12 Project Work Example

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According to Latest Syllabus and Guidelines prescribed by the

Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi
for the Academic year 2022-23.
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Project Work in
History ra
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By
Amita Mehrotra
For Class
XII
M.A. (History), B.Ed.
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Edited by
Jyoti Sharma
PGT (History)
Bal Bharati School
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New Delhi
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Edition : May, 2022
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Preface
The subject History is introduced to study the past, in all its aspect, in relation to present
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developments and future hopes. It helps students to understand the present social, political,
religious and economic conditions of the people. Without the knowledge of history we cannot
have the background about our religion, customs institutions, administration, etc. Thus, this
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subject helps the students to explain the present, to analyze it and to trace its course. To further
reinforce these objectives, the CBSE has introduced Project Work in History. This Project Work
gives students an opportunity to develop their cognitive skills.
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I am pleased to present my book Project Work in History for students preparing for the class XII
CBSE Examinations. This book strictly conforms to the latest syllabus prescribed by the CBSE.
Some salient features of this book are:
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Detailed guidelines issued by CBSE to make the students aware about the Objectives of the
Project.
Introduction to Project Work is given to guide students about the major steps to be followed
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in the preparation of a project in a systematic manner.
Proforma of the Project File indicates the essentials to be filled for the Preparation and
submission of Project Work.
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All the Topics for the Project Work have been selected from the list of topics provided by the
CBSE in its latest curriculum.
10 Solved Projects have been given to help the students in Reinforcing and Learning the
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Methodology of doing the Project Work.

6 Unsolved Projects with Proper Overview have been given which will help students in doing
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the Project Work.

Viva-voce questions and answers are provided at the end of each project work.
Bibliography is given in each of the project work.
In addition, attempt has been made in the book to acquaint students with authentic facts
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and historical terminology in order to fulfil the requirements of a high quality, upgraded and
dependable study materials. Furthermore, we will always welcome your valuable suggestions
for the betterment of the book.
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–Author
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C  CBSE Guidelines for Project Work

 Guidelines for History Project Work

... ... ...
... ... ...
5–6
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o  Proforma of the Project File
... ... ... 8
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n ProJeCts (solved)
t 1. The Indus Valley Civilization-Archaeological Excavations and
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e New Perspectives ... ... ... 12 – 19
n 2. The History and Legacy of Mauryan Empire ... ... ... 20 – 25
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3. "Mahabharat”- The Great Epic of India ... ... ... 26 – 31
4. The History and Culture of the Vedic Period ... ... ... 32 – 40

s 5. Buddha Charita ... ... ... 41 – 46
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6. A Comprehensive History of Jainism ... ... ... 47 – 54
7. Bhakti Movement- Multiple interpretations and commentaries ... ... ... 55 – 62

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8. The Mystical Dimensions of Sufism ... ... ... 63 – 68
9. Global Legacy of Gandhian Ideas ... ... ... 69 – 76

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10. The Architectural Culture of the Vijayanagar Empire ... ... ... 77 – 82
Unsolved ProJeCts (With outlines)

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11. Life of Women in the Mughal Rural Society ... ... ... 84

12. Comparative Analysis of the Land Revenue Systems
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Introduced by the Britishers in India ... ... ... 84

13. The Revolt of 1857- Causes; Planning & Coordination;
Leadership, Vision of Unity ... ... ... 85
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14. The Philosophy of Guru Nanak Dev ... ... ... 86

15. The Vision of Kabir ... ... ... 87
16. An Insight into the Indian Constitution ... ... ... 88
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CBSE GuidElinES for ProjECt Work

IntrodUCtIon
History is one of the most important disciplines in school education. It is the study of the past, which helps
us to understand our present and shape our future. It promotes the acquisition and understanding of historical
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knowledge in breath and in depth across cultures.
The course of history in senior secondary classes is to enable students to know that history is a critical
discipline, a process of enquiry, a way of knowing about the past rather than just a collection of facts. The
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syllabus helps them to understand the process, through which a historian collects, chooses, scrutinizes and
assembles different types of evidence to write history.
In class XII the focus shifts to a detailed study of some themes in ancient, medieval, and modern Indian
history. CBSE has decided to introduce project work in history for classes XI and XII in 2013-14 as a part
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of regular studies in classroom, as project work gives students an opportunity to develop higher cognitive
skills. It takes students to a life beyond text books and provides them a platform to refer materials, gather
information, analyze it further to obtain relevant information and decide what matter to keep and hence
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understand how history is constructed.
oBJeCtIves
Project work will help students:
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To develop skill to gather data from a variety of sources, investigate diverse viewpoints and arrive at
logical deductions.
To develop skill to comprehend, analyze, interpret, evaluate historical evidence and understand the
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limitation of historical evidence.
To develop 21st century managerial skills of co-ordination, self-direction and time management.
To learn to work on diverse cultures, races, religions and lifestyles.
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To learn through constructivism-a theory based on observation and scientific study.

To inculcate a spirit of inquiry and research.
To communicate data in the most appropriate form using a variety of techniques.
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To provide greater opportunity for interaction and exploration.

To understand contemporary issues in context to our past.
To develop a global perspective and an international outlook.
To grow into caring, sensitive individuals capable of making informed, intelligent and independent choices.
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To develop lasting interest in history discipline.

GUIdelInes to teaChers
This section provides some basic guidelines for the teachers to take up projects in History. It is very necessary
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to interact, support, guide, facilitate and encourage students while assigning projects to them.
The teachers must ensure that the project work assigned to the students individually/ In-groups and
discussed at different stages right from assigning topic, draft review to finalization.
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Students should be facilitated in terms of providing relevant materials, suggesting websites, obtaining of
required permission for archives, historical sites, etc.
The Project Work should be suitably spaced from April to November in classes XI and XII so that
students can prepare for Final Examination.
The teachers must ensure that the students submit original work.
Project report should be Handwritten only. (Eco-friendly materials can be used by students)
Project Work in History (Class-XII) 5
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the following steps are suggested:

1. Teacher should design and prepare a list of 15-20 projects and should give an option to a student to
choose a project as per his/her interest.
2. The project must be done individually / In-groups.
3. The topic should be assigned after discussion with the students in the class to avoid repetition and should
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then be discussed at every stage of submission of the draft/final project work.
4. The teacher should play the role of a facilitator and should closely supervise the process of project
completion, and should guide the children by providing necessary inputs, resources etc. to enrich the
subject content.
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5. The Project Work needs to enhance cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains in the learners. It will
include self-assessment and peer assessment, and progress of the child in project-based and inquiry-based
learning. Art integrated Activities , experiments, models, quizzes, role plays, group work, portfolios,
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etc., along with teacher assessment. (NEP-2020) The Project work can culminate in the form of Power
Point Presentation/Exhibition/Skit/albums/files/song and dance or culture show /story telling/debate/panel
discussion, paper presentation and whichever is suitable to visually impaired candidates.
6. Students can use primary sources available in city archives, Primary sources can also include newspaper
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cuttings, photographs, film footage and recorded written/speeches. Secondary sources may also be used
after proper authentication.
7. Evaluation will be done by external examiner appointed by the Board in class XII and internal in class
XI.
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Note: The project reports are to be preserved by the school till the final results are declared, for scrutiny by
CBSE.
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FeW sUGGestIve toPICs For ProJeCts

1. The Indus Valley Civilization-Archaeological Excavations and New Perspectives
2. The History and Legacy of Mauryan Empire
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3. “Mahabharat”- The Great Epic of India

4. The History and Culture of the Vedic period
5. Buddha Charita
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6. A Comprehensive History of Jainism

7. Bhakti Movement- Multiple interpretations and commentaries
8. “The Mystical Dimensions of Sufism”
9. Global legacy of Gandhian ideas
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10. The Architectural Culture of the Vijayanagar Empire

11. Life of women in the Mughal rural society
12. Comparative Analysis of the Land Revenue Systems introduced by the Britishers in India
13. The Revolt of 1857- Causes; Planning & Coordination; Leadership, Vision of Unity
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14. The Philosophy of Guru Nanak Dev

15. The Vision of Kabir
16. An insight into the Indian Constitution
(Projects are an imperative component in enhancing students learning with the related themes. In the research
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project, students can go beyond the textbook and explore the world of knowledge. They can conceptualize
under the embedded themes. Forms of rubrics are a significant aspect and to be discussed in the classroom
itself for clear understanding of concept & for assessment.)
Note: Please refer Circular No. Acad.16/2013 dated 17.04.2013 for complete guidelines.
6 Goyal Brothers Prakashan

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Guidelines for history Project Work : 20 Marks

One Project to be done throughout the session, as per the existing scheme.
1. steps involved in the conduct of the project:

Students may work upon the following lines as a suggested flow chart:
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Choose a Title/Topic
Need of the Study, Objective of the Study
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Hypothesis
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Content - Timeline, Maps, Mind maps, Pictures, etc.
(Organization of Material/Data
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Present Material/Data)
Analyzing the Material/Data for Conclusion

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Draw the Relevant Conclusion
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Bibliography
2. expected Checklist for the Project Work:

Introduction of topic/title
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Identifying the causes, events, consequences and/or remedies

Various stakeholders and effect on each of them
Advantages and disadvantages of situations or issues identified
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Short-term and long-term implications of strategies suggested during research

Validity, reliability, appropriateness, and relevance of data used for research work and for presentation
in the project file
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Presentation and writing that is succinct and coherent in project file

Citation of the materials referred to, in the file in footnotes, resources section, bibliography etc.
3. assessment of Project Work:
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Project Work has broadly the following phases: Synopsis/ Initiation, Data Collection, Data Analysis and
Interpretation, Conclusion.
The aspects of the Project Work to be covered by students can be assessed during the academic year.
20 marks assigned for Project Work can be divided in the following manner:
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4. viva-voce:
At the end, each learner will present the research work in the Project File to the External and Internal
examiner.
The questions should be asked from the Research Work/ Project File of the learner.
The Internal Examiner should ensure that the study submitted by the learner is his/her own original work.
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Proforma of thE ProjECt filE
History
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Project
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File
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Session
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Name
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Project
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__________________
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(Name of the Student)

Class ______ Section _____
Roll No. Alloted by CBSE

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ackNowledgemeNt
In the accomplishment of the project successfully, first and foremost I would like to thank
my principal Mr./Ms. ___________________________________ and my History teacher
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Mr./Ms. ___________________________, whose valuable guidance has been the ones that
helped me patch this project and make it full proof success. His /Her suggestions and
instructions have served as the major contributor towards the completion of the project.
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Then, I would like to thank my parents and friends whose valuable suggestions and guidance
have been very fruitful in the completion of the project.
Last but not the least I would like to thank my classmates who have helped me a lot in
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my project.
__________________
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(Name of the Student)
Class XII
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certiFicate
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This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ___________________________ of class _________ has

successfully completed his/her History project work on _____________________________,
under the supervision and guidance of _____________________(Subject Teacher).
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To the best of my knowledge, it is an original work and is worthy of consideration in

partial fulfilment of the requirement of CBSE for the award of Senior School Certificate
Examination.
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Place: ___________________ ___________________
Date: ___________________ (Name & Signature of the Guide)

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iNdex
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OBJECTIVE/ AIM OF THE PROJECT
D INTRODUCTION
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D PROJECT OVERVIEW (INCLUDING ALL THE HEADINGS AND SUB-

HEADINGS OF THE PROJECT)
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D CONCLUSION
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D BIBLIOGRAPHy
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ProJeCts (solved)
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1. The Indus Valley Civilization-Archaeological Excavations and New Perspectives
2. The History and Legacy of Mauryan EmpiresP
3. “Mahabharat”- The Great Epic of India
4. The History and Culture of the Vedic period
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5. Buddha Charita
6. A Comprehensive History of Jainism
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7. Bhakti Movement- Multiple interpretations and commentaries

8. The Mystical Dimensions of Sufism
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9. Global Legacy of Gandhian ideas

10. The Architectural Culture of the Vijayanagar Empire
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PrOJecT
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Topic : The Indus Valley Civilization
-Archaeological Excavations
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and New Perspectives
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oBJeCtIves oF the ProJeCt
The main objectives of this project are:
} To acknowledge the importance of artefacts as a source for studying the ancient Civilization.
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} To get acquainted with the town planning system of the Indus Valley Civilization.
} To make comparison of the Indus Valley Civilization with the modern towns and cities.
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} To perceive the kind of life people led during the ancient Civilization.
} To know about the end of the civilization and problems of the archaeologists in piecing together the past.
} To understand the new perspective of the Indus Valley Civilization.
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IntrodUCtIon
The ancient site of Mohenjo-daro was
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built in the 26th century BCE. It was

one of the largest cities of the ancient
Harappan Civilization also known
as the Indus Valley Civilization. This
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Civilization developed around 3,000

BCE from the prehistoric Indus culture.
At its height, the Indus Civilization
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stretched over much of what is now

Pakistan and North India, extending
westwards to the Iranian border, south
to Gujarat in India and northwards to
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an outpost in Bactria, with major urban

centers at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal,
Kalibangan, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi.
Mohenjo-daro was one of the most
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advanced cities and well-known for its urban planning. When the Indus Civilization went into sudden decline
around 1900 BCE, the site of Mohenjo-daro was abandoned.
Alexander Cunningham, the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), interpreted a
Harappan stamp seal in 1875. The name Mohenjo-daro is reputed to signify “the mound of the dead.” The
archaeological importance of the site was first recognized in 1922, one year after the discovery of Harappa.

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In 1919-20, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India named R.D. Banerji visited the site. He thought
this site to be a Buddhist stupa but when he found a flint scraper he was convinced about the site's antiquity.
This led to large-scale excavations of Mohenjo-daro by K.N. Dikshit in 1924–25, and John Marshall in
1925–26. In the 1930s, major excavations were conducted at the site under the leadership of Marshall, D.K.
Dikshitar and Ernest Mackay.
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Alexander Cunningham R.D. Banerji Sir John Marshall
Presently, Mohenjo-daro is located in Pakistan. In 1980, this site was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage
Site.
UrBan Centres
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The most unique feature of the Indus Valley Civilization was the development of urban centres. Mohenjo-daro
has a planned layout with rectilinear buildings arranged on a grid plan. Regularity of streets and buildings
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suggests the influence of ancient urban planning in Mohenjo-daro's construction. Mostly the buildings were
built of fired and mortared brick. However, some were incorporated with sun-dried mud-brick and wooden
superstructures. The covered area of Mohenjo-daro is estimated at 300 hectares.
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According to archaeologists, the sheer size of the Mohenjo-daro city, and its provision of public buildings
and facilities, suggests a high level of social organisation. The city is divided into two parts, one smaller
but higher and the other much larger but lower. Archaeologists designate these as the Citadel and the Lower
Town respectively.
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The Citadel owes its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms. The buildings
included an elaborate bath or tank surrounded by a veranda, a large residential structure, a massive granary,
and at least two aisled halls of assembly. It is clear that the citadel carried the religious and ceremonial
headquarters of the site. It was walled, which meant that it was physically separated from the Lower Town.
The Lower Town was also walled. Several buildings were built on platforms, which served as foundations.
In the lower town, substantial courtyard houses indicates a considerable middle class. Most houses had small
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bathrooms, drains and sanitation. Brick stairs indicate at least an upper storey or a flat, habitable roof. The
walls were originally plastered with mud.
the Great Bath

The Great Bath is one of the best-known structures among the
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ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization excavated at Mohenjo-
daro. The Great Bath is located at the centre of the Citadel. It
is made of fine baked waterproof mud bricks and a thick layer
of bitumen. It indicates that it was used for holding water. Many
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scholars are of the view that this huge deep bath could have
been a place for ritual bathing or religious ceremonies. It is the
earliest public water tank of the ancient world. Adjacent to it are
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a well that was used to supply water to the bath.
Wells and draInaGe systeM

Excavation of the Mohenjo-daro city revealed very tall wells. These wells supply water and were regarded as
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being some of the first planned constructions. With the excavations done so far, about 700 wells are present
at Mohenjo-daro, alongside drainage and bathing systems. This number is unheard of when compared to other
civilizations at the time, such as Egypt or Mesopotamia. It seems that the wells were continually built up as
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flooding and rebuilding raised the elevation of street level.
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Due to the period in which these wells were built and used, it is likely that the circular brick well were
used at this and many other Harappan sites. This invention is credited to the Indus Civilization, as there is
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no archaeological evidence of this design from the contemporary Civilizations like Mesopotamia or Egypt.
According to archaeologists, sewage and waste water for buildings at Mohenjo-daro were disposed of via
a centralised drainage system that ran alongside the streets. These drains that ran alongside the road were
effective at allowing most human waste and sewage to be disposed of as the drains most likely took the waste
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towards the Indus River.
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In 1950, Sir Mortimer Wheeler identified a large building

in Mohenjo-daro as a 'Great Granary'. Certain wall-divisions
in its massive wooden superstructure appeared to be grain
storage-bays, complete with air-ducts to dry the grain.
According to Wheeler, carts would have brought grains from
the countryside and unloaded them directly into the bays.

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traCInG soCIal dIFFerenCes

Archaeologists on the basis of burials and artefacts have identified
social differences amongst the people of the Harappan civilization. In
Harappan sites, the dead were generally laid in burial pits, however,
sometimes there were differences in the way the burial pit was made.
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For instance, in the mid-1980s, in the excavations at the cemetery in
Harappa, an ornament consisting of three shell rings, a jasper bead and
hundreds of micro beads was found near the skull of a male.
In some Harappan burials the dead were buried with copper mirrors.
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But, according to archaeologists, it appears that the Harappans did not
believe in burying precious things with the dead bodies.
Archaeologists have broadly categorised Harappan
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artefacts into utilitarian and luxuries. Utilitarian
includes objects of daily use such as pottery,
needles, flesh-rubbers, etc. Whereas luxuries includes rare or costly objects, non-local
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materials or materials made with complicated technologies.
For instance, miniature pots of faience, probably used as perfume bottles, were excavated
at Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
strateGIes For ProCUrInG MaterIals

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Nageshwar and Balakot settlements were located near the coast and hence, they were specialised centres for
shell making objects like bangles. There is evidence that beads were exported from Chanhudaro and Lothal
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to urban centres such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
According to archaeologists, waste material is the best indicator of Harappan craft work, for instance, if shell
or stone is cut to make objects, then pieces of these materials will be discarded as waste at the place of
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production. Archaeological evidence have revealed that craft production was undertaken in large cities such
as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
The excavation of terracotta toy model of bullock carts indicates
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that there must be important means of transporting goods and

people across land routes. It also indicates the use of riverine as
well as coastal routes. Recent archaeological excavation revealed
that copper was brought from Oman. Even the Mesopottamian
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text of the 3rd millennium BCE refers to copper coming from a

region known as Magan which was probably the name of Oman.
The Harrappan civilization had contact with Mesopotamian as
Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads have been found at Mesopotamian sites. Further the Mesopotamian
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text mention Meluhha region, probably the Harappan region, the products such as carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper,
gold, and varieties of wood. Mesopotamian texts mention Meluhha as a land of seafarers. The archaeologists
also depicts ships and boats on seals.
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notaBle arteFaCts
Though there is no evidence that priests or monarchs ruled Mohenjo-daro, archaeologists
dubbed this dignified figure a 'Priest-King'. It is a 7-inch high stone sculpture which
was found in the lower city. It shows the way in which the men in Mohenjo-daro might
have looked and dressed. This figure beard is short and neat, his upper lip is shaved
clean and his hair is tied with a band that hangs down his back to his shoulder. An
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idea of dressing is given through the pattern of robe covering his shoulder. However, archaeologists are
uncertain as to whom this figure represents.
Throughout the site of Mohenjo-daro many beautiful beads of lapis lazuli, red carnelian and agate stones
of all colours have been found. These are more likely to be worn by the women
population. The evidence of holes drilled into the beads indicates that they were worn
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as necklaces, bracelets, earings, finger rings and other body decorations.
The Indus Valley Civilization was famous for its seals. Some of the most important
seals are:
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The Pashupati Seal: This seal depicts the
modern Hindu God Shiva. He is surrounded
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by animals like the rhino, buffalo, the elephant
and the tiger.
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The Unicorn Seal: This is based on a
fictional animal that the Indus Valley people
had conjured up. It is an example of early
fictional art.
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The Bull Seal: This seal shows a humped bull
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displaying a strong and energetic bull. The figure

has been made well, a proof of the fine artistic
skills acquired by the people of that time.
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Mother Goddess: The most interesting finding

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have been the female figures that have been

termed as Mother Goddess. This shows the
existence of fertility cult.
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Dancing Girl: Another iconic statue found in Mohenjo-

daro is that of the 'Dancing Girl'. It is well-regarded as a
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work of art, and is a cultural artefact of the Indus Valley

Civilization.
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ProBleMs oF PIeCInG toGether the Past

The Harappan scripts are not helpful in the reconstruction of the past as it has not yet been deciphered.
The material evidences like pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, etc., allow archaeologists to better
reconstruct Harappan life.
Recovering artefacts is just the beginning of the archaeological enterprise. Archaeologists then classify their
finding and one basic principle of classification is in terms of material, such as stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory,
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etc. The second, and more complicated, is in terms of function, that is, archaeologists have to decide whether,
for instance, an artefact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use.
Archaeologists have made attempts to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some
of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship. In
some seals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a “yogic” posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, has
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been regarded as a depiction of “proto-Shiva”, that is, an early form of one of the major deities of Hinduism.
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Besides, conical stone objects have been classified as lingas. Many reconstructions
of Harappan religion are made on the assumption that later traditions provide
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parallels with earlier ones. This is because archaeologists often move from the
known to the unknown, that is, from the present to the past.
end oF the IndUs valley CIvIlIzatIon

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In the opinion of some archaeologists, the Harappan society had no rules and everyone enjoyed equal status.
According to other archaeologists, there were
several rulers, for instance, Mohenjodaro had a
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separate ruler, Harappa had another ruler and so

on.
While according to other archaeologists, there
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was a single state as proved by the evidence

for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of
brick size and establishment of settlements near
sources of raw material.
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However, there is evidence that by c. 1800

BCE most of the Harappan sites in regions like
Cholistan had been abandoned. It is believed that
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simultaneously, there was increase in population

in new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
Archaeologists have excavated that in few Harappan sites that remained after 1900 BCE marked the
disappearance of the distinctive artefacts such as weights, seals and beads. Even, writings, long-distance trade
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and craft specialisation had also disappeared. Overall, house construction technique deteriorated and large
public structures were no longer produced.
Historians have put forward many reasons for the breakdown of the Harappan civilization such as climatic
change, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers and overuse of the landscape.
Some of these reasons may be responsible for the collapse of certain regions but not for the collapse of the
entire civilization.
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neW PersPeCtIves oF IndUs valley CIvIlIzatIon

Some of the major new perspectives on the Indus Civilization that are the result of new discoveries at
sites found in the major regions of Pakistan and India. Ever since the discovery of the great Indus Valley
Civilization in the 1920s, it has been considered as one of the earliest urban civilization. However, there are
many misconceptions about its origins, character and decline.
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Even today, when the archaeologists have made general cross-cultural comparison of the Harappan Civilization
with other early civilizations, the Harrapan civilization tends to be viewed as an anomaly less developed than
other early state level societies. According to scholars, one of the major reasons for this situation can be
attributed to the use of different interpretive frameworks and different definitions of what constitutes a state
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level society.
Using the overarching and broader framework of "Cultural Traditions" it is clear that the Indus Civilization
was developing along a similar trajectory as compared to that of Mesopotamian and Egyptian cultures. The
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differences in chronology in terms of the adoption of domesticated plants and animals, or the emergence of
centralized towns or cities can be credited to the fact that environmental factors, availability of resources,
population factors and various other factors provided alternatives for adaptation.
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The old perspectives that early domestication, or specific technologies, urbanism and writing emerging first in
Mesopotamia, and then spreading to Egypt and the Indus Valley region is no longer supported by the recent
discoveries made by the archaeologists in each of these regions.
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ConClUsIon
Mohenjo-daro was one of the greatest civilizations
in the Indus River Valley Civilization. Numerous
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objects found in the excavation include seated and

standing figures, tools made of stone and copper,
carved seals and jewellery made of gold and jasper.
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All these evidences indicate that the inhabitants

of Mohenjo-daro were aware of some kind of
techniques. The famous Mother Goddess idol,
Dancing Girl statuette, Priest king and Pashupati
seal were some of the famous artefacts excavated
at Mohenjo-daro.

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Unfortunately, the great Indus Valley Civilization had a mysterious end. Some archaeologists suggest
that the river dried up. According to other scholars, the civilization was destroyed due to deforestation
or flood. However, these reasons do not clearly explain the end of the civilization. This site is
presently threatened by erosion and improper restoration.
In the context of gender issue of the Harappan civilization, very few scholars have made investigation
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and this is a whole new area for future work.
BIBlIoGraPhy
Internet:
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https://www.britannica.com/place/Mohenjo-daro
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-daro
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https://indusvalleycivilizations.weebly.com/artifacts.html
https://www.harappa.com/content/changing-perspectives-indus-civilization-new-discoveries-and-chal-
lenges
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vIva-voCe QUestIons sP
1. Name the country where the site of Mohenjo-daro is situated?
Ans. The ancient site of Mohenjo-daro is presently situated in the province of Sindh in Pakistan.
2. In how many parts the city was divided? Name them.
Ans. The city of Mohenjo-daro was divided into two parts, that is, the Citadel and the lower town.
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3. What was the material used for making the Great Bath?
Ans. Great Bath was made of fine baked waterproof mud bricks and a thick layer of bitumen.
4. Which technique was used for making the Dancing Girl?
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Ans. Lost wax casting technique was used for making the bronze statue of the Dancing Girl.
5. In which year the site of Mohenjo-daro was designated as the World Heritage Site?
Ans. In 1980, this site was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
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6. What are the names of two contemporary civilizations of Harappan Civilization?

Ans. Egypt and Mesopotamia were the two contemporary civilizations of Harappan Civilization.
7. Who discovered the site of Mohenjo-daro?
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Ans. Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922 by R.D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of
India.
8. What is the special pond of Mohenjo-daro known as?
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Ans. The Great Bath is known as the special pond of Mohenjo-daro.

9. Who is the first king of Mohenjo-daro?
Ans. The Priest-King, in Pakistan sometimes King-Priest, is a small male figure sculpted in steatite and
excavated in Mohenjo-daro.
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10. According to historians, what were the reasons for the breakdown of the Harappan civilization?
Ans. Historians have put forward many reasons for the breakdown of the Harappan civilization such as
climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers and overuse
of the landscape.

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PrOJecT
2
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Topic : The History and Legacy
of Mauryan Empire
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} To learn about the history of the Mauryan Empire.
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} To comprehend Asoka's dharmic state.
} To know the art and architecture of the Mauryan Empire.
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} To analyse the legacy of the Mauryan Empire.
IntrodUCtIon
The lions that we see on the Indian notes and coins have a long history. These
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lions were carved in stone and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath.
Asoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history. He was the first ruler who
inscribe his instructions on pillars and rock surfaces.
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More than 2300 years ago, it was Chandragupta Maurya who founded the Mauryan
Empire. He was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya whose
ideas were written down in a book known as Arthashastra.
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The contemporary accounts of Greek scholars indicate that when Alexander

invaded India, Chandragupta was a youth residing in Taxila. In the records of
Greek historians, the name of Chandragupta is mentioned as ‘Sandrakottus’.
Taking inspiration from Alexander, Chandragupta revolted against the Nandas,
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and later overthrew them. He accomplished this task by either inciting the
people to stand up against an unpopular monarch, or by seeking their supports in
overthrowing an unpopular king.
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the MaUryan eMPIre

In 321 BCE, Chandragupta established the Mauryan empire and became its first
emperor. According to the Junagadh rock inscription, Chandragupta extended his
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empire westwards as far as Gujarat.

The account written by Megasthenes is called ‘Indica’ and it provides a lot of
information about Chandragupta. The original work of Megasthenes is lost but a
part of his account describing the court of Chandragupta and his administration has
been reproduced by many Greek historians.
Chandragupta Maurya
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Chandragupta was one of the greatest rulers of the Mauryan Empire. He had to formulate a strong administrative
system to effectively govern the vast extent of his empire.
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Chandragupta was advised and guided by Chanakya who was popular for his political
skills of governance. Even though contemporary Jain and Buddhist texts do not
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mention about Chanakya but popular oral traditions credit his

wisdom and genius for the greatness of Chandragupta’s reign.
It is believed that Chandragupta renounced the world. The
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Jain tradition states that Chandragupta spent the last years of

his life as an ascetic in Chandragiri, near Sravanabelagola,
in Karnataka.
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Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara in 297

BCE. Bindusara was an able ruler who followed his father’s
Chanakya
tradition of close interaction with the Greek states of West
Asia. He ruled for 25 years and died in 272 BCE.
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Bindusara
Bindusara was succeeded by his son Asoka, even though he was not his chosen
successor. This is evident from the fact that Asoka ascended the throne in 268 BCE
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which was four years after Bindusara's death, indicating a struggle between the sons
of Bindusara for succession.
Before becoming the king, Asoka was the viceroy of Taxila where he crushed a revolt
against the local officials by the people. Later, he became the viceroy of Ujjain which
was the capital of Avanti and also a major city and commercial centre.
Asoka
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One of the most significant campaigns of Asoka’s rule was against Kalinga (present day Odisha) in the
eighth year of his rule. Kalinga's campaign is the only recorded military expedition of the Mauryas. During
this campaign, tens of thousands of people were killed in battle, died subsequently or deported. This battle
was probably more brutal as it was meant to be a punishment for Kalinga which had broken away from the
Magadha empire.
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The Hathigumpha inscription speaks of Kalinga being a part of the Nanda Empire. It is said that Asoka was
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so devastated by the massacre and suffering of the Kalinga war that he converted to humanistic values and
became a Buddhist. His new found values and beliefs were recorded in a number of edicts. This also confirms
his passion for peace and moral righteousness or ‘dhamma’ (or ‘dharma’ in Sanskrit).
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asoka’s dharMIC state
Asoka’s rule provides an alternate model of a righteous king and a just state. After every five years,
Asoka instructed his officials, the ‘yuktas’ (or subordinate officials), ‘rajjukas’(or rural administrators) and
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‘pradesikas’(or head of districts) to go on tours and instruct people in ‘dhamma’. This is mentioned in Major
Rock Edict–3.
The instructions issued by Asoka to his officials and
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city magistrates emphasised the fact that every citizen

was his child, and he wished the same for them as
he wishes for his own children and that every person
should attain welfare and happiness in this world and
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the next. He also instructed his officials to understand

their responsibilities, strive hard to be impartial and
make sure that no person is imprisoned or tortured
without a valid reason.
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As mentioned in Kalinga Rock Edict 1, to ensure that

his instructions were being carried out, Asoka would
send an officer, every five years, to verify the same.
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Asoka was of the opinion that an effective ruler must

be fully aware about the happenings in his kingdom
and he insisted on being advised and informed about
the same wherever he might be. This is mentioned in
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Major Rock Edict 6. According to Major Rock Edicts

7 and 12, he instructed that all religions should co-exist
and the ascetics of all the religions be honoured.
As per Major Rock Edict 2, the state was responsible for
providing medical care to the people and orders were
given by Asoka to set up hospitals to treat human beings
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and animals. Another instruction which recurred in most of Asoka’s edicts was the prevention of unnecessary
slaughter of animals and showing respect for all living beings. Asoka’s edicts emphasise that every person,
be it official or subject, should act righteously and follow ‘dhamma’.
Asoka used the inscriptions to proclaim what he understood to be 'dhamma'. His principles of 'dhamma' are
respect towards elders, generosity towards Brahmanas and those who renounced worldly life, treating slaves
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and servants kindly, and respect for religions and traditions other than one’s own.
the MaUryan adMInIstratIon

Central Government: The Mauryan ruler was no doubt an autocrat but he looked after the welfare of the
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people. The king was the highest authority of the State. He was, however, assisted by a council of ministers
or a ‘Mantri Parishad’. The ministers were wise and loyal to the king. Each minister was individually
responsible for his department.
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Besides the ministers, there were other officers who looked after their respective duties. They were Adhyakshas
(Superintendents), Amatyas (Executive Officers), Mahamatras (Governors), Pradeshakas (Revenue Officers),
Rajukas (Judicial Officers) and Yuktas (Treasury Officers).
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Provincial Government: The whole empire was divided into four provinces of Magadha, Taxila, Ujjain and
Swarnagiri. The administration of the districts was looked after by ‘Sthanaks’ and that of the villages by
village headmen, called ‘Gramikas’ or ‘Graminis’.
Revenue System: Land Revenue was the chief source of income. It varied from 1/6th to 1/4th of the total
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produce. Taxes were also collected from mines, forests, cattle, toll tax, and professional taxes. The money
was usually spent on public works like roads, hospitals, irrigation, etc. and to pay the salaries of the officers
and to maintain a large army.
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Military Administration: Chandragupta kept a huge army of 6,00,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9,000
elephants and 8,000 chariots. It was necessary to maintain such a large army to look after so big an empire.
Besides, there was an efficient network of spy system spread all over the empire and in the neighbouring
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states. These spies kept the emperor informed about all the important matters.
Civic Administration of Pataliputra
Megasthenes tells us much about the city of Pataliputra. It was the capital of the Mauryas. It was a beautiful
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city surrounded by a deep moat and high walls. All the houses including the king’s palace were made of
wood. The king’s palace was magnificent and he lived in luxury.
The administration of the city was looked after by a committee of 30 members. This committee was further
divided into six boards.
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1. The first board was concerned with industries and arts.

2. The second board looked after the needs of the foreigners.
3. The third board recorded the births and deaths.
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4. The fourth board regulated the trade and commerce and checked weights and measures.
5. The fifth board ensured the quality of the manufactured articles.
6. The sixth board collected taxes on sold goods at the rate of 10% of their price.
This committee also took steps to ensure health and sanitation, and built hospitals, roads, parks, schools and
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temples.
deClIne oF the MaUryan eMPIre

The Mauryan Empire was finally destroyed by Pushyamitra Sunga in 185 BC. He was a Brahmin General of
the last Mauryan king Brihadratha.

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There were many reasons for the decline of the Mauryan Empire:
 The empire was too vast and Asoka’s successors were weak.
 Enormous expenditure on maintaining a huge army and vast bureaucratic apparatus created a financial
crisis.
 Asoka’s pacifist policies led to the neglect of the army.
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 Governors of outlying provinces revolted because of lack of control.
 The Greeks began invasion of northwest frontier, which could not be checked.
MaUryan art and arChIteCtUre
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The early monuments of the Mauryan Empire have perished as they were made of
woods. The use of stone in making monuments started during the time of Asoka but
even they have disappeared with time. The stupa at Sanchi is the only monument
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which still remains.
The pillars of Asoka furnish the finest specimen of the Mauryan art. Asokan pillars
with inscriptions were found in Delhi, Allahabad, Rummindai, Sanchi and Sarnath.
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These pillar tops have images of animals like lion, elephant and bull. The magnificent
Sarnath pillar has images of four lions standing back to back. The Indian government
adopted this image with some modifications as its state emblem.
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The famous Sanchi stupa with massive dimensions is the best amongst the few stupas that have survived.
It was originally built with bricks but later enlarged. The caves given to the Ajivikas by Asoka and his son
Dasaratha are an important heritage of the Mauryas. These caves were the residences of the monks.
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The caves at Barabar hills near Bodh Gaya are a magnificent example of the Mauryan architecture.
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leGaCy oF the MaUryan eMPIre

Asoka’s revolutionary methods of governance and non-violence are required in our present time.
Besides, the various stupas credited to Asoka, the pillars erected by him survive at various places in the Indian
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subcontinent have preserved his legacy.

Asoka is also attributed with the beginning of stone architecture in India. Before Asoka's time, buildings
were probably built in non-permanent material, such as wood, bamboo or thatch. Asoka might have rebuilt
his palace in Pataliputra by replacing wooden material by stone.
His another innovative work was using the permanent qualities of stone for his written edicts, as well as his
pillars with Buddhist symbolism.

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ConClUsIon
It is believed that a new era was opened in Indian History after the establishment of Mauryan Empire.
It was first time in history that whole India was politically united. Also, from the Mauryan period
writing history became clear because of accuracy in chronology and sources. Besides, Mauryan
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sources, other indigenous and foreign literary sources were available in ample form.
Some important archaeological findings associated with Mauryan Empire were stone sculptures, for
example, the Mauryan art. Some historians are of the view that messages on Asoka inscriptions were
entirely different from other rulers. The greatest legacy of the Asoka is his principles of non-violence.
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BIBlIoGraPhy
Internet:
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https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lehs102.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashoka
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurya_Empire
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vIva-voCe QUestIons sP
1. Who was the founder of the Mauryan Empire?
Ans. Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire in 321 BCE.
2. Name the author of the book Arthashastra.
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Ans. Chanakya also known as Kautilya was the author of the book Arthashastra.
3. Who wrote the accounts of indica?
Ans. The account written by Megasthenes is called ‘Indica’ and it provides a lot of information about
Chandragupta.
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4. Who was the successor of Chandragupta Maurya?

Ans. Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara in 297 BCE.
5. Which war was a major turning point in the life of Asoka?
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Ans. The Kalinga war was a major turning point in the life of Asoka.
6. Why did Asoka become a Buddhist?
Ans. It is said that Asoka was so devastated by the massacre and suffering of the Kalinga war that he
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converted to humanistic values and became a Buddhist.

7. What is mentioned in Major Rock Edict 2?
Ans. As per Major Rock Edict 2, the state was responsible for providing medical care to the people and
orders were given by Asoka to set up hospitals to treat human beings and animals.
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8. Name the places where Asokan pillars with inscriptions have been found?
Ans. Asokan pillars with inscriptions were found in Delhi, Allahabad, Rummindai, Sanchi and Sarnath.
9. What is the legacy of the Mauryan Empire?
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Ans. Asoka’s revolutionary methods of governance and non-violence are the greatest legacy of the Mauryan
Empire.
10. Mention any two principles of Asoka's dhamma?
Ans. Asoka's principles of 'dhamma' are respect towards elders and generosity towards Brahmanas and those
who renounced worldly life.

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PrOJecT
3
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Topic : " Mahabharat"-
The Great Epic
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of India
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} To know the story of the great epic Mahabharat.
} To understand and analyse the consequences of war.
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} To get acquainted with the legacy of the Mahabharat.
IntrodUCtIon
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Mahabharat is one of the greatest Sanskrit epic of ancient India. It provides good source of information on
the development of Hinduism probably between 400 BCE and 200 BCE. This epic is considered by Hindus
as both a text about dharma as well as a history. In about 400 CE, Mahabharat appeared in its present form
which comprises of a mass of mythological and didactic material revolving around the heroic narrative that
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tells of the struggle for sovereignty between the Kauravas and the Pandavas.
Although it is unlikely that any single person alone can write the great epic Mahabharat, yet, traditionally,
its authorship is attributed to sage Ved Vyasa. Its longest version comprised of about 1.8 million words in
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total, thus, the Mahabharat is roughly four times the length of the Ramayana.
textUal hIstory
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The sage Ved Vyasa who is credited for composing the great epic
Mahabharat is also a major character in the epic. He described it as being
itihasa, that is, history. He also narrates the Guru-shishya tradition which
traces all great teachers as well as their students of the Vedic period.
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The first section of Mahabharat mentions that Lord Ganesha wrote down
the text to Vyasa's dictation, however, this is considered by historians
as a later interpolation to the epic because the "Critical Edition" of the
Mahabharat does not include Lord Ganesha at all.
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The epic comprises of a story within a story structure, that is, frametales,
which is very popular in many Indian religious and non-religious works.
It was first recited to the the King Janamejaya, the great grandson of
the Pandava prince Arjuna at a place named Takshashila by the sage
Vaisampayana.

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Many years later, the story of Mahabharat was again recited by a professional
storyteller Ugrasrava Sauti, to an assemblage of sages who were performing the 12-
year sacrifice for the king Saunaka Kulapati in the Naimisa Forest.
However, in the early 20th century, some indologists described the text of Mahabharat
as unstructured and chaotic. Efforts have been made into recognizing and dating layers
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within the Mahabharat text. Some elements of the present Mahabharat can be traced
back to the Vedic period.
MahaBharat–the ePIC
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Shantanu, the king of Hastinapur, was married to Ganga with whom he had a son named Devavrat. Many years
later, when Devavrat had grown up to be an accomplished prince, Shantanu fell in love with Satyavati. But,
the father of Satyavati refused to let her daughter marry the king unless the latter promised that Satyavati's
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son and descendants would inherit the throne. As a consequence, Shantanu's son Devavrat vowed to renounce
the throne and to remain celibate throughout his life. In this way, Devavrat got his father married to Satyavati.
On account of the terrible vow that Devavrat had taken he came to be known as Bhishma. Shantanu was so
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pleased with his son that he granted him the

boon of choosing the time of his own death.
Soon, Shantanu and Satyavati had two
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boys. But, the first son had no children

and died in battle and the second son named
Vichitravirya grew to adulthood and married
two women named Ambika and Ambalika.
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But unfortunately, before either of his wives

had children, Vichitravirya died. After
sometime, King Santanu also died.
It was believed that Queen Satyavati had
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not told anyone that before she was married

she had actually been born from a fish and
had an encounter with a sage and given
birth to a son named Vyasa. Though Vyasa
was not exactly the heir, he was still a kind
of inherit.
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Dhritarashtra Pandu Vidur
Vyasa was married to Vichitravirya’s two wives who had two sons. The eldest son Dhritarashtra was born
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blind and another son was Pandu. To a maid of queens Ambika and Ambalika was born a son of Vyasa
named Vidur. Bhishma brought up these three boys with great care. The sons of Vyasa, Dhritarashtra was the
strongest of all princes in the country, Pandu was extremely skilled in warfare and archery, and Vidur had
knowledge of all the branches of learning, politics and statesmanship.
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With the passage of time, the three boys had grown up. Now the time came to fill the empty throne of
Hastinapur. The eldest son Dhritarashtra was bypassed as the law of that time barred a disabled person from
being king. Hence, Pandu was crowned.
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Dhritarashtra was married to Gandhari, and Pandu with Kunti and Madri. Pandu expanded the kingdom of
Hastinapur by conquering the surrounding areas and brought in considerable war booty.
Gradually, Pandu was blessed with five sons, the eldest was Yudhistira, followed by Bhimasena, Arjuna, and
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twins Nakula and Sahadeva. While Pandu was out in the woods with his two wives, Dhritarashtra became
king. Dhritarashtra and Gandhari had 100 sons.
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The eldest son of Dhritarashtra was Duryodhana. All sons of Dhritarashtra were collectively known as the
Kauravas. The story of the epic Mahabharat focusses on the conflict between cousins, the Kauravas and the
Pandavas.
The Kaurava brothers were envious of their cousin Yudhistira and started planning to dethrone him. Their
first attempt to kill the Pandavas was by burning them inside a palace but fortunately, the Pandavas managed
to escape.

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Another plan of the Kauravas was to make Yudhisthira lose

everything, including his and his brothers' wife, Draupadi
in the game of dice. The Kauravas were successful in
this and after losing everything Yudhisthira along with his
brothers and their wife Draupadi, were exiled from the
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kingdom of Hastinapur.
The Pandavas period of exile was twelve years. So,
during this period they resided in the forest and upon the
thirteenth year they were to hide in a city in disguise. After
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the thirteenth year, the eldest of Kauravas, Duryodhana
decided that he would fight against the Pandavas and this
led to a huge war between them. During the war, many people died from both sides and after the war, they
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realised that nothing was really gained.
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Krishna, the supreme personality of Godhead was the most dramatic figure of the entire Mahabharat. He
was the cousin of both the Kauravas and the Pandavas. But, he was a friend and advisor to the Pandavas
and later on became the brother-in-law of Arjuna. In the Kurukshetra war, Krishna served as Arjuna's mentor
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and charioteer.
Just before the war bugle was sounded, Arjuna saw before him his relatives, that is, his great-grandfather
Bhishma who brought him (Arjuna) up, his teachers Kripa and Drona, his brothers the Kauravas and, for a
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moment, his resolution wavered. However, Krishna, had given up support for this war and had decided to be
Arjuna's charioteer.
Arjuna said to Krishna that he does not want to kill his own people who are his brothers, teachers, uncles and
sons. This led to a philosophical discourse between Krishna and Arjuna, which today had become a separate
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book on its own, that is, the Bhagavad Gita. In his discourse, Krishna explained the impermanence of life to
Arjuna, and the importance of doing one's duty and sticking to the right path. Consequently, Arjuna picked
up his bow again.
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The battle lasted for about 18 days. In the war, casualties were very high on both sides. Finally, the Pandavas
won the war but unfortunately, lost everyone they held dear. Duryodhan and all of the Kauravas including all
of the menfolk of Draupadi's family, all of her sons by the Pandavas had died.
The grand old man, Bhishma was lying dead, teacher Drona was dead and several kinsfolk related to them
either by blood or by marriage were also lying dead. It is believed that in about 18 days, the entire country
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lost almost three generations of its men. The war of such a large scale was never seen before. This was
recorded in history as the Great Indian war, that is, the Maha-bharat.
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After the war, Yudhishthir was crowned as the king of Hastinapur and Indraprastha. The Pandavas ruled for 36
years, after which they renounced the throne of Hastinapur in favour of Parikshit who was Abhimanyu's son.
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It is said that the Pandavas and Draupadi proceeded on foot to the Himalayas, intending to live out their
last days climbing the slopes towards heavens. As a consequence, one by one, the Pandavas fell on this last
journey and their spirits ascended to the heavens.
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Later on, Parikshit's son succeeded to the throne. He held a big sacrifice where the entire story of the
Mahabharat was recited for the first time by a disciple of Ved Vyasa named Vaishampayan.
leGaCy oF the MahaBharat

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The story of the Mahabharat has been retold countless number of times. Even today, the Mahabharata remains
popular in the subcontinent. In many plays and films, this story has been adapted and re-casted in contemporary
mode. The Bhagvad Gita is one of the sacred scriptures of Hindu. Apart from India, the Mahabharata story is
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popular in South-east Asia in cultures that were influenced by Hinduism such as in Indonesia and Malaysia.
The Mahabharat's various incidents have been portrayed in stone, notably in sculptured reliefs at Angkor Wat
and Angkor Thom in Cambodia, and in many Indian miniature paintings.
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ConClUsIon
In a nutshell, the epic Mahabharat represents an extended exploration of the responsibilities set
forth by the code of dharma. Apart from heroic tales, it also contains a collection of writings on a
broad spectrum of human learning, including ethics, law, philosophy, history, geography, genealogy,
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and religion. It also presents a number of legends, moral stories, and local tales all woven into an
elaborate narrative.
BIBlIoGraPhy
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Internet:
https://www.worldhistory.org/ Mahabharata/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Mahabharata
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https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ganesha
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lehs103.pdf
https://www.scasd.org/cms/lib5/PA01000006/Centricity/Domain/1487/ Mahabharata%20summary.pdf
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vIva-voCe QUestIons
1. Who was Devavrat? sP
Ans. Devavrat was the son of Shantanu, the king of Hastinapur and Ganga.
2. Who composed the great epic Mahabharat?
Ans. The great epic Mahabharat was composed by the sage Ved Vyasa.
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3. Why was Devavrat known by the name Bishma?

Ans. On account of the terrible vow that Devavrat had taken he came to be known as Bhishma.
4. In which language the Mahabharat was written?
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Ans. The epic Mahabharat was written in Sanskrit.

5. Who was the younger son of Satyavati?
Ans. The younger son of Satyavati was Vichitravirya.
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6. Why was Dhritarashtra younger brother Pandu crowned in place of him?

Ans. As Dhritarashtra was blind and the law of that time barred a disabled person from being king. So,
Pandu was crowned as king.
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7. Name the five sons of Pandu?

Ans. Pandu was blessed with five sons, the eldest was Yudhistira, followed by Bhimasena, Arjuna, and
twins Nakula and Sahadeva.
8. How many days the Kurukshetra war was fought?
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Ans. The Kurukshetra war was fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas for 18 days.
9. Who won the battle of the Mahabharat?
Ans. The battle of the Mahabharat was won by the Pandavas and after that Yudhistira was crowned as king
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of Hastinapur.
10. Where did the Pandavas and Draupadi went after renouncing the throne?
Ans. It is said that the Pandavas and Draupadi proceeded on foot to the Himalayas, intending to live out
their last days climbing the slopes towards heavens.

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PrOJecT
4
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Topic : The History and
Culture of The Vedic
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Period
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} To know various sources that informs about the Vedic period.
} To get acquainted about the literature of the Vedic period.
} To understand the political history of the Vedic period.
} To learn about the culture of the Vedic period.
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} To get knowledge of the Vedic religion and rituals.
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IntrodUCtIon
Conventionally, the timeline of Indian history begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, followed by the Vedic
culture, which then moves into the age of the mahajanapadas. On considering the time after the decline of
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the Indus Valley Civilizatiion, covering the period from 2000 BCE to 600 BCE and extending from Kashmir
to Kanyakumari and Arunachal Pradesh to Gujarat, it is clearly evident that people of diverse culture and
languages lived in ancient India.
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sP
The Later Vedic culture existed in the period between 1000 BCE and 700-600 BCE.
The Painted Grey Ware culture of the Iron Age is associated with the Later Vedic culture. This period witnessed
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the expansion of the Aryans from Punjab to Western Uttar Pradesh in the Ganga Yamuna doab.
soUrCes oF the vedIC PerIod

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The Indus Valley Civilizatiion declined around 1900 BCE. After the decline of this civilizatiion, the Indian
history is characterised by:
 Presence of microlith used by hunter-gatherers and pastoral communities.
 Semi-sedentary and sedentary agro-pastoral communities of the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Iron Ages and
Vedic cultures.

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The various sources of Indian history from 3000 to 600 BCE have been classified into two major types:
1. Archaeological sites and material culture, including pottery, plant remains and metal objects.
2. Vedic literature
Since the Vedic texts were transmitted orally, no written documents of this period are available.
At this point of time, people had not developed a script in India, except the symbols of the Indus script,
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which are yet to be deciphered.
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The Early Vedic culture is correlated with some of the Chalcolithic cultures of India, whereas the Later Vedic
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culture is correlated with the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Iron Age in North India. This period witnessed
cultural, agricultural and technological expansion as well as development in many parts of India unlike the
age of the Indus Valley Civilization, when urban sites and farming cultures were in a limited area.
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The development during the Vedic period was also accompanied by the growth of craft production and
population. This period also witnessed the establishment of a strong cultural foundation across India, which
ultimately concluded in the Early Historic period. The Vedic period laid down an extensive foundation for
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village settlements in India.
lIteratUre oF the vedIC PerIod

The Vedas are the earliest known texts to be composed in India.
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The term ‘Vedas’ is derived from ‘Vid’ which means ‘to know’ or
‘Vidya’. The language of the Vedas is called Vedic Sanskrit. The
four Vedas are:
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1. Rig Veda, which is the oldest Veda

2. Yajur Veda
3. Sama Veda
4. Atharva Veda
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The brahmins memorised the Vedic texts and transmitted them orally from one generation to another. With the
introduction of the art of writing in the later period, the Vedic texts were written as manuscripts. The earliest
known manuscripts of the Vedas date back to 10th-11th century CE. These manuscripts provide information
about polity, society, religion and philosophy. Thus, these manuscripts are important sources of information
for writing history.

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sh
ka
‘Samhitas’ are the main collection of Vedic hymns. The earliest among them is the Rig Vedic Samhita. The
Rig Veda was written between 1500 and 1000 BCE. The Rig Veda contains 10 books, of these, books 2 to
7 are the earliest ones and books 1, 8, 9 and 10 belong to the later period.
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The ‘Aranyakas’ contain mystical ritual instructions, which are supposed to be undertaken secretly by the
sages who reside in the forest. The ‘Upanishads’ deals with philosophical enquiries.
The texts of the Later Vedic were composed after the ‘Rig Veda Samhitas’. The ‘Yajur Veda’, ‘Sama Veda’
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and ‘Atharva Veda’ were composed after the ‘Rig Veda’.
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PolItICal hIstory oF the

vedIC PerIod
During the Rig Vedic period, the concept of
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polity developed. The Rig Veda mentions

the various units of habitation and divisions,
such as jana, vis, gana, grama and kula.
The Rig Veda mentions the Aryans and their
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enemies and the battles fought between them.

The battles were fought mainly for cattle
and material wealth. The war booty acquired
during these battles was shared. The Aryans
fought not only with the non-Aryan but also
amongst themselves.
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The two ruling clans of the Aryans were ‘Bharata’ and ‘Tritsu’. These two ruling clans were supported by
‘Vasishta’, the priest. Bharata Varsha, the name given to the region of India, came from the Bharata tribe.
The Bharata clan had rivalry with ten chiefs, of which five were Aryans.
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The battle fought between the Bharata and the ten chiefs was known as the 'Battle of Ten Kings'. This battle
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was fought on the banks of the river Parusni, which was later identified as river Ravi. The victory of Sudas
in this battle resulted in the dominance of the Bharata clan.
In the Early Vedic period, tribal polity was dominant. In the Rig Veda, an assembly named Vidatha appears
122 times and this indicates that it was the most important assembly in the Early Vedic period.
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In the Later Vedic period, the assembly called ‘vidhata’ disappeared, while the ‘samiti’ and ‘sabha’ continued
to exist during this period. As large kingdoms developed, the influence of the assemblies reduced further.
The Later Vedic period witnessed the development of the concepts of ‘Samrat’ and ‘Samrajya’, which point
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towards the increase in the power of the king. He developed greater control over territories, people and
resources.
The Later Vedic period witnessed the gradual development of monarchy. The Kuru-Panchala became a major
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ethnic group in the Later Vedic period and their capital was Hastinapur.
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The tribes found during the Later Vedic period were Kurus, Panchalas, Vashas and Ushinaras. The Later Vedic
texts also provide references to Saraswati and Dhristavati rivers. The Vedic Aryans moved towards the Kosala
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region in eastern Uttar Pradesh and the Videha region in northern Bihar in around 1000 BCE. Here, they met
the local people, who followed Chalcolithic material culture.
The Later Vedic period witnessed the use of iron as a major metal for making implements. Iron was also
known as ‘syama-ayas’ or ‘krishna-ayas’ or the dark metal. Iron is also believed to have played a major role
in converting the forests of the Ganga valley into agricultural lands. The foundations for towns probably
emerged during the Later Vedic period, but large towns appeared only at the end of the Vedic period.
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CUltUre In the vedIC PerIod
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The Vedic people distinguished themselves from the non-Aryan people. The term ‘varna’ was used by the
Aryans to refer to skin colour and category. The Rig Veda refers to two varnas, that is, Arya varna and Dasa
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varna. The Dasas and Dasyus were conquered by the Aryans and treated as slaves. They came to be known
as shudras in the Later Vedic period.
The people in the society were categorised into warriors, priests and common people. By the end of the
Rig Vedic period, shudras emerged as a separate category of people. The system of slavery was commonly
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practised and slaves were gifted to priests. However, there is no reference to wage labour. Social distinction
is evident from the fact that only a few people owned horse-drawn chariots and bronze objects.
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The early Vedic society was mostly egalitarian. By the end of the early Vedic period, social divisions began
to emerge. The ‘Purusha Sukta’ of the Rig Veda defines the emergence of the four varnas in the following
manner:
 Brahmanas from the mouth  Kshatriyas from the arms
 Vaisya from the thighs  Shudra from the feet of ‘Purusha’, when he was sacrificed

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During the Rig Vedic period, women
probably enjoyed an honourable
position in the society. But in the
later Vedic period, the women
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lost their earlier rights and society
became complex.
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In the Vedic period, the society was essentially patriarchal, and the birth of a male child was preferred.
vedIC relIGIon and rItUals

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Religion and rituals played a very important role in the Rig Vedic society. Natural forces, such as sun, moon,
rivers, mountains and rains, were defined as divinities in the Rig Veda.
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Indra Agni Surya

Religion was naturalistic and polytheistic. The most
important god was Indra, he was called Purandara. ‘Agni’
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was considered an intermediary between God and people.

‘Surya’ was the god who removed darkness. ‘Usha’ was
the goddess of dawn and ‘Prithvi’, ‘Aditi’ and ‘Sinivali’
were other goddesses.
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‘Varuna’, the god of water, was an important god. He was

considered the upholder of natural order. ‘Soma’ was the
god of plants, and the drink ‘Soma’ was named after him.
The drink ‘Soma’ was part of rituals, and many hymns
explain the preparation of this intoxicating drink.
Usha Prithvi
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sh
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Varuna Soma
The god of strength was called ‘Maruts’. There are very few references to ‘Rudra’ or Siva.
Rituals were practised to find solutions to several issues and day-to-day problems of life. Due to this, the
priests played an important role in the society.
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Maruts Rudra
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ConClUsIon
The Rig Vedic Samhita is the earliest text that gives an account of the Early Vedic period. The Early
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Vedic culture is considered to exist between 1500 BCE and 1000 BCE. Bharata Varsha, the name
given to the region of India, came from the Bharatas tribe. The Rig Veda refers to two varnas, Arya
and Dasa. The Dasas and Dasyus were conquered by the Aryans and treated as slaves. They came to
be known as Shudras in the later period. In this period, the society was essentially patriarchal, and
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the birth of a male child was preferred. Marriage was common, and remarriage of widows was also
known to be practised. Religion and rituals played a very important role in the Rig Vedic society.
In the Early Vedic period, lineage and tribes comprised the society and the king had limited power.
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BIBlIoGraPhy
Internet:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_period
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ten_Kings
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Later-Vedic-Period
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vIva-voCe QUestIons
1. Which sources were used to reconstruct Indian history from 3000 to 600 BCE?
Ans. The sources that are used to reconstruct Indian history from 3000 to 600 BCE have been classified
an
into two major types:
Archaeological sites and material culture, including pottery, plant remains and metal objects.
Vedic literature
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2. Name the four Vedas.
Ans. The four Vedas are:
1. Rig Veda, which is the oldest Veda
2. Yajur Veda
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3. Sama Veda
4. Atharva Veda
3. Before the introduction of the art of writing, how were the Vedic texts transmitted?
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Ans. The brahmins memorised the Vedic texts and transmitted them orally from one generation to another.
4. With the introduction of the art of writing in the later period, the Vedic texts were written as
manuscripts. Explain.
sP
Ans. The earliest known manuscripts of the Vedas date back to 10th-11th century CE. These manuscripts
provide information about polity, society, religion and philosophy. Thus, these manuscripts are
important sources of information for writing history.
5. What are Samhitas?
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Ans. Samhitas are the main collection of Vedic hymns. The earliest among them is the Rig Vedic Samhita.
6. What instructions are contained in the Aranyakas?
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Ans. The Aranyakas contain mystical ritual instructions, which are supposed to be undertaken secretly by
the sages who reside in the forest.
7. What are Upanishads?
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Ans. The Upanishads deals with philosophical enquiries.

8. Name the social divisions that emerged in the Later Vedic period.
Ans. The ‘Purusha Sukta’ of the Rig Veda defines the emergence of the four varnas:
1. Brahmanas
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2. Kshatriyas
3. Vaisya
4. Shudra
9. Describe the battle of Ten Kings.
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Ans. The battle fought between the Bharata and the ten chiefs was known as the 'Battle of Ten Kings'.
This battle was fought on the banks of the river Parusni, which was later identified as river Ravi. The
victory of Sudas in this battle resulted in the dominance of the Bharata clan.
Go
10. Name any three gods which were worshipped during the Vedic period.
Ans. The most important god was Indra, he was called Purandara. ‘Agni’ was considered an intermediary
between God and people. ‘Varuna’, the god of water, was an important god. He was considered the
upholder of natural order.

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PrOJecT
5
an
Topic : Buddha Charita
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ka
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} To know about the life of Gautama Buddha.
} To understand the Buddha's path of enlightenment and his teachings.
} To get acquainted about the Buddha Charita. sP
IntrodUCtIon
In the year 563 BCE, Prince Siddhartha was born in
Lumbini near Kapilavastu (Nepal). His father was King
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Suddhodana and his mother was Queen Mahamaya. At

the age of 16, Siddhartha completed his education and got
married to Princess Yasodara. The couple were blessed
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with a son named Rahul. At the age of 29, he left his

kingdom. He followed the spiritual path and wandered
here and there in search of truth. In his path of ultimate
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reality, he met many eminent scholars. However, they

were unable to satisfy him. Later on, he went to Bodh Gaya and sat under a pipal tree. Finally, the true light
dawned on him and he became the Buddha or the ‘Enlightened One’.
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PrInCe sIddhartha's ChIldhood

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According to biographical legends, during the birth celebrations of Prince Siddhartha, the hermit ascetic named
Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and analysed the child. He announced that the child would either
become a great king or a great religious leader. On the fifth day, Siddhartha's father King Suddhodana held
a naming ceremony. On this occasion, he invited eight Brahmin scholars to predict the future of his son. All
the eight Brahmin scholars gave similar predictions as given by the hermit ascetic Asita.
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sh
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Siddhartha had a sheltered upbringing within the palace, insulated from the harsh realities of life. He was
raised in a life of royal ease, shielded from the misery and cruelties of the world. He led a luxurious life.
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PrInCe sIddhartha's exPloratIon to the World
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One day, Prince Siddhartha persuaded his charioteer named Channa to take him into the city. But, his first
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journey into the world outside was traumatic. He was deeply anguished when he saw the sights of an old
man, a sick man, a corpse and a wandering ascetic. He realised at that moment that the decay and destruction
of the human body was inevitable.
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PrInCe sIddhartha's deterMInatIon

Siddhartha firmly decided to find a way to end human suffering. At the age of 29, he left his royal palace
and set out in search of truth. He began his training in meditation and asceticism in hope of discovering the
root of human suffering. Rejecting the luxury of the palace and the self-denial of the forest-dwelling ascetics,
he chose to pursue a "middle way" between the two extremes.

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Accepting food from a village girl, he recovered his bodily strength and began a journey inward through the
practice of meditation.
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sP
er
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For two years, Siddhartha became the disciple of a Brahman and studied the Vedas and Shastras. But this did
not bring him peace. Then, he practised severe austerity and penance as an ascetic and reduced himself to a
mere skeleton. This also did not bring him any satisfaction.
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sIddhartha's enlIGhtenMent
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Later on, Siddhartha went to Bodh Gaya and sat there under a pipal tree and absorbed himself in deep thought.
At last, one night, the true light dawned on him and he became the Buddha or the ‘Enlightened One’ at the
age of 35. This tree, henceforth, came to be known as the Bodhi Tree. After attaining enlightenment, Buddha
went to Sarnath and delivered his first sermon at the Deer Park. This event is known as ‘Dharma Chakra
Pravartana’ or ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’.
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At the Deer Park, Buddha found five disciples who followed him. He spent remaining years of his life in
preaching his doctrine from one place to another. Buddhist religion soon became very popular in the kingdoms
of Magadha and Kosala.
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Buddha also established the order of monks, called Sangha, to preach
Buddhism. The Buddha is believed to have died in 483 BCE at Kushinagar
(India) at the age of 80. In Kushinagar, the Parinirvana Stupa is a Buddhist
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temple, which is regarded as the place where Gautama Buddha died. His
remains were distributed among his followers who raised eight mounds
or Stupas on them. sP
teaChInGs oF GaUtaMa BUddha
The Sutta Pitaka is also known as 'Buddhavacana' or words of Buddha.
It contains more than 10,000 suttas (teachings) attributed to the Buddha
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or his close companions.

 Four Noble Truths and Eight-fold Path: The Four Noble Truths
preached by the Buddha were :
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(1) This world is full of sorrows.

(2) Desires are the main cause of sorrows.
(3) One can get rid of sorrows by killing desires.
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(4) The desires can be killed only by following the Eight-fold

Path.
The principles of the Eight-fold path are as follows:
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(i) Right Belief (ii) Right Thought (iii) Right Speech

(iv) Right Action (v) Right Living (vi) Right Effort
(vii) Right Recollection (viii) Right Meditation.
This path is also called the ‘Middle Path’ as the Buddha on the one hand condemned the life of pleasure as
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practised by the Brahmana priests. He preached a middle path of righteous living.

 Non-violence: Buddha laid great stress on non-violence towards all living beings. He believed that man
should neither kill nor harm animals. He preached love for all living beings.
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 Silence over the existence of God: Buddha was silent about the existence of God, though he never
formally denied it. Buddha held that the whole universe was controlled by ‘Dharma’, a universal law.
 Non-Faith in yajnas, sacrifices and rituals: Buddha had no faith in Yajnas and animal-sacrifices. He
had no faith in the supremacy of the Vedas or the Brahmans.
 No faith in the caste system: Buddha had no faith in caste-distinctions. He opposed the caste-system
vehemently.

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 Nirvana: According to the Buddha, the chief aim of man’s life was to lead a noble life and to attain
Nirvana or ultimate salvation. In this state, the soul becomes free from the eternal cycle of life and death.
 The Karma Theory: The Buddha believed in the theory of Karma and Rebirth. He said that it was the
eternal law that a man reaps the fruits of his deeds. None can escape the consequences of his deeds.
 Stress on righteous conduct: The Buddha stressed the importance of moral living. He paid more attention
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to the purity of thought, word and deed.
BUddha CharIta
Buddha charita is an epic poem in the Sanskrit mahakavya style. As the name suggests,
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this epic poem is based on the life of Gautama Buddha. It was composed by Asvagho
a of Saketa in the early second century CE. Of the poem's 28 cantos, the first 14 are
extant in Sanskrit complete whereas cantos 15 to 28 are in incomplete form.
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In 420 AD, Dharmak ema, a Buddhist monk made a Chinese translation of the Buddha
Charita. In the 7th or 8th century, a Tibetan version of the Buddha Charita was composed
by an unknown author. Some scholars suggest that the Tibetian version appear to be
much closer to the original Sanskrit work as compared to that of the Chinese.
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ConClUsIon
sP
Buddhism is one of the world's largest religions. It originated about 2,500 years ago in India. The
followers of Buddhism believe that human life is one of suffering, and that meditation, spiritual
and physical labour as well as good behaviour are the ways to achieve enlightenment. In the early
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second century CE, Asvaghosa of Saketa composed the great epic poem the Buddha Charita in the
Sanskrit mahakavya style.
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BIBlIoGraPhy
Internet:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asita
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asita
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhacharita
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vIva-voCe QUestIons
1. Where was Gautama Buddha born?
Ans. Gautama Buddha was born in Lumbini near Kapilavastu, now a modern town in Nepal.
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2. Name the parents of Gautama Buddha.

Ans. Gautama Buddha father was King Suddhodana and his mother was Queen Mahamaya.
3. What is Sutta Pitaka?
Ans. The Sutta Pitaka is also known as 'Buddhavacana' or words of Buddha. It contains more than 10,000
suttas (teachings) attributed to the Buddha or his close companions.

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4. Where did Buddha delivered his first sermon?

Ans. Buddha went to Sarnath and delivered his first sermon at the Deer Park.
5. What are the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism?
Ans. The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism are:
(1) This world is full of sorrows.
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(2) Desires are the main cause of sorrows.
(3) One can get rid of sorrows by killing desires.
(4) The desires can be killed only by following the Eight-fold Path.
sh
6. What is Parinirvana Stupa?
Ans. In Kushinagar, the Parinirvana Stupa is a Buddhist temple, which is regarded as the place where
Gautama Buddha died.
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7. Name the two kingdoms where Buddhist religion became very popular.
Ans. Buddhist religion became very popular in the kingdoms of Magadha and Kosala.
8. What do you understand by the word 'Nirvana'?
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Ans. The word Nirvana means freedom of the soul from the eternal cycle of life and death.
9. What were the four sights which changed Buddha's life?
Ans. The four sights that changed Buddha's life were an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a wandering
ascetic.
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10. Who composed the epic poem the Buddha Charita?
Ans. The Buddha Charita was composed by Asvaghosa of Saketa in the early second century CE.
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PrOJecT
6
an
Topic : A Comprehensive
History of Jainism
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ka
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} To know about the origin of Jainism.
} To get acquainted about the Tirthankaras and lineage of Jainism.
} To understand the early life of Mahavira. sP
} To learn the main teachings of Jainism and its impact.
} To get knowledge about the Jain architecture and its literature.
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IntrodUCtIon
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In the sixth century BCE, India saw the rise of two great religions, Jainism and Buddhism. In the beginning,
the Vedic religion was very simple and it was very easy to understand it. But gradually many defects cropped
up and this religion became very complex and expensive. In the sixth century BCE, the common people began
to feel its weight and pine for a simple religion which could be easily understood by them. This resulted in
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the rise of new sects in the form of Jainism and Buddhism.

History of Jainism can be traced through the twenty-four tirthankara and revere Rishabhanatha as the first
tirthankara. Archaeologists have found some artefacts in the Indus Valley Civilization which suggests a link
to ancient Jain culture, however, very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last
two tirthankara, that is, the 23rd tirthankara Parshvanatha and the 24th tirthankara Mahavira are regarded
as historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the Buddha.
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orIGIn oF JaInIsM
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Jainism originated in northern India and spread from there to the south but how this religion began is still
unclear. However, its founder is often, identified as the sage Vardhamana popularly known as Mahavira. But
according to Jain tradition, Mahavira is the 24th tirthankara of Jainism. Nevertheless, Jains maintain that
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their precepts are eternal, recognized by 23 sages down through time, to finally be established by Mahavira
in its present form.
tIrthankaras and lIneaGe

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Jainism believes in 24 Tirthankaras. According
to Jain tradition, they are depicted as five to one
hundred times taller than average human beings.
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However, historians are of the view that only the

last two tirthankaras are based on historical figures
of the 1st millennium BCE. The Buddhist sources
had not mentioned Mahavira as a founder of new
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tradition, but as part of an ascetic Nirgranthas

tradition. On the basis of the Buddhist sources, scholars have concluded that Mahavira was not the founder,
but a reformer of a tradition just like his predecessor, Parsvanatha.
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In the Jain scriptures, the legendary accounts of Mahavira’s life have been preserved. These account provides
the basis for his biography as well as enable some conclusions to be formulated about the nature of the early
community he founded.
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early lIFe oF MahavIra

Vardhamana, popularly known as Mahavira, is generally regarded
as the founder of Jainism in India. According to Jains, Mahavira
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was the twenty-fourth and the last Tirthankara. Their first

Tirthankara was Rishabhadeva and the twenty-third Tirthankara
was Parshvanath, the son of king Ashvasena of Benaras.
Mahavira is generally regarded as the real founder of Jainism.
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About his early life much information is not available. He was born
at Kundagrama near Vaishali in 540 BCE. His father, Siddhartha,
was the head of the Kshatriya clan, known as Janatrika. His mother,
Trisala, was a Lichchhavi princess. Mahavira was well-educated
and married to Yashoda. They had a daughter who married Jamali,
the first disciple of Mahavira.
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Mahavira renounced the world at the young age of 30, left his home and wandered from place to place in
search of truth. He practised severe discipline and self-mortification and suffered many hard-ships for 12
years. At the age of 42, he attained enlightenment and became Mahavira or Jina. So, his followers came to
be known as Jains.
He often met the rulers of Magadha named Bimbisara and Ajatasatru who were impressed by his teachings.
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He died at Pava near Rajagriha in 468 BCE at the age of 72.
MaIn teaChInGs oF JaInIsM

Ahimsa: The first and the foremost principle of Jainism is Ahimsa or non-injury
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to everyone. That is why most of the Jains walk bare-footed, filter water before
drinking and even tie a band of cloth around their mouth so that they may not
swallow small insects. They even take care not to injure any plant or tree, not to
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cause harm to men, birds and beasts. This principle was against the rising spirit of
animal-sacrifice in yajnas.
No faith in yajna, sacrifice and ritualism: Jainism was a sort of revolt against
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the superiority of the Brahmans and their yajnas, sacrifices and useless rituals. The
Jains stopped performing all these things. They went even further and refused to
accept the authority of the Vedas.
No faith in the caste system: Jainism struck a deadly blow to the caste system
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and all sort of class distinctions. It preached the equality of human beings. All who
have faith in Jainism do not follow any class distinctions.
Attainment of salvation: The Jains, like the Hindus, believe that the chief aim of a man is to attain salvation
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(Moksha) or freedom from the cycle of births and rebirths. This salvation can be achieved by following the
Three Jewels (Triratnas) of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct.
Life after death and the karma theory: The Jains, like the Hindus and the Buddhists, believe in the life
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after death and transmigration of soul. According to them, one acquires new life according to his actions
(Karma) in his past lives.
Hard penance and self-sacrifice: The Jains believed in hard penance. To die by starvation is regarded as a
virtue by them. The idea behind this practice is that rigorous discipline gives strength to the soul, and keeps
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the worldly desires subdued. It may be mentioned here that laying much emphasis on hard penance failed to
attract many followers for Jainism.
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FIve voWs For the JaIns

Every Jain has to take the following five vows:
 Not to injure life
 Not to tell a lie
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 Not to steal
 Not to possess any property
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 To practise chastity
The Jain traditions speak of twenty-four Tirthankaras but the last
two, i.e., Parshva and Mahavira, are the most famous. The first four
vows were enunciated by Parshva while the fifth vow of chastity was added by Mahavira. The teachings of
Mahavira were compiled by his Gandharas (chief disciples) in 12 parts called Angas or Agamas. Based on
these Angas, seers compiled 12 Upangas.

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seCts oF JaInIsM
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Differences arose between Bhadrabahu who took Jainism to Karnataka and Sthula bhadra, who was based in
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Magadha. This led to the division of Jainism into two sects —
 Shwetambaras or the white clads led by Sthulabhadra. They fasted but did not believe in extreme penance
and austerity. sP
 Digambaras followed Bhadrabahu. They consider sky as their clothing and do not believe in covering
their bodies which signifies their detachment from the worldly bonds. They were orthodox followers of
Mahavira. They kept long fast and led a life of austerity.
doCtrIne oF JaInIsM
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 Triratnas: According to Mahavira the ultimate goal of man is the attainment of ‘Moksha’ or freedom
from worldly bondage. One can attain Moksha by following the ‘Triratnas’ or the three jewels. These
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are –
 Right faith
 Right knowledge
 Right conduct
These Triratnas inspire a true Jain to have faith in the 24 Tirthankaras, to acquire knowledge from their
sermons and to lead a good life.
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 Karma: The Jains believe in the theory of Karma. Good deeds alone liberate a man from the cycle of
life and death.
IMPaCt oF JaInIsM
Jainism made a great contribution to the political, social, religious and
an
cultural life of India.
 Political Life: Jainism emphasised the doctrine of non-violence
which resulted in a feeling of peace. Even the Kshatriyas gave up
their fighting spirit and gradually became peace-loving.
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 Social Life: In the social field, Jainism did a meritorious job by
removing the evil of the Varna system or the Caste system. The Jains
believed in the equality of men. Beside, their faith in non-violence
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and doing good to others prompted them with the goal of service to
all.
 Religious Life: In the religious sphere, Jainism worked to remove
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several evils. It saved the people from the cumbersome Yajnas and
simplified the complex rituals. It also preached against animal sacrifice.
arChIteCtUre sP
The Jains made ample use of art and architecture for the propagation of their religion. In this way, they amply
contributed to the development of architecture, sculpture and art. They built stupas, monasteries and temples
to perpetuate the memory of their saints and sages. They also decorated their buildings with stone railings,
beautiful gateways, stone umbrellas and finely carved pillars.
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Jains built beautiful temples and images at their sacred places like the Parshavam Hill, Pawapuri, Rajgriha,
Girnar and Mount Abu.
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The Jain temple at Mount Abu in Rajasthan is a fine specimen of Jain temple-architecture. The Jains also cut
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rocks to build caves and rock-temples.

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The Hathi Gumpha Cave in Orissa, the Indra Sabha Cave at Ellora and the Lion Cave in Udyagiri are the fine
specimens of the Jain art. The Jain artists also excelled in the field of making huge images and sculptures.
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The colossal statue of Gomateswara which is situated at Shravan Belagola in Karnataka is known for its huge
height and grandeur. This place has become an important Jain pilgrimage site.
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JaIn lIteratUre
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According to Jain tradition, the classical Jain canonical literature was composed long time ago. It is believed
that both Parsvanatha and Mahavira revived Jainism and record the Jain doctrine according to the new body
of knowledge that was brought into light by their teachings.
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The last two Tirthankaras used the language of the common people for the propagation of Jain doctrine.
Hence, the early literature of Jainism reflected the sentiment of the times and was composed in Prakrit or
Ardha-Magadhi.
Jainism made a great contribution in the literary field also. Their chief works called the Angas, are written
in Prakrit. But gradually, they also took to Sanskrit and wrote legends and fables, etc., and several valuable
books on grammar and poetry which contributed richly to the development of the Sanskrit language.

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soMe IMPortant JaIn texts
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 The Acaranga Sutra: It is the oldest Agama Sutra. It was written originally in Ardha-Magadhi. It is
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divided in two parts, it prescribes code of conduct for the monks such as type of begging bowl to be
used, how to walk and speak, and what possession they can own and so on.
 Adipurana: The Purana describes the events associated with many incarnations of Adinatha or
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Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara. It is believed to be based on an earlier work in Sanskrit by
Jinasenacharya.
 Kalpasutra: According to Jain tradition, Kalpasutra was composed by Bhadrabahu who was also the
spiritual teacher of the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya. It describes the life story of Mahavira
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and Parsvanath.
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ConClUsIon
Presently, Jainism is regarded as one of the world's oldest religions
to be practised. The two main sects of Jainism are Digambaras and
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Svetambaras.
Jainism is considered to be an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras
guiding every time cycle of the cosmology. The three main pillars of
Jainism are non-violence, non-absolutism and asceticism. Jain monks
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take five main vows, these are not to injure anyone, not to lie, not
to steal, not to possess any property and to practise chastity. These
principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to
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a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle.

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BIBlIoGraPhy
Internet:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Jainism
Jainism - World History Encyclopedia
Jain Literature and Canonical Texts (hinduwebsite.com)

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vIva-voCe QUestIons
1. Who was the twenty-fourth and the last tirthankara?
Ans. Mahavira was the twenty-fourth and the last tirthankara.
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2. Which two religions rose to prominence in the 6th century BCE?
Ans. Jainism and Buddhism were the two religions that rose to prominence in the 6th century BCE.
3. What are Triratnas of Jainism?
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Ans. Triratnas are the three jewels of Jainism namely right faith, right knowledge and right conduct.
4. What are the five vows for the Jains?
Ans. The five vows for the Jains are:
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(i) Not to injure or kill any living thing
(ii) Not to lie
(iii) Not to possess property
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(iv) Not to steal
(v) To practise chastity
5. Who are the Digambaras? sP
Ans. Digambaras are members of the Jain sect who led an austere and hard life and even give up wearing
clothes.
6. Who are the Shvetambaras?
Ans. Shvetambaras are members of the second Jain sect who dress in white, rule out strict austerity and
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life of self-mortification.
7. List any two contributions of Jainism.
Ans. The two contributions of Jainism are:
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(i) Removed evils of Vedic religion.

(ii) Preached love and preservation of all living things.
8. Why was Jainism not popular?
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Ans. Jainism was not popular due to many austerities, fasts, penance and extreme emphasis on ahimsa.
9. Who enunciated the fifth vow of chastity in Jainism?
Ans. Mahavira enunciated the fifth vow of chastity in Jainism.
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10. Name the two sects into which Jainism was divided.
Ans. The two sects of Jainism are Shwetambaras and Digambaras.
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PrOJecT
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Topic : Bhakti Movement–
Multiple
interpretations and
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commentaries
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} To know about the origin of the Bhakti Movement.
} To get knowledge of the nirguna and saguna forms of Bhakti.
} To get acquainted with the Bhakti movements in north and south India.
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} To understand the important features of the Bhakti movement.
} To learn about the important religious leaders of the Bhakti movement.
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IntrodUCtIon
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The word 'Bhakti' means complete devotion or love for the God. The Bhakti movement emphasised on the
mystical union of the individual with the God. Though the seeds of Bhakti can be traced in the Vedas yet, it
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was not emphasised during the Early Vedic period. In the sixth century BCE, with the rise of the Buddhism
and Jainism, the process of devotion towards the personal God developed.
In the early medieval period, the Bhakti movement was led by the Alvars, who emphasised devotion to Vishnu
and Nayanars, who were devotees of Shiva. According to the tradition, there were 12 Alvars and 63 Nayanars.
The followers of Bhakti movement achieved salvation by completely surrendering themselve to the divine deity.
The period from 8th to 18th century is dedicated to the Bhakti movement. During this period, a number of
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saints evolved as the messiah of Bhakti, teaching people the transition of life from normalcy to enlightenment
through salvation.
orIGIn oF the BhaktI MoveMent

In view of some scholars, the rise of the Bhakti movement was a reaction against feudal oppression as well
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as against the Rajput and Brahmin domination.
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But according to another group of scholars, the socio-economic changes in the early medieval period led to
the emergence of the Bhakti movement. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the demand for goods increased
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as a consequence the artisans migrated to cities. The Bhakti movement got support from these class because
they were not satisfied with the low status given to them by the Brahmanical system. Hence, they turned
towards Bhakti since it focussed on equality.
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There are multiple opinions regarding the origin of the Bhakti movement. There is also unanimity of thoughts
over the fact that the Bhakti movement was based on equality and devotional surrender to a personally
conceived supreme God.
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PhIlosoPhy: nIrGUna and saGUna BrahMan

The two different ideological streams of the Bhakti movement are Saguna and Nirguna.
Saguna represents those poet-saints who composed verses extolling a god with attributes. The main proponents
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of Saguna form of Bhakti were Tulsidas, Chaitanya, Surdas and Meera.

Nirguna represents those poet-saints who extolled god without and beyond all attributes. They are also known
as monotheistic Bhakti saints for example Baba Guru Nanak and Kabir Das.
Though Saguna and Nirguna are two different ideologies yet they have similarities as is evident in their
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verses. For instance both ideologies stress on a personal relationship with the divine and believed in singular
devotion and love for God. Both ideologies were against the ritual observances as were encouraged by the
Brahman priests, and many poet-saints, particularly in northern regions, were of low caste lineages. Further,
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both used the simple or local languages of the masses, as opposed to the sacred language of Sanskrit of the
elite priests. This helped them to transmit their ideas among the various lower classes.
BhaktI MoveMent In soUth IndIa

In the sixth century, Bhakti movements were led by the Alvars, the devotees of Vishnu and Nayanars, the
devotees of Shiva. They migrated from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in the praise of their god.

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According to historians, the Alvars and Nayanars led a protest movement against the caste system and the
domination of Brahmanas or they might have attempted to reform the caste system.
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The traditional importance of the Alvars and Nayanars were indicated when they claim that their compositions
were as important as the Vedas, for instance, an anthology of composition by the Alvars, the Nalayira
Divyaprabandham was described as the Tamil Veda.
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One of the most striking feature of the Bhakti tradition was the presence of women devotees. For example,
the composition of Andal who was a Alvar are widely sung even at present.
Similarly, another woman named Karaikkal Ammaiyar who was a Nayanar, adopted the path of extreme
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asceticism to attain her goal. Both these women compositions posed a challenge to patriarchal norms.
BhaktI MoveMent In north IndIa

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During the 12th-17th century CE, the Bhakti movement gained importance in the northern parts of the country.
The Bhakti movement in north India is sometimes seen as a continuation of the movement that originated
in the south.
Although there were similarities in the tradition of the two regions yet, the idea of Bhakti varied in terms of
the teachings of each of the saints. In the north the Bhakti movement was influenced due to the spread of
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Islam in India. The main features of Islam like belief in one God or monotheism, equality and brotherhood,
and rejection of rituals and class divisions greatly influenced the Bhakti movement of this era. The movement
also brought some reformations in the society.
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MaIn FeatUres oF BhaktI MoveMent
The main features of the Bhakti movement are
 It was based on the principles of monotheism and it generally criticised idol worship.
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 The reformers of this movement believed in freedom from the cycle of life and death and preached that
salvation could be attained only by deep devotion and faith in God.
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 They emphasised the importance of devotion for obtaining the bliss and grace of God and also valued
the importance of Gurus who acted as guides and preceptors.
 They preached the principle of universal brotherhood.
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 They were against rituals, pilgrimages and fasts. They strongly opposed the caste system which divided
the people according to their birth.
 They also laid emphasised on the singing of hymns with deep devotion and without considering any
language as sacred.
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 They composed poems in the language of the common people.
IMPortant leaders oF the BhaktI MoveMent

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1. adi shankaracharya
 Shankaracharya was one of the mystic Bhakti poet-saint
leaders.
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 He propounded the philosophy of Advaita, that is,

Monism and the idea of nirguna brahman. In Advaita
philosophy, the reality of the world is denied and
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Brahman is regarded the only reality.

 One of his famous quotes, ‘Brahma Satyam Jagat
Mithya Jivo Brahmatra Naparaha’ which means that
the Absolute Spirit is the reality and the world appears
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to be Maya and ‘Ekameva Adviteeyam Brahma’ which

means that the absolute God is only one.
 He laid emphasis on knowledge that can alone lead to
salvation.
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 Some of his famous works are Upadesasahasri,

Vivekachudamani and Bhaja Govindum Stotra. He is
also credited for writing commentaries on the Bhagavad
Gita, the Brahma Sutra and the Upanishads.
 Shankaracharya had set up mathas at places such as Dwarka, Puri, Sringeri and Badrinath.

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2. ramanuja
 In the 12th century, Ramanuja, propounded the philosophy of Vishista
Advaitavada, that is, qualified monism. According to Ramanuja, God,
soul, and matter are real. But, God is the inner substance and the rest are
his attributes.
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 In the philosophy of Vishista Advaitavada, the universe and Brahman are
considered two equally real entities but here the universe is not separate
from Brahman but is formed out of Brahman.
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 In Ramanuja's view, the Brahman is an entirely personal god and is
regarded as Vishnu or one of his avatars. He believed that Vishnu is the
controller of this world and He (Vishnu) has all the qualities of a personal
god.
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 Ramanuja preached the path of self-surrender to the God. He invited
downtrodden people to Vaishnavism and advocated salvation through Bhakti.
 Some of his famous works are Sribhashya, Vedanta Dipa, Gita Bhasya and Vedantasara.
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3. Jnaneswar or Jnanadeva
 In the 13th-century, mystical poet-saint of Maharashtra named Jnaneswar
wrote a commentary of Bhagavad Gita known as Jnaneswari that served
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as a foundation of the Bhakti ideology in Maharashtra.
 He opposed the caste system and believed that the only way to attain God
was through Bhakti.
 Some works composed by him include Amritanubhava, which was based
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on the philosophy of the Upanishads and Haripatha, a song admiring

Hari (Vishnu).
4. namadeva
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 Namadeva was a Maharashtrian saint, who flourished in the first part of the 14th
century.
 He is regarded as one of the five revered gurus in the Dadupanth tradition within
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Hinduism. It is said that his Abhangas were included in the Guru Granth Sahib.
 Namadeva travelled far and wide and was engaged in discussions with Sufi saints
at Delhi.
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5. sant eknath
 Sant Eknath was a scholar of Varkari sampradaya and Vaishnavism.
 He is credited for enriching the Marathi literature and also translated
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various Sanskrit texts into Marathi.

 He shifted the emphasis of Marathi literature from spiritual to narrative
composition. He introduced a new form of Marathi religious song known
as Bharood.
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 According to him, staying in monasteries or withdrawing from the world

are not necessary for leading a religious life.
 He was against caste discrimination and spread the message the God does
not discriminate between Brahmin and outcaste or between the Hindu and
the Muslim.

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6. tukaram
 In the 17th-century, a poet-saint named Tukaram was a contemporary of
Maratha ruler Shivaji Maharaj and saints like Eknath and Ramdas.
 He composed poetry which was devoted to Lord Vithoba or Vitthala, an avatar
of the God Vishnu.
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 He is famous for his Abangas or dohas in Marathi. He laid emphasis on
community-based worship with spiritual songs known as Kirtans. He preached
his followers the virtue of piety, forgiveness and peace of mind.
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7. ramdas
 Ramdas was a renowned spiritual Guru.
 He composed Dasabhoda, a treatise on the Advaita Vedanta in the Marathi
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language which deals with a wide range of topics on the spiritual life such
as characteristics and necessity of Guru, the qualifications of a true disciple,
importance of spiritual disciplines, and Bhakti and liberation. His other works
include Karunashtaken, Janasvabhavagosanvi and Manache Sloka.
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 He was strictly against caste discrimination and encouraged women to
participate in religious work.
8. ramananda
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 In the 15th-century, a poet-saint named Ramananda was born at Prayag. He preached his followers at
Benaras and Agra and his followers are known as Ramanandis.
 Ramananda himself was a follower of Ramanuja. He also opposed the caste system and his disciples
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were from all sections of society, irrespective of caste. Some of his famous disciples were:
 Kabir, a Muslim weaver.
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 Sena, a barber.
 Sadhana, a butcher.
 Raidasa, a cobbler.
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 Dhanna, a jat farmer.

 Narahari, a goldsmith.
 Pipa, a Rajput prince.
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 He is considered as the founder of the Ram cult in north India as his basic object of Bhakti was Ram
since he worshipped Ram and Sita.
 He preached in the language of the common people.
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9. kabir
 One of the most famous disciples of Ramananda who belonged to
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the 15th century was Kabir.

 It is said that he was born near Benaras (Varanasi) to a Brahmin
widow who abandoned him after his birth and was brought up in
the house of a Muslim weaver.
 He was strictly against idol worship, pilgrimages, rituals, caste
system especially the practice of untouchability.
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 According to Kabir, all human beings are equal in the eye of God. He preached his followers the religion
of love that would unite all castes and creeds.
 He considered devotion to God as an effective means of salvation. He preached his disciples that to
attain salvation one must have a pure heart, free from cruelty, hypocrisy, dishonesty and insincerity.
 Kabir’s aim was to unite Hindus and Muslims, and establish harmony between the two religions. To
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him, Ram and Allah are the same.
 Kabir's verses were compiled in three distinct but overlapping traditions. These are:
 Kabir Bijak preserved in the Kabirpanth which is a sect of Kabir in Varanasi and elsewhere in Uttar
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Pradesh.
 Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan.
 Many of Kabir's composition are found in the Adi Granth Sahib.
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 Kabir used many terms to describe the Ultimate Reality, these include Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir. He
used Vedic terms such as alakh, nirakar and Atma. He also used terms from yogi tradition like shabda
and shunya.
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 Kabir is considered as the greatest mystic saint and his followers are called Kabirpanthis.
ConClUsIon
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The Bhakti movement was the mystical movement of Hinduism. The followers of this movement
live a simple life and focused on direct relation of individual with the God. They preached in simple
language and in this way promoted vernacular languages. They preached equality, peace and harmony.
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They were strictly against the caste system and oppression of lower castes. They preached against
the lengthy and useless rituals. They preached brotherhood and religious toleration.
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Thus, the Bhakti movement moderated and simplified religion and established unity, peace, harmony
and brotherhood in the country. They worked for spiritual progress and served mankind of the world.
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BIBlIoGraPhy
Internet:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti_movement
https://Bhakti-movement-ncert/
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhakti
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vIva-voCe QUestIons
1. The concept of Saguna Brahman was the outcome of which concept of Bhakti movement?
Ans. The concept of Saguna Brahman was the outcome of Nirguna Brahma.
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2. Name the place where the poet-saint Kabir was born.
Ans. The poet-saint Kabir was born at Benaras.
3. Who propounded the philosophy of Advaita?
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Ans. The philosophy of Advaita was propounded by Adi Shankaracharya.
4. Who propounded the philosophy of Vishista Advaitavada?
Ans. The philosophy of Vishista Advaitavada was propounded by Ramanuja.
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5. What is the difference between saguna and nirguna Bhakti?
Ans. Saguna Bhakti includes the worship of Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu and his incarnations as well as Devi,
a form of goddess whereas, Nirguna Bhakti was worship of an abstract form of god.
6. Write any two features of the Bhakti movement?
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Ans. The Bhakti movement was based on the principles of monotheism and it generally criticised idol
worship.
7. Explain the philosophy of Vishista Advaitavada.
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Ans. In the philosophy of Vishista Advaitavada, the universe and Brahman are considered two equally real
entities but here the universe is not separate from Brahman but is formed out of Brahman.
8. What terms were used by Kabir to describe the Ultimate Reality?
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Ans. Kabir used many terms to describe the Ultimate Reality, these include Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir.
He used Vedic terms such as alakh, nirakar and Atma.
9. Who is considered as the founder of the Ram cult in north India?
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Ans. Ramananda is considered as the founder of the Ram cult in north India as his basic object of Bhakti
was Ram since he worshipped Ram and Sita.
10. Name a poet-saint who was a contemporary of Maratha ruler Shivaji Maharaj and also saints like
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Eknath and Ramdas.

Ans. Tukaram was a contemporary of Maratha ruler Shivaji Maharaj and saints like Eknath and Ramdas.
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PrOJecT
8
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Topic : The Mystical
Dimensions of Sufism
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} To know about the origin of Sufism.
} To get acquainted with the khanqahs and silsilas of the Sufis.
} To comprehend the language in which the Sufis communicated with the people.
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} To understand the Sufi philosophy.
IntrodUCtIon
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Sufism is a mystical and ascetic Islam, practised by tens of millions of Muslims. It is also known as
"Tasawwuf" in Arabic. It is a mystic body of religious practice within Islam. It is characterised by a focus on
Islamic spirituality, ritualism, asceticism and esotericism. Sufism is most prominent among the Sunnis. The
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followers of Sufism believe that they are closer to Allah by inner purification and introspection. They do this
by meditating under the guidance of their spiritual leader or "murshid".
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Just like other Muslims, the followers of Sufism religiously follow the five pillars of Islam, that is, they declare
faith in one God Allah and Mohammed as his messenger, pray five times a day, give charity, do fasting and
perform the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca.
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orIGIn oF sUFIsM
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In the early centuries of Islam, a group of religious-minded people were
known as Sufis. They opposed the growing materialism of the Caliphate
and turned to asceticism and mysticism.
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However, it is believed that Sufism originated during the time of Prophet
Mohammad and all traditional Sufi orders trace their chains of transmission
back to the Prophet via his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib, except
the Naqshbandi order which traces its origin to caliph Abu Bakr. Each
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order in Sufism believes that Sufi teachings were passed on from teacher
to student through the centuries.
A scholar named Louis Massignon states that Sufism proceeded in its
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origin and development from Quran. Some believe that Sufism might
have emerged from the practice of Muslim asceticism as these ascetics
focused on introspection and maintained a strict control over their life
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and behaviour. These ascetics followed a lifestyle of modesty, temperance,

contentment and the denial of luxury.
khanQahs and sIlsIlas

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By the eleventh century, Sufism evolved as a well-developed movement with a body of literature on Quranic
studies and Sufi practices. The Sufis organised their communities around the hospice or khanqah which was
controlled by a teaching master known as shaikh, pir or murshid. The teacher enrolled his disciples who were
known as murids and appointed a successor or khalifa.
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Around the twelfth century, Sufi silsilas began to crystallised in different parts of the Islamic world. The
word silsila literally means a chain, signifying a continuous link between master and disciple, stretching as
an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad. It was through this channel that spiritual power
and blessings were transmitted to devotees. Special rituals of initiation were developed in which initiates took
an oath of allegiance, wore a patched garment, and shaved their hair.
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Most Sufi lineages were named after a founding figure. For example, the Qadiri order was named after Shaikh
Abd’ul Qadir Jilani. However, some like the Chishti order, were named after their place of origin, in this case
the town of Chisht in central Afghanistan.
When the shaikh died then his tomb-shrine, that is, dargah, became the centre of devotion for his followers.
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This tradition encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave, especially on his death anniversary
or urs. The reason behind this practice was that the people believe that death saints get united with God and
are thus closer to Him (God).
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The Chishtis Sufis were a group of Sufis who migrated
to India in the late twelfth century. They were most
influential group as they have adopted many features of
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Indian devotional traditions.
One most famous Chishti saint was Shaikh Nizamuddin.
He appointed many spiritual successors and deputed them
to set up hospices in many parts of the subcontinent. sP
Consequently, the Chishti organisation and the fame of
Shaikh spread rapidly. Gradually, the shrines of Shaikh
Nizamuddin and his spiritual ancestors became place of
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pilgrimage.
Nizamuddin Auliya
Another important Chishti saint was Khwaja Muinuddin, popularly

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known as “Gharib Nawaz". Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the first

ruler to visit the shrine of Khwaja Muinuddin. In the later years,
the Mughal emperor Akbar also visited the shrine of Muinuddin.
Apart from ziyarat, another way of evoking divine ecstasy was
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through music and dance including mystical chants performed

by specially trained musicians or qawwals. One major feature of
the Chishti tradition was austerity, including maintaining distance
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from wordly powers but this was not a situation of isolation from
political power. Infact, the Sufis accepted grants and donations from
the political elites.
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Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti
lanGUaGe and CoMMUnICatIon

It was not just in sama that the Chishtis adopted local languages but also in Delhi, those associated with the
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Chishti silsila conversed in Hindavi, the language of the people. Other Sufis like Baba Farid composed verses
in the local language, which were compiled in the Guru Granth Sahib.
Others composed long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine love using human love as an allegory,
for instance, the prem-akhyan Padmavat composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi revolved around the romance
of Padmini and Ratansen, the king of Chittor.

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A different genre of Sufi poetry was composed in and around the town of Bijapur, Karnataka. These were short
poems in Dakhani attributed to Chishti Sufis who lived in this region during the seventeenth and eighteenth
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centuries. These poems were probably sung by women while performing household chores like grinding grain
and spinning. Other compositions were in the form of lurinama or lullabies and shadinama or wedding songs.
It is likely that the Sufis of this region were inspired by the pre-existing Bhakti tradition of the Kannada
vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of the sants of Pandharpur.
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sUFI PhIlosoPhy
Sufi philosophy includes the schools of thought unique to Sufism, the mystical tradition within Islam. Sufism
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and its philosophical tradition may be associated with both the branches of Islam, that is, Sunni and Shia.
According to scholars, Sufi thought emerged from the Middle East in the 8th century CE, but adherents are
now found around the world.
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In the opinion of Sufi Muslims, it is a part of the Islamic teaching that deals with the purification of inner
self and in this way it removes all the veils between the divine and humankind.
Around 1000 CE, early Sufi literature in the form of manuals, treatises, discourses and poetry became the
source of Sufi thinking and meditations. Like all other major philosophical traditions, Sufi philosophy, also
has several sub-branches, including cosmology, metaphysics and several unique concepts.

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On the basis of Sufi philosophy, several key doctrines developed which included Wahdat which means 'Unity'
and it affirms the oneness of Allah, and Tawakkal meaning 'absolute trust in God'. Thus, the chief aim of all
Sufis is to let go of all notions of duality, including the individual self and realise the divine unity. In this
way, Sufis seek to create direct connection with the divine or Allah. It is said that Junayd was among the
first theorist of Sufism. He concerned himself with ‘fanaa’ and ‘baqaa’, the state of annihilating the self in
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the presence of the Allah, accompanied by clarity concerning worldly phenomena.
The Sufis believe that the highest form of human love is the pure love for the Allah and human beings can
achieve this love if they surrender themselves completely to the God's will. According to Sufi tradition, love
for family, friends or material goods all distracts them from the love of God or Allah. The Sufis believe that
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the heart of a Sufi believer should be overflowing with the love for Allah and there should be no room left
for any other emotions, for instance, the great female Sufi Rabi’a Al Adawiyya said, “I love God: I have no
time left in which to hate the devil.”
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ConClUsIon
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Sufism basically started as a reform movement. It laid emphasis on free-thinking, liberal ideas and
toleration. The Sufis believed in the equality of all human beings and brotherhood of man. Their
concept of universal brotherhood and the humanitarian ideas of the Sufi saints attracted many Indian
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mind. A movement similar to Sufism, was the Bhakti cult, which already existed in India on the eve
of the Muslim conquest of the country. Therefore, the liberal-minded Sufis were, welcomed in India.
The Sufi movement was very helpful in bridging the gap between the followers of the two religions
and also in bringing the Hindus and the Muslims together.
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During the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar, the Sufi movement gained impetus as he adopted a
liberal religious policy under the influence of the Sufi saints.
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BIBlIoGraPhy
Internet:
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https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Sufism#Origins
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sufism/History
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism#Origins
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https://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/lehs202.pdf
vIva-voCe QUestIons
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1. What is another word for Sufism?

Ans. Sufism is also known as "Tasawwuf" in Arabic.
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2. What is the meaning of the term 'murshid'?

Ans. The term murshid means the spiritual leader.
3. Sufism originated during the time of Prophet. Explain.
Ans. It is believed that Sufism originated during the time of Prophet Mohammad and all traditional Sufi
orders trace their chains of transmission back to the Prophet via his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi
Talib.
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4. What is the literal meaning of the word 'silsila'?

Ans. The word silsila literally means a chain, signifying a continuous link between master and disciple,
stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad.
5. Give an example of a Sufi lineages which was named after a founding figure.
Ans. The Qadiri order was named after Shaikh Abd’ul Qadir Jilani.
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6. Describe the tradition which encouraged the practice of ziyarat.
Ans. When the shaikh died then his tomb-shrine, that is, dargah, became the centre of devotion for his
followers. This tradition encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave, especially on
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his death anniversary or urs.
7. Name the Chishti saint who is popularly known as Gharib Nawaz.
Ans. Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti is popularly known as Gharib Nawaz.
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8. Who composed the poem prem-akhyan Padmavat?
Ans. The poem prem-akhyan Padmavat was composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi.
9. What do you understand by the term Tawakkal?
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Ans. The term Tawakkal means absolute trust in God.
10. Examine in brief the Sufi philosophy.
Ans. The chief aim of the Sufi philosophy is to let go of all notions of duality, including the individual
self and realise the divine unity.
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PrOJecT
9
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Topic : Global Legacy of
Gandhian Ideas
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} To explore more about the life of Mahatma Gandhi.
} To know in brief about Gandhiji's dominant role in India's freedom struggle.
} To understand the various movements that ultimately led to India's independence.
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} To get acquainted about the global legacy of Gandhian ideas.
IntrodUCtIon
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Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was popularly
known as Mahatma Gandhi. He was born on 2nd
October 1869 at Porbandar in Gujarat. He was the
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lawyer, social activist, politician and writer who

worked relentlessly to free India from the shackles
of the British Raj based on the principles of non-
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violence. He is internationally esteemed for his

doctrine of non-violence or satyagraha to achieve
political and social progress.
In the eyes of millions of his fellow Indians,
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Gandhiji is regarded as the Mahatma. Every year,

2nd October is celebrated as Gandhi Jayanti, as
the entire country is indebted to his efforts.
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early lIFe and edUCatIon

Gandhi was the youngest child of his father’s fourth wife. His father was Karamchand Gandhi was the
Dewan and his mother was Putlibai who was completely absorbed in religion. His upbringing was steeped
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in Vaishnavism and a strong tinge of Jainism. Hence, he practised ahimsa, vegetarianism, fasting for self-
purification, and mutual tolerance between adherents of various creeds and sects.
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by the stories of Shravana and Harishchandra that reflected the importance
of truth. At the age of 13, he was married to Kasturbai Gandhi. The Gandhi couple had four sons namely
Harilal, Manilal, Ramdas and Devdas.

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Mahatma Gandhi Kasturbai Gandhi
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In September 1888, Mahatma Gandhi sailed to England to pursue a degree in law. In London, he stayed
for three years and led a very simple lifestyle. Soon, he developed interest in vegetarianism and study of
different religions. In London, he got opportunity for better understanding of religions and cultures. There he
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met local vegetarians and consequently, he develops an interest in books on philosophy, particularly those by
Leo Tolstoy, John Ruskin and Henry David Thoreau.
Gandhiji successfully completed his degree at the Inner Temple and was called to the Bar on 10 June 1891.
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He enrolled in the High Court of London. Later on, he left for India and for the next two years, he attempted
to practice law in India. But he found that he lacked both knowledge of Indian law as well as self-confidence
at trial. sP
However, the destiny of Gandhiji was to work in South Africa, hence, a representative of an Indian business
firm situated in the Transvaal (South Africa) offered him employment. He had to work there for a period of
12 months with a fee of £105.00.
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GandhIJI In soUth aFrICa

After Gandhiji's completion of legal education, he struggled to
find work as a lawyer. In 1893, he got an offer from a merchant
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named Dada Abdullah who owned a shipping business in South

Africa to serve as his cousin’s lawyer in South Africa. Gandhiji
accepted the offer and went to South Africa. This proved to be a
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turning point in his political career.

During his stay in South Africa, he raised voice against racial
discrimination and against the 'Blacks' and 'Indians'. He enrolled
as an advocate of the Supreme Court of Natal. In 1907, Gandhiji
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started the Satyagraha movement to protest against the Black Act.

In 1908, he was arrested twice and in the next year, that is, in
1909 he was arrested the third time and sentenced to jail with
hard labour.
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Ultimately, in January 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

returned to his homeland. A historian named Chandran Devanesan
remarked South Africa as the making of the 'Mahatma'.
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GandhIJI as a leader
Gandhiji's political mentor were Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Mohammad Ali Jinnah who, like Gandhiji, was
a lawyer of Gujarati extraction trained in London.
On Gokhale’s advice, Gandhiji spent a year travelling around British India, getting to know the land and its
people.
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In February 1916, he first appeared publicily at the opening of the Banaras Hindu University. Gandhiji's speech
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at Banaras was a statement of intent, that is, the first public announcement of Gandhiji’s own desire to make
Indian nationalism more properly representative of the Indian people as a whole.
In 1917, Mahatma Gandhi started satyagraha at Champaran, seeking to obtain for the peasants’ security of
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tenure as well as the freedom to cultivate the crops of their choice. In the following year, that is, in 1918,
Gandhiji was involved in two campaigns in his home state of Gujarat. First, he intervened in a labour dispute
in Ahmedabad, demanding better working conditions for the textile mill workers. Then, in Kheda he joined
peasants where he demanded the state for the remission of taxes due to the failure of their harvest. These
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initiatives by Gandhiji in Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda reflected his sympathy for the poor.
the MakInG and UnMakInG oF non-CooPeratIon

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During the First World War, the British had instituted censorship of the press and permitted detention without
trial. On the recommendation of a committee headed by Sir Sidney Rowlatt, these tough measures were
continued. As a consequence, Gandhiji called for a countrywide campaign against the “Rowlatt Act”. In towns
of North India, the situation became tense especially in Punjab. Gandhiji and other prominent leaders were
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arrested. On 13 April 1919, a bloody climax in Amritsar happened when General Dyer ordered his troops to
open fire on a nationalist meeting. In this incident, four hundred people were killed. This unpopular incident
is known as Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
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The Rowlatt satyagraha made Gandhiji a truly national leader. Emboldened by its success, he called for a
campaign of “non-cooperation” with British rule. According to Gandhiji, if non-cooperation was effectively
carried out India would win swaraj within a year. He hoped that by coupling Non-Cooperation Movement
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with the Khilafat Movement, India’s two major religious communities, that is, Hindus and Muslims, could
collectively bring an end to the British rule.
Mahatma Gandhi’s American biographer Louis Fischer wrote that the Non-Cooperation Movement became the
name of an epoch in the life of India and of Gandhiji. Due to the Non-Cooperation Movement the British Raj
was shaken. But, in February 1922, a group of peasants attacked and torched a police station in the hamlet
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of Chauri Chaura, in the United Provinces (Presently, Uttar Pradesh). As a result, several constables perished
in the conflagration. This act of violence prompted Gandhiji to call-off the movement.
GandhIJI- a PeoPle's leader
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By 1922, Gandhiji had transformed Indian nationalism.
Henceforth, hundreds of thousands of peasants, workers
and artisans also participated in it. Many of them
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venerated Gandhiji, referring to him as their "Mahatma".
This identification was strikingly reflected in his dress
when he went among the people in a simple dhoti or
loincloth.
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Gandhiji daily spent some time in working on the
charkha and also encouraged other nationalists to do
likewise. This act of spinning allowed Gandhiji to break
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the boundaries that prevailed within the traditional caste
system, between mental labour and manual labour. The
peasants regarded Gandhiji as a saviour who would
rescue them from high taxes and oppressive officials
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and restore dignity and autonomy to their lives.

Mahatma Gandhi’s role was vital, the growth of what we might call “Gandhian nationalism” also depended to
a very substantial extent on his followers these included Mahadev Desai, Vallabh Bhai Patel, J.B. Kripalani,
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Subhas Chandra Bose, Abul Kalam Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sarojini Naidu, Govind Ballabh Pant and C.
Rajagopalachari.
In February 1924, Gandhiji was released from jail. Then, he devoted his attention to the promotion of 'khadi'
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and abolition of untouchability and child marriage. He also emphasised on the Hindu-Muslim harmony.
dandi March
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In 1928, Mahatma Gandhi re-entered politics. That year there was an all-India campaign against the all-
White Simon Commission. In December 1929, in the Lahore session of Indian National Congress headed by

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Jawaharlal Nehru 'Purna Swaraj' or complete independence was proclaimed. As a consequence, on 26 January
1930, “Independence Day” was observed, with the national flag being hoisted in different venues and patriotic
songs being sung.
Soon after the observance of "Independence
Day”, Mahatma Gandhi announced that
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he would lead a march to break the Salt
law. He was urged by the Congress to
launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.
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Consequently, on 12th March 1930,
Gandhi inaugurated the 'Civil Disobedience
Movement' by conducting the historic
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Dandi March, where he broke the Salt Laws
imposed by the British government. Dandi
March had an immense impact on the entire
nation. Each corner of the country was
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gripped in a unique fervour of nationalism.
Soon, this act of violation of the Salt Laws
assumed an all-India character. The whole sP
nation amalgamated under the call of Mahatma Gandhi. Besides the breaking of the Salt Laws, the movement
also include activities like picketing of shops selling foreign goods and liquor, bonfire of clothes, refusal to
pay taxes and avoidance of offices by the public officers and schools by the students. The women also actively
participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Thus, under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi, the Congress
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served the critical function of mobilising the masses on a large scale against the British.
In 1942, Churchill was persuaded to send one of his ministers, Sir Stafford Cripps, to India to try and forge
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a compromise with Gandhiji and the Congress. However, talks broke down as the Congress insisted that if it
would help the British defend India from the Axis powers, then the Viceroy had to appoint an Indian as the
Defence Member of his Executive Council.
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Quit India Movement

After the failure of the Cripps Mission,
Mahatma Gandhi decided to launch
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the Quit India movement against the

colonial rule. The movement was
launched at Mumbai in 1942. Mahatma
Gandhi gave a fiery speech and raised
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the slogan of 'do or die'. He said that

we shall either free India or die in
the attempt but we shall not live to
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see the perpetuation of our slavery.

Within hours of Gandhiji's speech all
prominent Congress leaders along with
Gandhiji were imprisoned but younger
activists organised strikes and acts of
sabotage all over the country.
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Finally, in February 1947, Lord Mountbatten called one last round of talks, but when it proved inconclusive,
he announced that British India would be freed, but also divided. The formal transfer of power was fixed for
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15 August 1947. When that day came, it was celebrated with enthusiasm in different parts of India. In Delhi,
there was “prolonged applause” when the Constituent Assembly President began the meeting by invoking the
Father of the Nation – Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Outside the Assembly, the crowds shouted “Mahatma
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Gandhi ki jai”.
the last heroIC days

Mahatma Gandhi was not present at the festivities in the capital city
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of Delhi on 15 August 1947. At that time, he was in Calcutta, but he

did not attend any function or hoist a flag there either. He marked the
day with a 24-hour fast. The freedom for which he had struggled had
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come at an unacceptable price, that is, the country was divided into
India and Pakistan.
Many historians have written of the months after Independence as being
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Gandhiji’s “finest hour”. However, an attempt was made on Gandhiji’s

life on 20 January 1948, but he carried on undaunted.
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But finally on 30 January while Gandhiji was in his daily prayer meeting on the evening he was shot dead
by a young man named Nathuram Godse.

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leGaCy oF GandhIan Ideas

Even after his death, Mahatma Gandhi is still changing the world. Still people follow his preaching and try to
use non-violence ways to solve their problems peacefully. Gandhiji proved to every living soul that they did not
need to use violence to solve their problems and he influenced many other civil right leaders to follow the path
of non-violence.
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Presently, all around the world Gandhi is viewed as an active leader and role-model to people's everyday life. He
had taught people many things such as non-violence, simplicity, love, and determination. Gandhi's legacy is very
important in history. For instance, in the United States, Gandhiji influenced two of the major events in history,
that is, the civil rights struggle for African-Americans and Cesar Chavez' advocacy for Latino farm workers.
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Gandhi indirectly preached the way of non-violence to many others who came after him and potentially changed
the world forever through the simple act of non-violence. Gandhi also had a great influence on Muslims, for
instance, one of Gandhi’s friends, Abdul Ghaffar Khan used Gandhi’s examples of non-violent protests to settle
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the conflicts.
A testament to the revolutionary power of non-violence,
Gandhi’s approach directly influenced Martin Luther King,
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Jr., who argued that the Gandhian philosophy was “the only
morally and practically sound method open to oppressed
people in their struggle for freedom”.
Albert Einstein had seen death, destruction and devastation
in the two world wars, and he became a fighter for peace.
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He was greatly influenced by the Gandhian idea on non-
violence and one of his letters he called Gandhi “a role
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model for the generations to come”.
The former US President Barack Obama said "Throughout
my life, I have always looked to Mahatma Gandhi as an
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inspiration, because he embodies the kind of transformational change that can be made when ordinary people
come together to do extraordinary things. That is why his portrait hangs in my Senate office: to remind me that
real results will come not just from Washington – they will come from the people."
Nelson Mandela while the unveiling of Gandhi Memorial in South Africa once said, “The Mahatma is an
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integral part of our history because it is here that he first experimented with truth; here that he demonstrated his
characteristic firmness in pursuit of justice; here that he developed Satyagraha as a philosophy and a method of
struggle.”
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Gandhi was a staunch believer in truth and his autobiography, “My Experiments with Truth” reflects his life-long
observance and experimentation with the truth.
Today, Gandhiji’s philosophy is looked at as a live experience with potential for transformation leading to a
Global Awakening. Gandhian ideas such as truth, non-violence, human dignity and respect, and the love for our
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fellow beings are more relevant today.
ConClUsIon
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Mahatma Gandhi would be remembered forever as he spread the message of non-violence, truth
and faith in God. He is regarded as the great leader who inspired the people to fought for India's
Independence. In Indian history, he is considered as a most eminent personality and as the simplest
person who wears dhoti. He spread the message of 'Swaraj' and taught Indians how to become
independent. Even today, all over the world people are greatly influenced by the Gandhian ideas
such as truth, non-violence, human dignity and respect, and the love for our fellow beings.
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BIBlIoGraPhy
Internet:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi#Three_years_in_London
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahatma-Gandhi/Resistance-and-results
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https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/mohandas-karamchand-gandhi
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?lehs3=4-6
https://www.mapsofindia.com/personalities/gandhi/civil-disobedience.html
sh
vIva-voCe QUestIons
ka
1. Name the parents of Mahatma Gandhi.
Ans. Gandhiji's father was Karamchand Gandhi and his mother Putlibai.
2. Why did Gandhiji want to couple the Non-Cooperation Movement with the Khilafat Movement?
Ans. Gandhiji hoped that by coupling Non-Cooperation Movement with the Khilafat Movement, India’s
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two major religious communities, that is, Hindus and Muslims, could collectively bring an end to the
British rule.
3. Who were the political mentors of Gandhiji?
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Ans. Gandhiji's political mentors were Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Mohammad Ali Jinnah.
4. On whose advice Gandhiji travelled the British India?
Ans. On Gokhale’s advice, Gandhiji spent a year travelling around British India, getting to know the land
er
and its peoples.

5. Why did Gandhiji started satyagraha campaign in Ahmedabad?
Ans. Gandhiji started a satyagraha campaign in Ahmedabad, to improve the labour conditions by demanding
th
better working conditions for the textile mill workers.

6. Why did Gandhiji called for countrywide campaign against the Rowlatt Act?
Ans. The British government permitted detention without trial on the recommendation of a committee headed
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by Sir Sidney Rowlatt. As a consequence, Gandhiji called for a countrywide campaign against the
“Rowlatt Act”.
7. In which year Mahatma Gandhi returned to India?
Ans. In January 1915, Gandhiji returned to India, after two decades of residence abroad.
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8. What were the social works of Gandhiji?

Ans. Gandhiji was a great social reformer. He worked for the removal of untouchability and child marriage.
9. When was Independence Day observed by the Indian National Congress before actual independence?
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Ans. On 26 January 1930, “Independence Day” was observed by the Congress with the national flag being
hoisted in different venues and patriotic songs being sung.
10. What is the greatest legacy of the Gandhian ideas?
Go
Ans. The greatest legacy of the Gandhian ideas are truth, non-violence, human dignity and respect, and the
love for our fellow beings which are relevant even today.

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PrOJecT
10
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Topic : The Architectural
Culture of the Vijayanagar
Empire
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ka
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} To know about the heyday of the Vijayanagar Empire.
} To reconstruct the history of Vijayanagar Empire through archaeological findings, monuments,
inscriptions and other records.
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} To explore the splendid architecture of the Vijayanagar Empire.
IntrodUCtIon
Vijayanagar also known as the 'city of victory' was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara-I and Bukka
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Raya-I of the Sangama dynasty. When the empire was at its peak, it's boundaries stretched from the river
Krishna in the north to the extreme south of the peninsular. But subsequently, the city was sacked and deserted.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the empire lived only in the memories of the people residing in the Krishna-
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Tungabhadra doab. They remembered it as Hampi, a name derived from Pampadevi who was a local mother
goddess. These oral traditions along with the findings of archaeologists, monuments, inscriptions and other
records provide great help to the historians in rediscovering the history of the Vijayanagar Empire.
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The Vijayanagar Empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known being
the group at Hampi, also known by the name 'The City of Ruins'. UNESCO has designated the Vijayanagar
ruins as a World Heritage Site within the Group of Monuments at Hampi.
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the dIsCovery oF haMPI

In 1800, an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie,
brought into focus the ruins at Hampi. The initial information he
received was based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha
Temple and the shrine of mother goddess Pampadevi. In the early
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1836, epigraphists collected many inscriptions found at this site as
well as at other temples of Hampi.
The Vijayanagar Empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagar.
sh
The ruins of this city surrounds the present day Hampi, which is
declared by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.
The travelogues of medieval European travellers like Domingo
ka
Paes, Fernao Nunes, and Niccolo de Conti, contemporary literature
and epigraphy in the local languages and modern archaeological
excavations at Vijayanagar provides ample information about the history as well as the power of this empire.
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The founders of Hampi selected the site for its strategic location, that is, it is bounded by the torrential
Tungabhadra river on one side and surrounded by defensible hills on the other three sides. The Archaeological
Survey of India has conducted excavations of the site to discover more artefacts and temples.
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The principal pillars of Hampi's village economy
is its agriculture, the Virupaksha temple and
tourism. According to archaeologists, at Hampi
site one found a real-life living bazaar, linked
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with an active historic temple almost exactly as

it would have been in the 14th to 16th centuries.
According to historians, the end of Vijayanagar
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Empire was quick and violent, but it was not

wholly erased. In 1567, an Italian explorer named
Cesare Federici described the city as not altogether
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destroyed yet the houses standstill, but empty.
vIJayanaGar eMPIre's Peak

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The empire reached its peak during the reign of Krishnadeva

Raya who belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. His rule was
characterised by expansion and consolidation. During
his rule, the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna
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rivers were acquired, the rulers of Orissa were subdued

and severe defeats were inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur.
Although the kingdom remained in a constant state of
military preparedness, it flourished under conditions of
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unparalleled peace and prosperity. Krishnadeva Raya is

credited for building some of the finest temples as well
as adding impressive gopurams to many important south
Indian temples. He also founded a sub-urban township near
Vijayanagar known as Nagalapuram after his mother. Krishnadeva Raya was succeeded by Achyuta Deva Raya
in 1529. Achyuta Deva Raya was succeeded by Sadashiva Raya, who was the teenage nephew of Achyuta

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Raya. When Sadashiva Raya was old enough to assert his independent claim over the throne then Aliya Rama
Raya the son-in-law of Krishnadeva Raya made the former a virtual prisoner and himself became the de facto
ruler. He hired Muslim generals in his army and called himself 'Sultan of the World'. He interfered in the
internal affairs of the various Sultanates but this worked for a while. Eventually, he became unpopular among
his people and the Muslim rulers. He defeated the rulers of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda.
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deFeat and deClIne oF vIJayanaGar eMPIre
Subsequently, the Sultanates to the north of Vijayanagar Empire
united and attacked Aliya Rama Raya's army in January 1565
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in the battle at Rakshasi-Tangadi popularly known as Talikota.
According to scholars, the Sultanate armies were numerically
less but were better equipped and trained. The artillery of the
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Sultanate armies were manned by Turkish gunmen whereas the
Vijayanagar army was depended on European mercenaries using
outdated artillery. Similarly, the cavalry of the Sultanate rode
on fast moving Persian horses but the cavalry of Vijayanagar
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was weak as it was dependent on slow moving war elephants.
According to historians, two Muslim generals of the Vijayanagar joined hand with the Sultanate. This event
turned the tide decisively in favour of the Sultanate. Consequently, Rama Raya's forces were routed by the
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combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda. The Sultanates' army plundered the city of Hampi
and reduced it to the ruinous state.
After Aliya Rama Raya's death, Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty. The latter founded a new
capital of Penukonda and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagar Empire. Gradually, the great
er
Vijaynagar Empire declined.
vIJayanaGar eMPIre: Water resoUrCes

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The most unique feature of the Vijayanagar is the natural basin

formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-east
direction. A number of streams flow down to the river from
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the granite hills. The rulers build embankments along these

streams to create reservoirs of different sizes. In arid zones
of the peninsula, elaborate arrangements were made to store
rainwater. For instance, in the fifteenth century a tank was
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constructed which is now called Kamalapuram tank. One of

the most important water works to be seen among the ruins
is the Hiriya canal.
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vIJayanaGar eMPIre: FortIFICatIons and roads

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In the fifteenth century, an ambassador named Abdur Razzaq was sent by the ruler of Persia to Calicut. He
was greatly impressed by the fortifications of the Vijayanagar. He describes the seven lines of forts which
encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests.
According to archaeologists, there was evidence of an agricultural tract between the sacred centre and the
urban core. This tract was serviced by an elaborate canal system drawing water from the river Tungabhadra.
an
A second line of fortification went round the inner core of the urban complex, and a third line surrounded
the royal centre, within which each set of major buildings was surrounded by its own high walls.
Roads generally wound around through the valleys, avoiding rocky terrain. Some of the most important roads
extended from temple gateways and were lined by bazaars.
sh
vIJayanaGar eMPIre: UrBan Core
Archaeologists have found evidence of the houses of ordinary people along the road. There is also evidence
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of fine Chinese porcelain which was found from Muslim residential quarter. Tombs and mosques were located
there but their architecture resembles that of the mandapas which were found in the temples of Hampi.
ra
sP
er
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Field surveys indicate that the entire area was dotted with numerous shrines and small temples which proves
the existence of a variety of cults and support of different communities.
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vIJayanaGar eMPIre: royal Centre

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The royal centre was situated in the south-west part of the settlement. Although designated as a royal centre,
it included almost 60 temples. This indicates that the patronage of temples and cults was important for rulers.
In this way, the rulers tried to establish and legitimise their authority by showing their association with the
divinities housed in the shrines. About 30 building complexes have been identified as palaces which were
relatively large in structures.
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MahanavaMI dIBBa
The Mahanavami Dibba also known as Dasara Dibba is
a beautiful stone platform. It is situated within the Royal
Enclosure of Hampi. It was built by King Krishnadeva
Raya to commemorate his victory over Udaygiri. Here,
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the King of Vijayanagar used to celebrate the festival
of Dasara (Dussehra).
The king’s palace has two of the most impressive
platforms, usually called the 'audience hall' and the
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'mahanavami dibba'. The entire complex is surrounded
by high double walls with a street running between them.
From this raised platform, the king watched the army march-pasts, bow and arrow competitions, war games
ka
such as sword fighting competition, wrestling, aquatic sports and musical performances of the royal animals.
The audience hall is a high platform with slots for wooden pillars at close and regular intervals. As it is
located on one of the highest points in the city, the Mahanavami Dibba is a massive platform rising from a
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base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft.
Archaeologists have found evidence that the Mahanavami Dibba supported a wooden structure. The base of
the platform is covered with relief carvings. The rituals associated with the structure probably coincided with
Mahanavami, that is, the great ninth day of the Hindu festival during the autumn months of September and
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October. On this occasion, the kings of Vijayanagar displayed their prestige, power and suzerainty.
However, the Mahanavami Dibba is now in a ruined state with damaged carvings on the side of the platform.
It has been declared as a heritage site by UNESCO. The government is taking measures for the preservation
er
of this heritage for future generations.
vIrUPaksha teMPle
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Probably, the choice of the Vijayanagar site was inspired by the existence of the
shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. In fact, the kings of Vijayanagar declared
to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha.
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The Virupaksha Temple is dedicated to lord Shiva. This temple is acknowledged

as one of the World Heritage sites of UNESCO.
During this period, some new features were added in the temple architecture,
for instance, gopurams and mandapas. The royal gateways often dwarfed the
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towers on the central shrines and signalled the presence of the temple from a
great distance.
The Virupaksha temple was built over centuries. While inscriptions suggest that
the earliest shrine dated to the ninth-tenth centuries, it was substantially enlarged
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with the establishment of the Vijayanagar Empire.
ConClUsIon
Go
The city of Vijayanagar was a symbol of vast power and wealth. It was a centre of royal ceremonies,
administrative centre and the nexus of trade routes. Foreign travellers were greatly impressed by the variety
and quality of commodities that reached the city. They were also delighted by the architectural grandeur
of the palace complex and temples as well as the ceremonial significance of the annual Mahanavami
celebrations, at which the Nayakas and other chiefs assembled to pay tribute. In fact, Vijayanagar was,
to some extent, consciously represented by its sovereigns as the last bastion of Hinduism.
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BIBlIoGraPhy
Internet:
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?lehs2=3-5
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire
https://www.britannica.com/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries
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https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Vijayanagara_Empire
https://www.world-archaeology.com/features/india-hampi/
sh
vIva-voCe QUestIons
1. Name the person who discovered the ruins of Hampi.
ka
Ans. An engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie discovered the ruins of Hampi.
2. Who founded the Vijayanagar Empire?
Ans. The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in 1336 by the brothers Harihara-I and Bukka Raya-I of the
ra
Sangama dynasty.
3. Between whom the battle of Talikota was fought?
Ans. The battle of Talikota was fought between the Vijayanagar and the combined forces of Bijapur
Ahmadnagar and Golconda.
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4. What is Dasara Dibba?
Ans. It was the massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 feet to a height of 40 feet.
er
5. Name the most powerful ruler of the Vijayanagar Empire.

Ans. The most powerful ruler of the Vijayanagar Empire was Krishnadeva Raya.
6. Where was the royal centre situated?
th
Ans. The royal centre was situated in the south-west part of the settlement and included almost 60 temples.
7. Describe in brief about the Virupaksha Temple.
Ans. The Virupaksha Temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva. This temple is acknowledged as one of the World
ro
Heritage Sites of UNESCO.

8. Name the traveller who visited Vijayanagar in the 15th century.
Ans. In the 15th century, an ambassador named Abdur Razzaq was sent by the ruler of Persia to Vijayanagar.
9. Why is the geographical location of Vijayanagar unique?
lB
Ans. The most unique feature of the location of the Vijayanagar is the natural basin formed by the river
Tungabhadra which flows in a north-east direction.
10. Name the European travellers whose accounts help in the reconstruction of the Vijayanagar Empire.
ya
Ans. The travelogues of medieval European travellers like Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes, and Niccolo de
Conti help in the reconstruction of the Vijayanagar Empire.
Go

Brothers
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an
sh
ka
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Unsolved ProJeCts (WIth oUtlInes)
11. Life of Women in the Mughal Rural Society
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12. Comparative Analysis of the Land Revenue Systems Introduced by the Britishers in India
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13. The Revolt of 1857- Causes; Planning & Coordination; Leadership, Vision of Unity
14. The Philosophy of Guru Nanak Dev
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15. The Vision of Kabir

16. An Insight into the Indian Constitution
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lB
ya
Go
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Project 11 : Life of Women in the Mughal rural Society

overvIeW oF the ProJeCt
1.History Project File (1st Sheet)
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2.Name of the Project (2nd Sheet)
3.Acknowledgement (3rd Sheet)
4.Certificate (4th Sheet)
5.Index: (5th Sheet)
sh
I. Objective of choosing this project
II. Introduction
III. Women in Agricultural Fields
ka
IV. Everyday Life of Rural Women in the Mughal Empire
V. Role of Women in Agrarian Society
VI. Conditions of Agrarian Women in the Mughal Rural Society
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VII. Conclusion
VIII. Bibliography
NOTE: Make use of relevant images to make the project attractive and interesting.
sP
vIva-voCe QUestIons
1. Briefly explain the condition of women in the Mughal rural society.
2. What was the role of women in the Mughal Empire?
er
3. Describe the status of women during the Mughal period.

4. Explain in short the everyday life of rural women in the Mughal Empire.
th
5. What work did the agrarian women do in the field?

6. Were women respected during the Mughal period. Make a critical analysis.
7. What was the artisanal work of women in agrarian society?
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8. Why were women considered an important resource in agrarian society?

9. Explain the Mughal society with special focus on the agrarian women.
10. Do women had the right to inherit property in the Mughal period?
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Project 12 : Comparative Analysis of the Land Revenue Systems

Introduced by the Britishers In India
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1. History Project File (1st Sheet)
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2. Name of the Project (2nd Sheet)

3. Acknowledgement (3rd Sheet)
4. Certificate (4th Sheet)
5. Index: (5th Sheet)
II. Introduction
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III. Land Revenue Systems in British India

(i) Permanent Settlement of Bengal
 Issues with the Permanent System
(ii) The Zamindari System
 Issues with the Zamindari System
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(iii) The Mahalwari System
 Issues with the Mahalwari System
(iv) The Ryotwari System
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 Issues with the Ryotwari System
IV. Comparison between the British Land Revenue Systems
V. Consequences of the British Land Revenue Systems
ka
VI. Conclusion
VII. Bibliography
NOTE: Make use of relevant images and maps to make the project attractive and interesting.
ra
vIva-voCe QUestIons
1. Explain the Permanent Settlement of Bengal?
2. What are the main features of the Zamindari system?
3.
sP
Why were zamindars unable to pay the tax to the East India Company?
4. Evaluate the Mahalwari system.
5.
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What were the drawbacks of the Ryotwari system?
6. Why were the people opposed to the Zamindari system?
7. Write any two major consequences of the British land revenue system.
th
8. What is the difference between the Zamindari and Mahalwari land revenue system?
9. What are the important features of the Ryotwari system?
10. Why were most of the zamindars auctioned after the Permanent Settlement?
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Project 13 : The Revolt of 1857 - Causes; Planning & Coordination;

Leadership, Vision of Unity
lB

ya

Go

II. Introduction
III. Causes of the First War of Independence
IV. Planning and Coordination of the Revolt
V. Leaders of the Revolt
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VI. The Vision of Unity

VII. The Rebellion Spreads
VIII. Repression of the Revolt
IX. Conclusion
X. Bibliography
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NOTE: Make use of relevant images and maps to make the project attractive and interesting.
vIva-voCe QUestIons
sh
1. What are the other names used by the Indian historians for the Revolt of 1857?
2. Name the place where the Revolt of 1857 first started.
3. Why was Mangal Pandey hanged to death by the British?
ka
4. What was the immediate cause for the First War of Independence?
5. Who was made the leader of the First War of Independence?
6. Who coined the name 'First War of Independence'?
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7. Name some major centres of the Revolt of 1857.
8. What was the vision of unity behind the Revolt of 1857?
9. Where was Bahadur Shah deported after the recapture of Delhi by the British?
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10. What was the aftermath of the First War of Independence?
Project 14 : The Philosophy of Guru Nanak Dev

er

th

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II. Introduction
lB
III. Early Life of Guru Nanak Dev

IV. Spiritual Life of Guru Nanak Dev
V. Successors of Guru Nanak Dev
VI. Teachings of Guru Nanak Dev
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VII. Legacy of Guru Nanak Dev

VIII. Conclusion
IX. Bibliography
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vIva-voCe QUestIons
1. When and where was Guru Nanak Dev born?
2. Name the parents of Guru Nanak.

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3. Who was the successor of Guru Nanak ?

4. What do you understand by the word 'Shabad'?
5. Who laid the foundation of Khalsa Panth?
6. What are the five symbols of Khalsa Panth?
7. What are the three ways in which Guru Nanak's teachings are practised?
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8. Mention any one teaching of Guru Nanak Dev.
9. Name the holy book of Sikhism.
10. Name the Mughal emperor who ordered the execution of Guru Arjan.
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PRoJECT 15 : The Vision of Kabir
ka
1.
History Project File (1st Sheet)
2.
Name of the Project (2nd Sheet)
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3.
Acknowledgement (3rd Sheet)
4.
Certificate (4th Sheet)
5.
Index: (5th Sheet) sP
II. Introduction
III. The Poet-saint Kabir Das
er
(i) Early Life of Kabir Das
(ii) Kabir's Poetry
(iii) Kabir's Poetic Expression on Ultimate Reality
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(iv) Kabir's Opnion about the Contemporary Society

(v) Teachings of Kabir Das
IV. Legacy of Kabir's Literature
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V. Conclusion
VI. Bibliography
lB
vIva-voCe QUestIons
1. Name the scriptures in which the ideas of Kabir were collected and preserved.
2. Who was the guru/teacher of Kabir Das?
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3. In which language the poems of Kabir were written?

4. What is Ultimate Reality according to Kabir Das?
5. What were the diverse and conflicting ideas expressed in Kabir's poem?
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6. What is the meaning of nam-simaran?

7. Where were the anthologies of verses ascribed to Kabir were circulated by the nineteenth century?
8. When were the manuscripts of Kabir compiled?
9. What does Kabir's verses signifies?
10. Explain any one teaching of Kabir Das.
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Project 16 : An Insight into the Indian Constitution

1.History Project File (1st Sheet)
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2.Name of the Project (2nd Sheet)
3.Acknowledgement (3rd Sheet)
4.Certificate (4th Sheet)
sh
5.Index: (5th Sheet)
II. Introduction
ka
III. The Path to the Indian Constitution
IV. The Vision of the Indian Constitution
V. Defining Rights
VI. The Powers of the State
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VII. Salient Features of the Indian Constitution
(i) Written and Lengthy Constitution
(ii) Federal in Structure and Unitary in Spirit
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(iii) Cabinet System or Parliamentary Form of Government
(iv) A Secular State
(v) A Welfare State
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(vi) A Sovereign Democratic Republic

(vii) Fundamental Rights of the Citizens
(viii) Directive Principles of State Policy
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(ix) Independent Judiciary

(x) Universal Adult Franchise
(xi) Single Citizenship
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VIII. Conclusion
IX. Bibliography
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vIva-voCe QUestIons
1. When was the Constitution of India adopted?
2. How much time the Constituent Assembly took for framing the Constitution?
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3. Name some of the eminent women members in the Constituent Assembly.

4. Why was the Constituent Assembly referred to as mini-India?
5. Who was the permanent chairman of the Constituent Assembly?
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6. What is the true nature of Indian polity?

7. Name the personalities who supported the demand for strong centre.
8. Name any two salient features of the Indian Constitution.
9. What do you understand by the term 'Universal Adult Franchise'?
10. Mention some Fundamental Rights guaranteed by the Constitution of India.

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Goyal A Digital Learning App

According to Latest Syllabus and Guidelines prescribed by the

Goyal Brothers Prakashan

Goyal Brothers Prakashan

Lucknow : B-318, Sector-B, Mahanagar, Opposite P.A.C Main Gate,

Methodology of doing the Project Work.

the Project Work.

C  CBSE Guidelines for Project Work

n 2. The History and Legacy of Mauryan Empire ... ... ... 20 – 25

4. The History and Culture of the Vedic Period ... ... ... 32 – 40

7. Bhakti Movement- Multiple interpretations and commentaries ... ... ... 55 – 62

9. Global Legacy of Gandhian Ideas ... ... ... 69 – 76

10. The Architectural Culture of the Vijayanagar Empire ... ... ... 77 – 82

Unsolved ProJeCts (With outlines)

11. Life of Women in the Mughal Rural Society ... ... ... 84

Introduced by the Britishers in India ... ... ... 84

14. The Philosophy of Guru Nanak Dev ... ... ... 86

CBSE GuidElinES for ProjECt Work

To learn through constructivism-a theory based on observation and scientific study.

To provide greater opportunity for interaction and exploration.

To develop lasting interest in history discipline.

the following steps are suggested:

FeW sUGGestIve toPICs For ProJeCts

3. “Mahabharat”- The Great Epic of India

6. A Comprehensive History of Jainism

10. The Architectural Culture of the Vijayanagar Empire

14. The Philosophy of Guru Nanak Dev

6 Goyal Brothers Prakashan

Guidelines for history Project Work : 20 Marks

1. steps involved in the conduct of the project:

Need of the Study, Objective of the Study

Analyzing the Material/Data for Conclusion

2. expected Checklist for the Project Work:

Identifying the causes, events, consequences and/or remedies

Short-term and long-term implications of strategies suggested during research

Presentation and writing that is succinct and coherent in project file

Proforma of thE ProjECt filE

(Name of the Student)

8 Goyal Brothers Prakashan

This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ___________________________ of class _________ has

To the best of my knowledge, it is an original work and is worthy of consideration in

Place: ___________________ ___________________

Date: ___________________ (Name & Signature of the Guide)

Project Work in History (Class-XII) 9

D PROJECT OVERVIEW (INCLUDING ALL THE HEADINGS AND SUB-

10 Goyal Brothers Prakashan

7. Bhakti Movement- Multiple interpretations and commentaries

9. Global Legacy of Gandhian ideas

built in the 26th century BCE. It was

Civilization developed around 3,000

stretched over much of what is now

an outpost in Bactria, with major urban

12 Goyal Brothers Prakashan

the Great Bath

Wells and draInaGe systeM

towards the Indus River.

In 1950, Sir Mortimer Wheeler identified a large building

14 Goyal Brothers Prakashan

traCInG soCIal dIFFerenCes

strateGIes For ProCUrInG MaterIals

that there must be important means of transporting goods and

text of the 3rd millennium BCE refers to copper coming from a

displaying a strong and energetic bull. The figure

Mother Goddess: The most interesting finding

This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ___________________ of class _ has

Place: _ _