Definitions of programmed instruction

Acc to R.C. Das(1993)-Programmed Instruction is a method of individualized instruction, where each

individual learns by himself at his own rate. Programmed learning consists of elements of new knowledge
called Steps, which are arranged in a sequence in such way that a student can easily learn by himself.
G.O.M Leith (1966) -Programme is a sequence of small steps of Instructional material (called frames), most of
which requires a response to be made by completing a blank space in a sentence. To ensure that expected
response are given, a system of cueing is applied, and each response is verified by the provision of immediate
knowledge of results. Such sequence is intended to be worked at the learners own pace as individualized self
instruction
Smith and Moore (1962): Programmed instruction is the process of arranging the material to be learned into
a series of sequential steps, usually it moves the students from a familiar background into a complex and new
set of concepts, principles and understanding
Gulati and Gulati (1976): Programmed learning, as popularly understood, is a method of giving individualized
instruction, in which the student is active and proceeds at his own pace and is provided with immediate
knowledge of results. The teacher is not physically present. The programmer, while developing programmed
material, has to fallow the laws of behaviour and validate his strategy in terms of student learning.
Programmed instruction / learning is a systematically planned, empirically established and effectively
controlled self-instructional technique for providing individualized instruction to the learner through logically
sequenced small segments of the subject matter by using the principles of operant conditioning and schedules
of reinforcement.
Development or Origin of Programmed Instruction
 Gita is the first example of programmed learning as it has several ingredients of programming.
 The Greek Philosopher Socrates as one of the earliest programmer, who developed a programme in
geometry, which was recorded by Plato in the dialogue Menu.
 Programmed instruction emerged in the beginning of the 20th century from the efforts of American
psychologists.
 E L Thorndike (!874-!949) was the first Psychologist whose findings were direct relevance to
Programming. The law of effect, an outcome of Trial and Error learning theory has a close link with the
concept of reinforcement which is being considered for Programme Instruction.
 Sydney L Pressey(1927), Psychologist of Ohio State University developed a teaching machine. This
teaching machine contained the format of multiple choice items having provision for immediate
feedback. So it is also linked with the origin of Programmed Instruction
 B.F. Skinner (1954), an American Psychologist proposed the Operant Conditioning learning theory,
given birth to the concept of reinforcement in the process of learning. Based upon this idea B F Skinner
developed Linear Programmed Instruction or Extrinsic Programming.
 Norman A. Crowder (1955) developed another type of  programmed instruction known as Branching
programming or Intrinsic Programming which provides automatic tutoring.
 Robert Mager (1958) gave a new concept known as  Learner Controlled Instruction, in which learner
led the instruction, it is a kind of Socratic dialogue in reverse.
 T F Gilbert (1962) developed a new system of  Progammed Instruction known as Mathetics. E L
Rothkopf (1965) coined another kind of programming called Mathemagenics.
  Lawrence Stolurow (1965) revolutionized the concept  of programmed instruction in 1965 by bringing
the idea of Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI).
Development of Programmed Instruction
 Application of programmed instruction is illustrated through the step by step  construction of short
programmes.
 Starting with the analysis of the curriculum and course content, the author  take the reader through
each phase of the programming process, gathering and organizing the content material, construction
of the programme matrix and flow diagram and finally the writing of frames.
 In innovative classroom environment, programmed instruction can be made  use to enhance the
effectiveness of Self learning among Learners.
Development of Programmed Instruction
1. Preparatory phase (preparation of the programme)
2. Development phase (writing of the programme)
3. Evaluative phase (testing or evaluation)
F r e d K e l l e r - T h e P e r s o n a l i z e d S y s t e m o f I n s t r u c ti o n ( P S I )
PSI is also known as the Keller plan. First described by Fred Keller in Good Bye Teacher -
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (1968). It is composed of small self-paced modularized
units of instructions where study guides direct learners through the modules. Unit tests are
given on each module where the learners must show mastery by scoring at least a 90%.
Student proctors are used to help with individual problems and lectures are given for
motivational problems only. PSI combines mastery learning with principles of reinforcement
learning theory. Mastery learning requires that the desired student performance be stated
precisely using performance or learning objectives.
The modules can consists of reading assignments, films, audio tapes, field trips,
programmed instruction, conducting an experiment, conducting an interview, etc. The
performance evaluations can be essays, multiple choice, oral exams, written report, etc.
Although not required, bonus points are encouraged to be given to learners who complete
the tests in a timely manner since procrastination in a self-paced course is the biggest
problem.
Keller divided the process for creating PSI into four steps:
o Determine the material to be covered in the course.
o Divide the material into self contained modules (segments).
o Create methods of evaluating the degree to which the learner has conquered the material
in a given module.
o Allow learners to move from module to module at their own pace.
(1) The go-at-your-own pace feature, which permits a student to move through the course at
a speed commensurate with his ability and other demands of his time.
(2) The unit-perfection requirement for advance, which lets the student go ahead to new
material only after demonstrating mastery of that which preceded.
(3) The use of lectures and demonstrations as vehicles of motivation, rather than sources of
critical information.
(4) The related stress upon the written word in teacher-student communication; and finally:
(5) The use of proctors, which permits repeated testing, immediate scoring, almost
unavoidable tutoring, and a marked enhancement of the personal-social aspect of the
educational process. — Fred Keller (1968).
Pascarella and Terenzini's (1991, p91-93) reviewed seven different studies and
concluded that “PSI is effective in fostering improved subject matter mastery over
more conventional instructional approach. This is true regardless of whether the
synthesis is quantitative or narrative.”
They also reviewed two meta-analytical syntheses of PSI and learning. The first
was based on 19 studies and had an effect size of 0.42 of a standard deviation.
The second one was based on 61 studies and had an effect size of 0.49 of a
standard deviation which translates to an achievement advantage of 19 percentile
points (in other words, if the conventionally taught groups were achieving at the
50th percentile, the PSI groups were, on the average, at the 69th percentile).
The teaching method described above is an example of the Personalized System of
Instruction (PSI) or the Keller Plan. It is distinguished by five features (Keller, 1968, p.
83).
(1) "the go-at-your-own-pace feature, which permits a student to move through the course at
a speed commensurate with his ability and other demands upon his time"
(2) "the unit perfection requirement for advance, which lets the student go ahead to new
material only after demonstrating mastery of that which preceded"
(3) "the use of lectures and demonstrations as vehicles of motivation, rather than sources of
critical information"
(4) "the related stress upon the written word in teacher-student communication"
(5) "the use of proctors, which permits repeated testing, immediate scoring, almost
unavoidable tutoring, and a marked enhancement of the personal-social aspect of the
educational process."
Meaning of Micro-Teaching
Micro teaching is a teacher training technique for learning teaching skills. It employs real
teaching situation for developing skills and helps to get deeper knowledge regarding the
art of teaching. This Stanford technique involved the steps of "plan, teach, observe, re-
plan, re-teach and re-observe" and has evolved as the core components in 91% of on-
campus clinical teaching development programs, with the significant reduction in the
teaching complexities with respect to number of students in a class scope of content and
time frame, etc.
Most of the pre-service teacher education programs widely use micro teaching, and it is a
proven method to attain gross improvement in the instructional experiences. Effective
student teaching should be the prime quality of a teacher. As an innovative method of
equipping teachers to be effective, skills and practices of micro teaching has been
implemented.
Micro teaching introduces the teacher trainee to a wide range of teaching skills and
allows the teacher trainee to practice each skill one at a time until he or she becomes
proficient in the skill. Later on, the teacher trainee will be able to link many such skills to
achieve the desirable outcome. Micro teaching provides teachers with a practice setting
or instruction in which the normal complexities of classroom are reduced and in which the
teacher gets feedback on performance. Micro teaching is a procedure in which a student
teacher practices teaching with a reduce number of pupils in a reduced period of time with
emphasis on narrow and specific teaching skills.
Definitions of Micro-Teaching
1. According to D. W. Allen, "Micro teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter in
class size and time."
2. According to B. M. Shore, "Micro teaching is a real teaching range of activities."
3. According to Mc. And Unwin, "The term Micro Teaching is most often applied to the
use of closed circuit television to give immediate feedback of a trainee teacher's
performance in a simplified environment."
4. According to B.K. Pasee, "Micro teaching is a training technique which requires
student teachers to reach a single concept using specified teaching skills to a small
numbers of pupils in a short duration of time."
Process of Micro Teaching
Micro-teaching is a technique that aims to prepare teacher candidates for the actual
classroom setting. With the help of this technique, the teacher candidate attempts to learn
by breaking each teaching skill into smaller parts and without having to face the chaotic
environment of overcrowded classrooms. During micro-teaching, the skills of actively
presenting and demonstrating student interactions are developed while inculcating
teaching skills in the students.
Wilkinson, emphasizes that the teacher candidate experiences the actual teaching and
learning rules with the help of this method. This method provides opportunities for
teachers to discover and reflect on their own and others' teaching styles and enables them
to learn about new teaching techniques.
(i). Curriculum formulation
Teaching skills (describing, interpreting, asking questions, etc.) by the student teacher are
any one of the skills that have to be learned during the training so that the micro-teaching
curriculum is prepared. Class-teaching- The student teacher teaches short lessons to
fellow students for 5 to 10 minutes, which are called teaching sessions.
(ii). Teach
The next step is to teach. The trainee teaches the class according to the plan and conveys
what they had prepared for. This will be supervised by the trainer.
(iii). Feedback
The information given in the evaluation form developed by the supervisor of the lesson
taught by the student teacher, in which the shortcomings left by the student teacher in
teaching are mentioned. With this feedback, the student teacher rectifies her
shortcomings.
(iv). Re-curricular
Immediately after the feedback, the student teacher rearranges his/her lesson, this activity
is called a rearrangement session.
(v). Re-plan
After re-planning, the re-planned lesson is done by re-teaching on another group. This
stage is called re-educational session.
(vi). Re-feedback
After re-teaching, feedback is provided by the invigilator to the student teacher, through
this process the student teacher continuously improves his shortcomings.
Advantages of Micro-Teaching
The following are the main advantages of micro-teaching:
1. It reduces normal classroom teaching by Scaled down teaching.
2. The training of teachers becomes individualized. Each trainee makes progress
undeveloped teaching skills at his own rate depending on this ability.
3. It focuses attention on teaching behaviour to modify and improve in the desired
direction.
4. Micro teaching can be done either in real classroom conditions or in simulated
conditions.
5. It is useful for developing teaching efficiency in pre-service and in-service teacher-
education programmes.
6. It is an effective feedback device for the modification of teacher behaviour.
7. It is a training device for improving teaching practice and prepare effective teacher
or better teachers.
8. The knowledge and practice of teaching skills can be given by the use of micro
teaching.
9. It permits to increase control and regulates teaching practice.
10. The specific teaching skills are developed by the micro-teaching experiences, e.g.,
reinforcement skill, probing question etc.
Importance of Micro teaching
Micro teaching has a pivotal role in all medical education training programs and
contributes to a great extent to the better understanding of teaching process and its
complexities. A case study on micro teaching lesson study combining the elements of
Japanese lesson study and micro teaching technique reported that the pre- and post-
lesson plans had successfully demonstrated growth in teachers' knowledge on teaching.
The each, critique, re-teach" model in a dental education program identified micro
teaching as a technique for personality development and confidence-building of health
professionals.
Nature of Micro Teaching
The nature of micro-teaching can be expressed in the following form-
1. Micro-learning is an inter-process.
2. Micro teaching is the process of establishing a mutual relationship between the
teacher and the students.
3. Micro teaching is the process of bringing changes in the behavior of the students.
4. Micro-learning is a purpose-fulfilling process.
5. Micro learning is a developmental process.
6. Micro learning is a formal and informal process.
7. Micro learning is a logical process.
8. Micro learning is a tripartite process.
Need of Micro Teaching
Following are the need of micro-teaching which are given below-
 1.Micro-teaching is a very flexible method which is organized on the basis of subject
and circumstances.
2. Micro teaching is very necessary to remove the complexities of the course duration
and subjects.
3. On the basis of the changes brought in the students through micro-teaching, the
backing is provided immediately.
4. Micro-learning is essential for evaluating specific exams.
Phases of Micro Teaching
1. Knowledge Acquisition Phase
2. Skill Acquisition Phase
3. Transfer Phase
1. Knowledge Acquisition Phase
In the learning stage, the student teacher acquires the knowledge of various teaching
skills, for which she is to be trained.
2. Skill Acquisition Phase
In the skill acquisition stage, the student teacher after seeing the demonstration lesson
prepares a curriculum plan for micro-teaching. And then practices that skill till he attains
proficiency in that skill. Two components of this stage are important–
1. Feedback Status
2. Micro learning planning stage
3. Transfer Phase
In the transfer stage, the student teacher transfers the skills learned through micro-
teaching to actual classroom situations. and completes the teaching process.
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
Computer Assisted Instruction
Terminology
Use of computer in education is referred by many names such as
• Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
• Computer Aided Instruction (CAI)
• Computer Assisted Learning (CAL)
• Computer Based Education (CBE)
• Computer Based Instruction (CBI)
• Computer Enriched Instruction (CEI)
• Computer Managed Instruction (CMI)
New Terminology
• Web Based Training
• Web Based Learning
• Web Based Instruction
Computer-based education (CBE) and computer-based instruction (CBI) are the broadest terms and can refer to
virtually any kind of computer use in educational settings. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) Computer
Aided Instruction (CAI) is a narrower term and most often refers to drill-and-practice, tutorial, or simulation
activities. Computer-managed instruction (CMI) Computer-managed instruction is an instructional strategy
whereby the computer is used to provide learning objectives, learning resources, record keeping, progress
tracking, and assessment of learner performance. Computer based tools and applications are used to assist the
teacher or school administrator in the management of the learner and instructional process.
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
A self-learning technique, usually offline/online, involving interaction of the student with programmed
instructional materials.
Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive instructional technique whereby a computer is used to
present the instructional material and monitor the learning that takes place.
CAI uses a combination of text, graphics, sound and video in enhancing the learning process. The computer has
many purposes in the classroom, and it can be utilized to help a student in all areas of the curriculum.
CAI refers to the use of the computer as a tool to facilitate and improve instruction. CAI programs use tutorials,
drill and practice, simulation, and problem solving approaches to present topics, and they test the student's
understanding.
Typical CAI provides
1. text or multimedia content
2. multiple-choice questions
3. problems
4. immediate feedback
5. notes on incorrect responses
6. summarizes students' performance
7. exercises for practice
8. Worksheets and tests.
Types of Computer Assisted Instruction
1. Drill-and-practice Drill and practice provide opportunities or students to repeatedly practice the skills that
have previously been presented and that further practice is necessary for mastery.
2. Tutorial Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of information and its extension into different forms
of work, including drill and practice, games and simulation.
3. Games Game software often creates a contest to achieve the highest score and either beat others or beat the
computer.
4. Simulation Simulation software can provide an approximation of reality that does not require the expense of
real life or its risks.
5. Discovery Discovery approach provides a large database of information specific to a course or content area
and challenges the learner to analyze, compare, infer and evaluate based on their explorations of the data.
6. Problem Solving This approach helps children develop specific problem solving skills and strategies.
Advantages of CAI
• one-to-one interaction
great motivator
• freedom to experiment with different options
• instantaneous response/immediate feedback to the answers elicited
• Self pacing - allow students to proceed at their own pace
• Helps teacher can devote more time to individual students
• Privacy helps the shy and slow learner to learns
• Individual attention
• learn more and more rapidly
• multimedia helps to understand difficult concepts through multi sensory approach
• self directed learning – students can decide when, where, and what to learn
Limitations of CAI
• may feel overwhelmed by the information and resources available
• over use of multimedia may divert the attention from the content
• learning becomes too mechanical
• non availability of good CAI packages
• lack of infrastructure