ENGLISH - III

Class: B.A. LL.B (3rd Semester)

(Lecture Notes)

Principles of Report Writing

Report writing has the following principles:

1) Completeness
 Completeness, of course, is ensuring the reader has all the information they need
to understand the message, make a decision, and take an action. If you leave out
something, the reader might make an incorrect decision.
 It has to be complete in every aspect.
 Completeness is achieved by reporting all the facts discovered during the course
of an investigation.
 5Ws & H
 The Five W´s (sometimes referred to as Five Ws and How, 5W1H) are questions
whose answers are considered basic in information gathering or problem solving.
 What, Who, When, Where, Why, How

S.NO 5 Ws & H Means

1 What Activity, Agenda
2 Who Receiver, Audience
3 When Timings (The reports should be prepare on time)
4 Where Venue, Place
5 Why Reasons, Justifications
6 How Methodology, Process

i. What
 Activity or agenda
 What happened?
 What is the story?
ii. Who
 Receiver or audience
 Who was involved?
 Your writing pattern must be according to your receiver.
 Two types of receiver
a) Technical
o Bosses, Legal Fraternity, Legal Experts etc.
 b) Layman
o Common man, Customers, Client etc.
iii. When
 Timings (Matters a lot in presentations etc.)
 Chronological Order
 DOB, School, College, University, etc.
 When did it take place?
 For Example
o If one’s father dies and you go after two years on his marriage
ceremony for condolence, so…………….
o That’s why Timings matter a lot everywhere…….
iv. Where
 Venue or place
 Where did it take place?
 Where would be the reader be at the same time when he receives the report?
v. Why
 Reasons, Justifications
 Why did it happen?
 Why should the problem be analyzed?
vi. How
 Methodology or process
 How did it happen?
 Why it should be done?
2) Clarity
 Clarity ensures your reader understands your communication without any
difficulty.
 Proper usage of “Semantics” (The study of word choice)
 Clarity is based on the selection of words in the passage.
 Use the shared and common vocabulary which is easily understandable.
 Clarity means to use denotative words or terms, so that others can understand it
easily.
 In dictionary we have two types of words:
i. Denotative
 Dictionary words based (Clear, easy to understand)
 For Example
o Fat cat
o The cat which is fat.
ii. Connotative
 Usage based (Hidden meaning, difficult words)
 For Example
o Fat cat
o The organization which is enhancing.
 Don’t use Jargons (Technical words)
o We should avoid Jargons because layman cannot understand these words.
 o For Example
I. Billingsgate is my Betenoire.
How many words do you know?
a) 4 words
b) 3 words
c) 2 words
d) 1 word
o Billingsgate (women = fish UK) means Abusive Language
o Betenoire (French word) means someone or something which is particularly
disliked.
o Hence, the above statement means that I dislike abusive language.
II. He is my Honcho.
a) Friend
b) Enemy
c) Teacher
d) Boss
o Honcho is a Japanese word which means Boss.
 Use Effective Paragraph
 Orchestra = Balance (Symphony)
 Effective paragraphs
 TS (Topic Sentence)
 Topic Sentence is also called Thesis Statement.
 Containing controlling ideas
 SS (Supporting Sentence)
 CS (Concluding Sentence)
 Concluding Statement is also called Clincher.
 Each paragraph must be in a logical connection.
 Development of Paragraph Writing
Interrelated

TS SS1 SS2 SS3 CS/CLINCHER

 The paragraph should be developed in the above manner.

 Coherence must be there in paragraphs.
 Coherence means Logical Connection
 Never share a topic which you had not discussed in TS and SS, and
you are discussing in CS, it’s a big mistake.
 How to bring coherence?
 Connectives & Transition words bring coherence.
 They are the words which connects one sentence with another
sentence.
 Transitions are words which connect two ideas.
 Co-ordinate Conjunctions
 BOYFANS
 B But
 O Or
 Y Yet
 F For
 A And
 N Nor
 S So
o In compound sentences, Co-ordinate conjunctions are used.
o Compound sentence has at least two independent clauses that have
related ideas.
o For Example
o I left party for I was not feeling well.
o “For” in this case means “because”
Sub-ordinate Conjunctions
 Because
 If
 When
 Where
 After
 Although
o In complex sentences, Sub-ordinate conjunctions are used.
o Complex sentence is a sentence with an independent clause and a
dependent clause.
o For Example
o If it rains, we shall go to picnic.
o I left the party because it was boring.
 And means Additional Information & Additive
 But means Contrast Information
 Because means Reason
 If means Condition

3) Conciseness
The message has to be complete and should be concise.
Conciseness is using as few words as possible to get the message across the reader.
I. Avoid Redundancies
 Repetition of the words
 Superfluous repetition or overlapping, especially of words.

S.No Redundancies Concise Version

1 In my own personal opinion In my opinion
2 This report contains factual truth This report contains facts
3 This product is a new innovation This product is innovation
4 In the month of May or Spring season In May or Spring
5 Small in size Its small
 II. Avoid Padding
 Unnecessary explanation
 In composition, padding is the practice of adding needless or repetitive
information to sentences and paragraphs.

S.No Padding Concise Version

1 It was Mr.Maqbool who had raised the objection. Mr.Maqbool objected.
2 It was professor Anwar who gave advice to students. Professor Anwar advised
students.

Important Note

Empty Phrases = It is, It was, There is, There are, There was, There were
Keep it short and simple

III. Avoid Gobbledy Gooks (Verbose)

 Verbose or Jargons
 Jargons are technical words.
 Every subject has specialized vocabulary and are called Jargons.
 Jargons cannot be used for a common man.

S.No Verbose Concise Version

1 At the present moment of speaking Now
2 In due course Soon
3 In a stipulated time Soon
4 In the event that If
5 In as much as Because

Important Note
Verbal vs Verbose
Verbal is oral. Verbal is with words. E.g. Lectures, Presentations, Interviews, Seminars
Verbose are extravagant of the words. When words are used lavishly….

IV. Avoid Shun words

 Avoid Nouns
 Avoid Camouflaged (Hidden)
 Avoid Nominalization
 For Example
 The function of this department is verification of accounts and
submission of receipts.
 This department verifies accounts and submits receipts.
S.No Shun Concise Version
1 Make a suggestion Suggest
2 Take a decision Decide

Important Note

Slangs = This is a group of words (languages), which is not standardized.

Avoid slangs in formal language.

V. Use Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Pronouns

 Acronyms
 If abbreviation will pronounce as word, it will be called as Acronyms.
 We pronounce it as a word. E.g. NAB, NADRA etc.
 Abbreviations
 A shortened form of word or phrase
 We pronounce it as separate alphabets. E.g. UNO, WTO etc.
 Never ever state a topic with abbreviations and acronyms. Start it as topic
“NAB”.

S.No Abbreviations Acronyms

1 UNO NAB
2 IMF NADRA
3 ISI QESCO
4 WTO RAW

VI. Avoid Articles and Prepositions

 Unnecessary usage of articles and prepositions must be avoided.
 Two types of articles
i. Definite Article
o 'The' is the one and only definite article in English, which means that it
refers to, or introduces, a particular, specific noun.
ii. Indefinite Article
o 'A' and 'an' are indefinite articles, which mean that they refer to, or
introduce, an unspecified noun. In other words, we use an indefinite
article in front of a noun when we're not referring to a particular
person, place, thing or idea, but we want to convey that we're talking
about any one person, place, thing or idea.
 For Example
i. In the line of salary (With Articles)
Salary Line (Without Articles)
ii. The date of policy (With Articles)
Policy Date (Without Articles)
 4) Courtesy
 Courtesy means politeness.
 It means how to address?
 Use polite language instead of directed words.
 Courtesy demands that the message should be respectful, thoughtful, and
appreciative.
I. Avoid Biased and Discriminatory words
 Biased means when you are partial
 Avoid discrimination in writing.
 The writing shall not be gender based.
 Use neutral words
 Use non-biased language
 For Example
Glass Ceiling (concept)
o It means the minorities and women are not allowed to hold
an administrative post.

S.NO Biased Non-biased

1 Chairman Chairperson (for women)
2 Mankind Humanity (Human race)
3 Manmade Hand made
4 Fireman Fire fighter
5 Salesman Sale person

 Courtesy Titles
Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms, etc
Ms is used for a woman when we are not informed whether she is
married or not.

5) Correctness
Correctness is imperative. Do not mislead your reader. Reread your message before you
send it, whether it is an e-mail message, letter, report, proposal, or any other document.
In this comes:
 Spelling mistakes
 Grammatical Mistakes
 Homophones
 Mechanics (Punctuations)
I. Avoid Spelling Mistakes
 Spellings must be absolute.
 Spelling mistakes are not mistakes. (Shakespeare)
 The spelling mistakes are the biggest mistakes.
II. Grammatical Mistakes
 (There, Their) parents made a decision.
 Assignment can be submitted. (Correct)
  Assignment may be submitted. (Incorrect)
III. Proper Usage of Homophones (Pair of words)
i. His writing is……………….
a) Eligible
b) Illegible (Not readable)
ii. Elections are……………….
a) Eminent
b) Imminent
iii. ………….. Parents made a vow to take them.
a) There
b) Their
iv. This model has beautiful………………
a) GATT (Acronym)
b) Gate (University gate)
c) Gait (Walking Style)
IV. Proper Usage of Mechanics
 Proper Usage of Punctuations
 Use punctuations carefully because even a single comma placed
after or before can change the whole meaning.
For Example
 Hang, not spare him.
 Hang not, spare him. (Complete meaning changed)
 New Time Romans
 Calibri (Recommended)
 Recommended size of fonts
 Font size should not be smaller than 10
 Font size 12 (Recommended)
 For headings font size 14 (Recommended)
 For slides font size 28 – 34
 Overview of Punctuations
 Usage of Comma (,)
 Rule No.1
When a sentence is made up of two independent clauses joined by a
coordinating
Conjunction (and, but, for, nor/or, so, yet), a comma is needed between the two
clauses.
S1 .............................. , BOYFANS .................................. S2
 Rule No.2
Use a comma to separate the elements in a series (three or more things).
I need pencils, erasers, markers, and books.
Note:
Orthodox Approach = We have to use comma before “and” in orthodox style
of writing.
Latest/Modern Approach = We don’t need to use comma before “and” in
Modern style of writing.
 Rule No.3
If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description that follows is
considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.
Whenever, we add further information, we have to use commas.
Mr. Abdullah, who is my neighbor, is very amicable.
 Rule No.4
We have to use comma in Antithesis (When one sentence is opposite of other).
United we stand , divided we fall.
To err is human , forgive is divine.
Man proposes , God disposes.

Note

Figure of Speech = The language of literature (Ordinary Language into Literature

Language)
E.g. She is too proud. (Ordinary Language)
She is too proud as like as peacock. (Literature Language)

() Parenthesis are used by writers.

[] Square Bracket are used by Readers.

{} Braces is not used.

 Usages of Semi-Colon (;)
A semicolon is a punctuation mark that signals a pause that is stronger than a comma
but weaker than a period.
Appropriately, a semicolon (;) looks like a period on top of a comma.
 Rule No.1
The standard uses for semicolons are to separate two independent clauses
instead of using coordinating conjunctions.
When BOYFANS are not used in between two sentences, we have to use semi
colon.
Compound sentences without coordinating conjunctions require a semicolon.
S1 .............................. ; ...................................................... S2
He didn’t work hard; he got failed.
 Usages of Colon (:)
 Rule No.1
We have to use Colon ( : ), Whenever we have the following words:
As under
As follows
Following
Appended as below
Colons are used to introduce a variety of text components, including
explanations and examples.
I need following items:
S.No Items Quantity
1 Chairs 15
2 Tables 05

 Rule No.2
In letters after “Subject” we have to use colon.
Subject: ……………………………………………….
 Rule No.3
When the lead-in to a quotation is a complete sentence, you can use a colon
between the lead-in and the quotation.
All forbids: Don’t mistreat your parents.
 Fused Sentences (FS) and Comma splice (CS)

Fused Sentences
A fused sentence occurs when two independent clauses are joined without any punctuation.
Here's an example of a fused sentence:

He didn’t work hard Ø he got failed.

A fused sentence, contains two main clauses illegally run together with no punctuation
whatsoever. The problem looks like this:

He didn’t work hard Ø he got failed.

MAIN CLAUSE + Ø + MAIN CLAUSE = .

Comma Splice
A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined with a comma. Here's an
example of a comma splice:

He didn’t work hard, he got failed.

A comma splice contains two main clauses illegally joined by a comma. The problem looks
like this:

MAIN CLAUSE + , + MAIN CLAUSE = .

Methods of Rectification
Correcting Comma Splices and Fused Sentences
To correct the usage of FS and CS, the following rules should be followed:
1) First, we could separate the independent clauses into two distinct sentences.
 In this case, we simply add a period after the first independent clause and
capitalize the first word of the second independent clause.
 For Example:
 He didn’t work hard. He got failed.
2) Link the clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction:
 For Example:
 He didn’t work hard, so he got failed.
3) Link the clauses with a semicolon:
 For Example:
 He didn’t work hard; he got failed.
4) Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb (also, anyway, besides, furthermore,
incidentally, moreover, otherwise, therefore and thus) or a transitional expression
(after all, by the way, for example, in other words, and on the other hand) placed
between independent clauses:
 For Example
 He didn’t work hard; therefore, he got failed.
5) Use a period before a conjunctive adverb (also, anyway, besides, furthermore,
incidentally, moreover, otherwise, therefore and thus) or a transitional expression
(after all, by the way, for example, in other words, and on the other hand) placed after
first independent clause:
 For Example
 He didn’t work hard. Therefore, he got failed.
6) He didn’t work hard. He, therefore, got failed.
7) He didn’t work hard; He got failed, therefore.
 Meeting Minutes
 What is Meeting Minutes and its purpose?
o Meeting Minutes are the written or recorded documentation that is used to inform
attendees or non-attendees of the happening during the meeting.
o The meeting minutes are generally taken or recorded a meeting so, that participants
have a record of what happened during the meeting.
o Minutes are written as an accurate record of a groups meeting and a record of
decisions taken.
o They are useful because people can forget what was decided at meeting if there is no
written record of proceedings.
o Minutes can also inform people who were not at meeting about what took place.
 Who will write Minutes of Meeting?
o It is normal practice of one person at each meeting to be given a task of writing the
minutes. It may be the same person in each meeting or the task may be rotated.
 What are the contents of Minutes of Meeting?
Before each meeting an agenda should be drawn of and given before a week, detailing the
matters to be discussed at the meeting. A set of minutes should be normally short and precise.
A set of minutes should normally include:
1. Time, Date & Place of Meeting
2. List of People (Attendees)
3. List of absent members (Non-Attendees)
4. Approval of the previous Meeting’s Minutes and any matter arising from those
minutes.
5. For each item in agenda, a record of principle points discussed and decisions taken.
 Essay
 Definition:
 Essay literally means “an attempt” or “to try/to express your thoughts in good English”
 It is a written composition giving expression to one’s own idea or opinions on some topic,
expresses personal opinions or gives information on any given subject/term.
 Essentials of Essay Writing
 Introductory Paragraph (General Statement + Thesis Statement)
 Body of Essay (Paragraphing)
(G.S + T.S + Coherence + Unity + Development + Organization)
o Coherence in Essay
o Use of Transitional Paragraph (T.P + Transitional words)
 Development of Variables (Proper + Adequate)
 Diction + Syntax (Sentence Structure) + Quotation + Date
 Adequate development of paragraph
 Concluding Paragraph (To conclude + Re-statement of thesis)
 Techniques of Essay Writing
1) Step 1 (Pre-Writing Essay)
 Picking (Choosing the topic)
 Unpicking (Understanding the topic)
 Find the focus (Keys of the topic)
(Variables / Headings)
 Brain-Storming of Variables
 Organize the Brain Storming (Order of Importance + Sequence)

2) Step 2 (Post-Writing Essay)

 Last 10-15 minutes
 It is a proof reading technique.
 Your writing has to be double clear because it has to compensate your absence to the
examiner.
 Proof Reading
 Capitalization
 Punctuation
 Doubling (letters + words)
 Missing (letters + words)
 Spelling Mistakes
 Grammatical Mistakes
 Coherence in Essay
 Coherence is like a glow, hint, cement, bridge, connection or clue.
 Coherence is of two types:
i. Logical Coherence
o Sustaining the unity of paragraph in the body in logical coherence.
ii. Verbal Coherence
o Repetition of key words
o Use of pronouns
o Use of synonyms
o Connectors or use of Transition Words
 Organization of Paragraph Writing of Essay
1) Particular → General
General → Particular
2) Simple → Easy → Basic → Complex → Difficult → Advanced
Complex → Difficult → Advanced → Simple → Easy → Basic
3) Questions → Answers
4) Data → Facts/Figures
5) Problems → Solutions
6) Causes → Effects → Solutions → Recommendations
7) Concept → Application
8) Merits and Demerits
9) Special Order (Chronological order = Place + Time) → Sequence
10) Order of Importance (The most important → The least important)

Introductory
Paragraph

General Thesis
Statement Statement

1. It is a seed that contains the

1. Statements are
sentences.
2. Description/Definition of
Topic.
3. Minimum of six statements.
4. General Statement are
written in Introductory
paragraph in order to make the
topic of essay important.
whole tree.
2. The best essay is that which
ends in the beginning.
3. It is the scheme of writer.
4. It is the modus operand (way)
of writer.
5. Thesis statement controls the
whole body of essay.
6. It is technical requirement of
Introductory Paragraph.
7. It is either written in present
indefinite or future indefinite
tense.
 Concluding
Paragraph

*Re-statement of Thesis statement

1. It includes the whole essay.
2. It bounces back whatever is discussed in
the body of essay.
3. It is memory technique that re-
captitulates whatever is discussed in essay.
4. It is technical requirement of concluding
paragraph.
5. It is either written in past indefinite or
present perfect tense.

Hypothesis
A. Hypothesis A

Content is Strong + Form is Weak = Unacceptable

B. Hypothesis B

Content is Weak + Form is Strong = Acceptable

C. Hypothesis C

Content is Strong + Form is Strong = Desirable

D. Hypothesis D

Content is Weak + Form is Weak = Undesirable

Outlines of Essay

1) Failure of Democracy in Pakistan

1. Introduction
2. Factors responsible in derailing Democratic process in Pakistan
 Flabby Political Environment
 Domination of Military
 Foreign Interference
 Grievance of Provinces
 Scarcity of Effective Leadership
 Rampant Corruption
 Illiteracy Ratio
3. Beneficiaries of Puncher in Democracy
 Retired General
 Business Tycoon
 Political Leaders
 Media Owners
 Land lords
4. Grave and Far Reading repercussions of Failure of Democracy
 Political Instability
 Absence of Accountability
 Low Economy
 Political Intolerance
 External Disintegration
 Continuous Invasion of Dictators
 Constrained Judiciary
5. How to Strengthen Democracy in Pakistan?
 Increasing and Developing Unity among Political Parties
 Focus on gaining National Interest
 Sovereignty of Parliament
 Liberate the Judiciary
 Reducing Military Influence and Illiteracy Ratio
 Promotion of Youth in Politics
6. Prospectus of Sustainable Democracy in Pakistan
 Political Stability
 Prevailing of Peace
 Freedom of People
 Quality of Education
 Lesser Corruption
 Awareness of People
7. Conclusion
 2) Female Education in Pakistan
1. Introduction
2. Importance of Female Education
 Sign of developed society and nation
 Surety of Equal Rights
 Utilizing Female Skills and Talents
 Assurance of Social Justice
 Eradication of Gender Inequality
3. How Female Education is in Pakistan?
 Lack of Proper Education
 Less Schools in Rural Areas for Females
 Scarcity of Couraging Female Education due to male Dominancy
 Insufficient Family Support
 Poverty lead to Unaffordable Female Education
4. Bottle neck way of getting Female Education
 Barriers of Culture/Tribal Issues
 Early Marriage
 Low Awareness of Islamic Education
 Lack of Opportunities
 Unawareness of Parents
 Man Dominancy
5. Grave and Stern repercussions of lack of Female Education
 Under/Undeveloped Society
 Social Disturbance
 High Illiteracy Ratio of Female Education
 Misuse of Females
 Suppression of Female Right
6. Recommendations (Way forward to remove bottle neck )
 Promotion of Female Education
 Provision of Basic Rights
 Enhance the Technical Skills
 Proper Utilization of Female Skills
7. Conclusion