], being sensitive to pitting corrosion caused by the presence of sulfates and chlorides of the tested solution
[40]. The behavior of 410 stainless steel points out to a better corrosion resistance compared to AISI 1030 carbon steel and hard
coating. This is expected as 410 stainless steel has all the Cr in solid solution, ensuring the formation of a protective passive film
composed mainly by Cr-rich oxides between Ecorr and Etransp. After transpassivation, 410 stainless steel showed the ability to interrupt
the propagation of pitting corrosion to potentials below Eprot.
Although the coating has a high content of Cr (27 wt%), the excessive precipitation of carbides creates Cr depleted regions, rep­
resenting preferential points for corrosion attack [41]. During welding for coatings deposition, a temperature range between 400 ◦ C
and 850 ◦ C is achieved, promoting the formation of the Cr-enriched carbides, and the Cr-depleted zones around them are more sus­
ceptible to preferential attack in a corrosive environment, phenomenum known as sensitization [42]. The Cr-depleted zones in hard
coating are almost as susceptible to corrosion as the AISI 1030 steel, which is corroborated by the similarity of the polarization curves
of both samples.

3.4. Proposition of the mechanism of failure

Fig. 16 shows non-linear profile of the damaged region of the oscillating, where wear and corrosion occurred.
The oscillating hammer degradation mechanism is proposed in Fig. 17. A large number of cracks are formed in the hard coating
during fabrication (Fig. 17a), which occurs due to the lack of a metallurgical bond between the base metal and the coating, the high
cooling rates during welding, the formation of M7C3 carbides that are hard and brittle, and/or the incorporation of hydrogen. Upon the
severe operating conditions of the hammer, Fig. 17b, the cracks are the starting points of fracture after the sugarcane juice penetrates
through the cracks (Fig. 17c) and reaches the AISI 1030 carbon steel (Fig. 17d). Sugarcane juice corrodes the interface between the
base metal and the coating, resulting in the easier detachment of the coating from the substrate, with its gradual removal by impact
(Fig. 17e). Thus, the AISI 1030 carbon steel of the base metal is exposed and is preferentially degraded by corrosion/wear (Fig. 17f).
As suggested in the proposed mechanism, cracks formed in the coating during its fabrication play a fundamental role in component
failure. To reduce the number of cracks formed in the coating, the interface must be clean for the metallurgical bond to occur,

Fig. 15. Cyclic polarization curves obtained for 410 stainless steel, AISI 1030 carbon steel, and hard coating.

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R.A. Sasso et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 139 (2022) 106472

Table 3
Results obtained from potentiodynamic polarization curves for AISI 1030 carbon steel, 410 stainless steel, and hard coating.
icorr Ecorr ipass Etransp Eprot
(μA/cm2) (mVHg/HgO) (μA/cm2) (mVHg/HgO) (mVHg/HgO)

AISI 1030 carbon steel 8±3 − 552 ± 9 – – –

Hard Coating 6±3 − 477 ± 2 – – –
410 stainless steel 0.4 ± 0.1 − 264 ± 133 2.5 ± 0.5 375 ± 54 88 ± 2

Fig. 16. Typical wear on the vertex of the oscillating hammer.

improving the welding procedure. According to the American Welding Society (AWS) standard [43], some precautions can be taken
during the manual metal arc welding, such as installing a cabin to control the welding process, requiring a cleaning process by gouging
the parts to eliminate impurities, including old weld incrustations from the coating itself. After cleaning by gouging, a hand sander is
essential to complement the cleaning process. It is also necessary to preheat the part with the torch to minimize the effect of thermal
shock. Then, it is necessary to first coat with the base electrode and then with the hard alloy electrode, and finally, after the coating
process, wrap the pieces in glass wool to slow down the cooling process and minimize as much as possible the appearance of cracks.
The corrosion and wear studies showed that the high Cr (27 wt%) and C (4.4 wt%) ferrous alloy of the coating showed significantly
higher abrasive wear resistance than AISI 1030 carbon steel and 410 stainless steel. Concerning corrosion in sugarcane juice, both the
hard coating and AISI 1030 carbon steel had a worse performance than the reference 410 stainless steel. Low-cost, lower Cr-content
alloys or 410 stainless steel, which is already widely used in agribusiness, could be used as an alternative to the AISI 1030 carbon steel
used, which would help to extend the component’s useful life and reduce maintenance costs. The 410 stainless steel, in addition to
being highly resistant to corrosion, can be hardened by martensitic transformation during welding, which improves its wear behavior.

4. Conclusions

• The base material of the oscillating hammer was characterized as a AISI 1030 carbon steel, which was confirmed by chemical
analysis, microscopy, and XRD. It showed a hypoeutectoid microstructure, with a ferritic matrix and pearlite, which is consistent
with the amount of C measured (~0.3 wt%).
• The material used in the cladding of the hammer was defined as an alloy of the Fe-Cr-C system with a high concentration of Cr (22.2
wt%) and C (3.65 wt%). Through XRD, the ferrite, austenite, and Cr7C3 phases were identified and the presence of these carbides in
the microstructure was confirmed through optical microscopy images.
• The highest corrosion resistance in sugarcane juice was observed for the reference material 410 stainless steel, followed by the hard
coating, both alloys with Cr in the composition. The cyclic polarization test performed according to the parameters used did not
show significant differences between the materials in this corrosive environment. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time
that polarization curves were obtained for these materials using sugarcane juice.

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R.A. Sasso et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 139 (2022) 106472

Fig. 17. Composition of the oscillating hammer (a) with details of the cracks in the hard coating (a1) and the weld interface (a2); typical operating
scheme (b); the beginning of fracture with sugarcane juice penetration in the cracks (c) and base metal degradation (d); preferential degradation of
the base metal and removal of the coating (e); and severely degraded base metal (f).

• The hard coating showed wear behavior significantly superior to AISI 1030 carbon steel and 410 stainless steel. The volume loss
obtained through the dry sand against rubber wheel tests was adequate for the comparative evaluation of the resistance to abrasive
damage of the tested materials, where the hard coating showed better performance for having a microstructure considered by
several authors as the most effective against abrasive wear at low stresses. The results obtained may not directly reflect the behavior
of the materials evaluated under real conditions in service, but can be used as a reference in the selection of materials that provide
better resistance to abrasive damage, under low-stress conditions and in conditions similar to those of the tests performed.

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R.A. Sasso et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 139 (2022) 106472

• Cracks in the hard coating proved to be a weak point of oscillating hammers, allowing the penetration of the sugarcane juice and
promoting the fracture of the hard coating due to the impact during the crushing operation, leaving the AISI 1030 carbon steel
exposed to the effects of abrasive and corrosive wear.
• Considering the solidification behavior of the hard coating as calculated by the CALPHAD simulations and the wear and corrosion
performance, adjustments in the welding process parameters may allow suppressing the formation of ferrite and the precipitation of
Cr-rich carbides. Greater control during the coating preparation process and the use of base material with greater corrosion
resistance could significantly prolong the life of the hammers.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgement

The present work was carried out with the support of the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel - Brazil
(CAPES) - Financing Code 001. The authors would like to thank Sugar Alcohol Industries for supplying the shredder hammer for this
work. The authors are also grateful for the electron microscopy facilities from the Laboratory of Structural Characterization of Federal
University of São Carlos (LCE/DEMa/UFSCar), and the overall facilities and staff of the Center for Development and Characterization
of Material of Federal University of São Carlos (CCDM/DEMa/UFSCar). Guilherme Yuuki Koga thanks the financial support of the
Brazilian National Council for scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Universal grant 407651/2021-7.

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