Drainage Design Manual Final Nov13-3

Chapter 5
Drainage Design Manual – 2013 Hydrology
2) Time of concentration for defined water course

.
0.87
=
1000
L = hydraulic length of catchments, measured along flow path from the catchment
boundary to the point where the flood needs to be determined (km) = 0.7982km
Sav = average slope (m/m)
. − .
=
(1000)(0.75 )
H 0.10L = elevation height at 10% of the length of the watercourse (m) = 2950.80
L = length of watercourse (km) = 0. 7982
3058.7 − 2950.8
= = .
1000 ∗ 0.75 ∗ 0.7982
.
. ∗ .
Tc = time of concentration (hours) = = .
∗ .
Tct= TC1+TC2 = 0.1973+0.1014= 0.2986 hr = 17.92min
Step 5: Determine rainfall intensity
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 5-65

Chapter 5
Hydrology Drainage Design Manual – 2013
IDF Curve Of Rainfall Region A1

250.00
200.00
Intensity in mm/hr
150.00 2 years
5 years
10 years
100.00 25 years
50 years
100 years
50.00
0.00
0 50 100 150 200
Duration in Min
The catchment area were found in rainfall region A1, use the IDF curve of rainfall region
A1 (or use project specific IDF curve) and find the rainfall intensity for different return
periods.
I2=59.5mm/hr ; I5=78.6mm/hr; I10=90mm/hr; I25=107.3mm/hr; I50=119.4mm/hr;
I100=130mm/hr
Step 6: Determine runoff coefficients

The runoff coefficient were depends on the catchment slope, permeability of the soil and
vegetation cover.
= + + = . + . + . = .
Cs= catchment slope coefficient = 0.10
Cp= Soil permeability coefficient = 0.15
CV= Land cover coefficient = 0.20
Page 5-66 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 5
Step 7: Calculate the Peak flood

= .
Q = maximum rate of runoff, m3/s
C = runoff coefficient
I = average rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of concentration, for a
selected return period, mm/hr
A = catchment area tributary to the design location, Km2
Return 2 10 25
period 5 Year 50 Year 100 Year
Year Year Year
I =mm/hr 59.5 78.6 90 107.3 119.4 130
Cf 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
3
Q =m /s 8.71 11.50 13.17 17.27 20.97 23.78
Example 2: Rural Runoff Example using SCS Method
Photo showing crossing location

This example describes the process to determine the peak runoff from a simple rural
catchment area around Nekempte.

Chapter 5
Step 1: Determine Catchment Area
Step 2: Determine longest flow path and elevation
Name Catchment Stream Elevation @ Elevation @ Elevation @ Elevation @

Area Km2 length (m) U/S (m) D/S (m) 10% (m) 85% (m)
C2 19.077 10342.87 1704.4 1320.3 1323 1411.099
Step 3: Determine Catchment area Property
Normal
Land Hydrologic Soil Wet Region
Soil Type Rainfall Region AMC Curve
Cover Group Soil Type Curve no.
No
Grass Dystric Rainfall Region
B Wet 69 85
land Cambisols B1
Grass Orthic Rainfall Region
B Wet 69 85
land Acrisols B1

Chapter 5
Step 4: Calculate Time of concentration

The time of concentration in rural area divide in to two sections as specified in sec 5.5.
• time of concentration for overland flow
.
= 0.604 .
Cv = roughness coefficient of land use Table 5…. = 0.15

L = hydraulic length of catchment, measured along flow path from the catchment
H = height of most remote point above outlet of catchment (m)
. .
S = Slope of the catchment where S = = = . (m/m)
∗ .
. ∗ . .
Tc = time of concentration (hours) = = 0.604 ( . ) .
= . ℎ
• Time of concentration for defined water course

.
0.87
=
1000
L = hydraulic length of catchments, measured along flow path from the catchment
Sav = average slope (m/m)
. − .
=
(1000)(0.75 )

Chapter 5
L = length of watercourse (km) = 10.399
1411.099 − 1323.00
= = .
1000 ∗ 0.75 ∗ 10.399
.
. ∗ .
Tc = time of concentration (hours) = ∗ . .
= 2.2613
Tct = TC1+TC2 = 0.16187+2.2613 = 2.42319 hr = 145.392min
Step 5: Calculate peak flood

The peak flood estimation was done by using the SCS unit hydrograph flood estimation
formula.
1) Rainfall Runoff equation

A relationship between accumulated rainfall and accumulated runoff was derived by SCS
from experimental plots for numerous hydrologic and vegetative cover conditions.
( − )
=
( − )+
Where: Q = accumulated direct runoff, mm
P = accumulated rainfall (potential maximum runoff), mm
Ia= initial abstraction including surface storage, interception, and infiltration prior
to runoff, mm Ia=0.2*S
= − 254
S = potential maximum retention, mm
Ia = initial abstraction including surface storage, interception, and infiltration prior
to runoff, mm Ia = 0.2*S
CN= Curve Number , in the above catchment characteristics table the area were
located in WET region of the country the normal curve number changed to wet
region as per the manual. = 88
The catchment area located in rainfall region B1 use the 24hr rainfall depth of
Nekempte meteorological station.
Return period 2 Years 5Years 10 Years 25 Years 50 Years 100 Years

P 68.78 83.45 92.34 102.72 109.86 116.49
Q 34.193 46.502 54.224 63.43 69.86 75.89

Chapter 5
2) Peak Discharge estimation

The following equation were used for the estimation of the peak discharge in SCS method
= ∗ ∗
Where qp = peak discharge, m3/s
qu = unit peak discharge, m3/s/km2/mm
( )
=∝∗ 10
Where Co, C1 and C2 = regression coefficients given in table 5… for various Ia/p
ratios: = unit conversion factor equal to 0.000431 in SI unit.
A = drainage area, Km2
Q = depth of runoff, mm
Return 10
period 2 Years 5Years Years 25 Years 50 Years 100 Years
Ia/p 0.130 0.107 0.097 0.087 0.0816 0.0769
Qu 0.0821 0.0837 0.0845 0.0853 0.0861 0.0865
qp (m3/s) 53.568 74.271 87.444 103.213 114.701 125.163
Example 3: Flood Routing Method

Large Catchments with Multiple Watersheds
Subdivision of the area of a large basin may be necessary because of the size and
complexity of the physical system. A basin with streams and/or a diverse topography may
be divided into smaller components. In this section, the model input preparation for a
subdivided basin is presented. This watershed may be divided into sub basins. The
watershed parameter for the sub basins are given in Table 4. These parameters have been
described in step 1. For this exercise one precipitation distribution is assumed for both sub
basins. The base flow will be defined here as the flow which results from releases of water
from subsurface storage.
The input parameters starting base flow discharge (ST), threshold discharge (QR), and rate
of recession index (RT) are used to model the base flow in the HEC-HMS model. ST
represents the initial flow in the river, RT is equal to the ratio of the recession limb flow to
the recession limb flow occurring one hour earlier and QR indicates the flow at which an
exponential recession begins on the receding limb of the computed hydrograph.
The base flow record is used to input the base flow into the HEC-HMS model. The
parameters selected as an input are 5 m3/s and 8m3/s for the values of ST for the north and
south sub basins, respectively, 0.05 for QR (i.e. 0.05 times the peak runoff, recommended
in the HEC-1 manual) and 0.9 for RT (a typical recession ratio) for both sub basins.
A computer program, "Hydrologic Modelling Systems" (HEC-HMS), developed by the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is used in this example. This program is used in engineering
practice to determine the drainage characteristics of both rural and urban watersheds.
Flood movement through river reaches and reservoirs is simulated by flood routing. Most
of the flood-routing methods available in HEC-HMS are based on the continuity equation
and some relationship between flow and storage (or stage).

Chapter 5
HEC-HMS Input Parameters

To compute an SCS synthetic hydrograph for this exercise, the following parameters will
be determined.
Watershed Area
A topographic map is necessary to delineate a watershed for the study area and calculate its
enclosed area. Most of the time, a detailed topographic map of the site does not exist.
However, the available topographical from the Ethiopian Mapping Agency should be
obtained.
Hydrologic Soil Characteristics
The SCS curve number loss rate is used to determine the hydrologic soil characteristics for
the watershed. This book may be obtained from the SCS office in the state or county of
interest. A hydrologic classification of each soil may be determined from reference TR 55
(1986).
Antecedent moisture condition (AMC) II was assumed for this analysis. AMC II should be
selected unless rain records of the site are available. The curve numbers in Table 2 apply
for AMC II. For dry conditions (AMC I) or wet conditions (AMC III), equivalent curve
numbers can be computed (Veissman, Lewis and Knapp (1989)).
Precipitation
There are six methods of precipitation models available. The gage data is not available for
the watersheds and will not be used for the example given. The frequency-based storm will
be used in this illustrative example. This hypothetical storm will be automatically
distributed according to the specified depth/duration data. A triangular precipitation
distribution is constructed such that the depth specified for any duration occurs during the
central part of the storm.
The required inputs are:
Exceed Probability;
Storm frequency; the 100-year storm is used for the example or 1% probability
Storm Area; storm size will be the same as the watershed area.
Series Type; annual or partial.
Duration of Max Intensity; smallest input duration
Storm Duration; maximum input duration
Unit Hydrograph Method
The SCS dimensionless unit hydrograph is used in the illustrative example. The only
parameter necessary to obtain this unit hydrograph is the Time of Concentration (TC),
which is determined by techniques given in TR-55 (1986). For the example watershed,
there are three components of TC: sheet flow, shallow concentrated flow, and open
channel flow. See Table 3 for details in the determination of these values.

Chapter 5
Flood Hydrograph Determination

As outlined above the frequency based storm will be used to determine the precipitation
data, SCS curve number for the loss rate, and the SCS unit hydrograph. The determinations
of these parameters are given in Tables 1, 2 and 3.
Table 1: Soil Types and Curve Numbers Computation Sheet
Soil Description Area* CN Weighted CN
(Area x CN)
Water New Pond 28 100 2800
RsC Rockaway Rock Outcrop 71.5 75 5362.5
RvF Rock Outcrop 31.8 90 2862
HbC Stony Loam 27.5 70 1925
RsD Rock Outcrop 23.25 89 2069.25
RgA Ridgebury Very Stony Loam 18.5 80 1480
RpC Rock Very Stony Sandy Loam 17.25 72 1242
RiB Extremely Stony Loam 12 81 972
RrD Extremely Stony Sandy Loam 9.5 76 722
Cm Carisle Muck 7.75 82 635.5
Ad Adrian Muck 3 80 240
PeC Park Extremely Stony Sandy Loam 2 70 140
Wm Whitman, Stony Loam 1.5 80 120
RsC Rockaway, Rock outcrop 1.5 83 124.5
RpC Rock Very Stony Sandy Loam 0.75 75 54
Total 255.8 20748.75
* Note: Area in arbitrary units (Total Weighted CN)/(Total Area) = CN = 81.11

Chapter 5
Table 2: Runoff Curve Numbers
Cover Type Hydrologic Curve Numbers

Condition For Hydrologic
Soil Group
A B C D
Pasture, grassland, or range— continuous forage

Poor 68 79 86 89
Fair 49 69 79 84
Good 39 61 74 80
Meadow, continuous grass, protected from grazing and generally mowed for hay
30 58 71 78
Brush--brush-weed-grass mixture with brush the major element.

Poor 48 67 77 83
Fair 35 56 70 77
Good 30 48 65 73
Woods--grass combination (orchard or tree farm).

Poor 57 73 82 86
Fair 43 65 76 82
Good 32 58 72 79
Woods. Poor 45 66 77 83
Fair 36 60 73 79
Good 30 55 70 77
Farmsteads--buildings, lanes, driveways and surrounding lots

59 74 82 86
Because of the varied shape and topography of the Stickle Pond watershed, three paths of
flow were selected to determine TC, see Figure 2. These three paths are located in the top,
middle and bottom of the watershed. The TR-55 reference 1 is used to determine TC.
There are three components of TC:

. ( ) .
1. Sheet flow = ( ) . .
Where, n = 0.4 woods,
L = 150 (L maximum of 200 m, a smaller value is recommended),
P2 = 3.25 mm (2 year, 24 hour rain),
S = slope of watershed at the divide.

Chapter 5
2. Shallow concentrated flow =

Where, v = 16.134s1/2
s = water course slope.
3. Open channel flow =

where, v = (1.49r2/3 s 1/2)/n
and n = 0.03 from site visit, TR55 recommends 0.05;
s = channel slope;
r = hydraulic radius = 0.4 (TR55).
4. Total TC = TC1 + TC2 + TC3
Table 3: Computation Sheet For Tc, Time of Concentration

Path S TC1 L (m) DH S TC2 L DH S TC3 Total
(m) (m) (m) TC
Top .060 .317 1600 80 .050 .123 4400 78.3 .0178 .339 .779
Middle .0313 .411 4900 125 .026 .523 2000 68.3 .0342 .111 1.045
Bottom .224 .187 3400 272 .080 .207 3200 19.3 .0060 .425 .819
The largest value of the time of travel is usually selected for TC. But because of the
number of assumptions made in selecting the parameters, an average TC will be used.
TC = 0.88 hours and, TLAG = 0.6 x TC = 0.53 hours
Table 4: Sub Basin Characteristics
Sub-Basin Tc(Hours) Area (Square km) CN 100 yr Precip (mm)

North 0.77 .771 85.2 7.5
South 0.9245 1.859 79.4 7.5

Chapter 5
Figure 1: Output for a sub-basin Hydrograph
Figure 2: Combined output hydrograph

Chapter 5
APPENDIX 5B - MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL
Mean Annual Rainfall Region A1

50.00
45.00
40.00
35.00
Axum
30.00 Maichew
Mekele
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Chapter 5

70.00
60.00
50.00
Addis Ababa
40.00
Bahir Dar
30.00 Deber Markos
Deber Tabor
20.00
Deber Zeit
Fitch
10.00
Gonder
0.00

Chapter 5

50.00
45.00
40.00
35.00
Kulumsa
30.00
Nazeret
Robe
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00

Chapter 5

35.00
30.00
25.00
Dire Dawa
20.00 Metehara
Mieso
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00

Chapter 5
Mean Annual Rainfall Region B1

70.00
60.00
50.00
Bedele
40.00 Gore
Jimma
30.00 Nekempte
20.00
10.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Chapter 5
Mean Annual Rainfall Region B2

45.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
Arbaminch
25.00 Awassa
Wolita Sodo
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00

Chapter 5
Mean Annual Rainfall Region C

60.00
50.00
40.00
Komobolcha
Sirinka
Woldia
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00

Chapter 5
Mean Annual Rainfall Region D

50.00
45.00
40.00
35.00
Keberi Dihar
30.00 Kibre Mengest
25.00 Gode
Moyale
20.00
Negele
15.00
Yabello
10.00
5.00
0.00

Chapter 6
Drainage Design Manual – 2013 Hydraulic Design of Open Channels
6 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
6.1 Introduction
An open channel is a conduit in which water is conveyed with a free surface. Although
closed conduits such as culverts and storm drains are open channels when flowing partially
full, the term is generally applied to natural and improved watercourses, gutters, ditches,
and channels. While the hydraulic principles discussed in this section are valid for all
drainage structures, the primary consideration is given to channels along, across,
approaching and leaving the highway.
In addition to performing its hydraulic function, the drainage channel should be
economical to construct and maintain. Open channels should be reasonably safe for
vehicles accidentally leaving the traveled way, pleasing in appearance, convey collected
water without damage to the highway or adjacent property and minimize the environmental
impacts.
These considerations are usually so interrelated that optimum conditions cannot be met for
one without compromising one or more of the others. The objective is to achieve a
reasonable balance, but the importance of traffic safety must not be underrated.
There are various types of open channels encountered by the road drainage designer of
highway facilities including:
• Stream channels;
• Chutes;
• Roadside channels or ditches;
• Irrigation channels; and
• Drainage ditches.
The principles of open channel flow hydraulics are applicable to all drainage systems
including culverts.
Stream channels are usually:
• Natural channels with their size and shape determined by natural forces
(morphology);
• Compound in cross section with a main channel for conveying low flows and a
floodplain to transport extreme flood flows; and
• Shaped geomorphologically by the long-term history of the sediment load and
water discharge that they have experienced.
Artificial channels include roadside channels, irrigation channels, and drainage ditches that
are man-made with regular geometric cross sections, and unlined, or lined with artificial or
natural material to protect against erosion.
While the principles of open channel flow are the same regardless of the channel type,
stream channels and artificial channels (primarily roadside channels) are treated separately
in this chapter.

Chapter 6
Hydraulic Design of Open Channels Drainage Design Manual – 2013
6.2 Hydraulic Considerations

An evaluation of hydraulic considerations for channel design alternatives should be made
early in the project development process. The extent of the hydrologic and hydraulic
analysis should be commensurate with the type of highway, complexity of the drainage
facility, and associated costs, risks, and environmental impacts.
The hydraulic design of an open channel consists of developing a channel section to carry
the design discharge under the controlling conditions, adding freeboard as needed and
determining the type of channel protection required to prevent erosion. In addition to
erosion protection, channel linings can be used to increase the hydraulic capacity of the
channel by reducing the channel roughness.
The hydraulic capacity of a drainage channel is dependent on the size, shape, slope and
roughness of the channel section. For a given channel, the hydraulic capacity becomes
greater as the grade or depth of flow increases. The channel capacity decreases as the
channel surface becomes rougher.
A rough channel can sometimes be an advantage on steep slopes where it is desirable to
keep flow velocities from becoming excessively high. A good open channel design
minimizes the effect on existing water surface profiles.
Open channel designs, which lower the water surface elevation, can result in excessive
flow velocities and cause erosion problems. A planned rise in water surface elevation can
cause:
• Objectionable flooding of the road bed and adjacent properties; and
• An environmental and maintenance problem with sedimentation due to reduced
flow velocities.
Additional hydraulic considerations include those of channel and floodwater characteristics
such as movable beds, heavy bed loads and bulking during flood discharges.
6.3 Safety Consideration

An important aspect of highway drainage design is that of traffic safety. The shape of a
roadside channel section should minimize vehicular impact and provide a traversable
section for vehicles leaving the traveled way. The ideal channel section, from a safety
standpoint, will have flattened side slopes and a curved transition to the channel bottom.
Figure 6-1: Errant Vehicles

(Source: TRL,Highway Design Note 1/01)
6.4 Maintenance Consideration

The design of open channels and roadside ditches should recognize that periodic
maintenance inspection and repair is required. Provisions should be incorporated into the
design for access to a channel by maintenance personnel and equipment.

Chapter 6
When assessing the need for permanent or temporary access easements, entrance ramps
and gates through the right of way fences, consideration should be given to the size and
type of maintenance equipment required. Damaged channels can be expensive to repair
and interfere with the safe and orderly movement of traffic. Minor erosion damage within
the right of way should be repaired immediately after it occurs and action taken to prevent
the recurrence.
Conditions, which require extensive repair or frequently recurring maintenance, may
require a complete redesign rather than repetitive or extensive reconstruction. The advice
of an Expert Drainage Engineer should be sought when evaluating the need for major
restoration.
The growth of weeds, brush, and trees in a drainage channel can effectively reduce its
hydraulic efficiency. The result being that a portion of the design flow may overflow the
channel banks causing flooding and possible erosion.
Channel work on some projects may be completed several months before total project
completion. During this interim period, the contractor must provide interim protection
measures and possibly advance the planned erosion control program to assure that minor
erosion will not develop into major damage.
Figure 6-2: Damaged side ditch along Assossa Kumruk Road
6.5 Economics
Economical drainage design is achieved by selecting the design alternative which best
satisfies the established design criteria at the lowest cost.
The economic evaluation of design alternatives should be commensurate with the
complexity and importance of the facility. Analysis of the channel location, shape, size,
and materials involved may reveal possibilities for reducing construction costs, flood
damage potential, maintenance problems and environmental impacts.

Chapter 6
6.6 Coordination with Other Agencies

There are many government agencies and private entities engaged in water related
planning, construction and regulation activities whose interests can affect the design of
highway drainage channels. Such agencies may request the channel design satisfy
additional and perhaps governing design criteria. Early coordination with these agencies
may help avoid delays in the project development process. Early coordination may also
reveal opportunities for cooperative projects, which may benefit ERA, Ministry of Water
& Energy, Ministry of Agriculture and private irrigation farm owners.
6.7 Environmental Considerations

Many of the same principles involved in sound highway construction and maintenance of
open channels require environmental considerations. Erosion, sedimentation, water quality,
and aesthetics should be of prime concern to the highway design engineer.
6.8 Alignment and Grade

The highway drainage channel must be located where it will best serve its intended
purpose, using the grade and alignment obtainable at the site. However, abrupt changes in
alignment and grade should be avoided as much as possible. A sharp change in alignment
presents a point of attack for flowing water, and abrupt changes in grade can result in
possible scour when the grade is steepened or deposition of transported material when the
grade is flattened.
Figure 6-3: Erosion at a channel bends (Wollega Region)
Changes in alignment should be made as gradually as possible to introduce the least

amount of unstable flow. When possible, locate horizontal curves where the profile is
flattest. Open channels should be graded to a desirable minimum gradient of 0.005 m/m so
that some slight settlement will not create large areas of standing water. Maximum slopes
should reflect the type of soil and linings to be used especially for grass-lined channels.

Chapter 6
Figure 6-4: Typical grass-lined channel
In principle, a drainage channel should have a flow velocity that neither erodes nor cause
deposition in the channel (refer to Chapter 2, Section 2.17.3 Table 2. 3. This optimum
velocity is dependent on the size and slope of channel, the quantity of flowing water, the
material used to line the channel, the nature of the bedding soil and the sediment being
transported by the flow.
Figure 6-5: Points of discharge
The point of discharge into a natural watercourse requires special attention. Water entering
a natural watercourse from a highway drainage channel should not cause eddies with
attendant scour of the natural watercourse. In erodible embankment soils, if the flow line of
the drainage channel is appreciably higher than that of the watercourse at the point of
discharge, then the use of a spillway is advisable to prevent erosion of the channel.
6.9 Channel Section
Natural channels are water conveying sections such as streams, rivers, and swales which
have been formed by natural forces. Good drainage design involving natural channels will
ensure that the existing flow characteristics are retained such as size and shape of channel,
flow velocities, and flow distributions.
Channel cross sections at roadside locations should be determined by hydraulic and erosion
considerations to achieve a channel that has adequate capacity for the flow quantity to be

Chapter 6
handled, will require little or no maintenance, will fit in the space available and will be
economically acceptable to construct.
Figure 6-6: Cross-sectional shape of triangular channel
Figure 6-7: A non-traversable drainage V-ditch such as this is a safety hazard
The shape of a channel section is generally determined by considering the intended

purpose, terrain, flow velocity and quantity of flow to be conveyed. The Triangular V-ditch
is intended primarily for low flow conditions such as in median and roadside ditches. V-
shaped ditches are susceptible to erosion and will require lining when flow velocities
exceed the permissible flow velocities in Chapter 2, Table 2.3
The most common channel shape for large flows is the trapezoidal section. Trapezoidal
channels are easily constructed by machinery and are often the most economical to
construct. When a wide trapezoidal section is proposed, both traffic safety and aesthetics
can be improved by rounding all angles of the channel cross section with vertical curves.

Chapter 6
Figure 6-8: Triangular drain at Abay Valley

(Addis Ababa –Debre Markos Road, left and Wollega region right)
Figure 6-9: Cross-sectional shape of trapezoidal channels
Rectangular channels are often used to convey large flows in areas with limited right of
way and at town sections. At some locations, guardrail or other types of positive traffic
barrier may be necessary between the traveled way and the channel.

Chapter 6
Figure 6-10: Typical rectangular ditch north of Addis Ababa
Although rectangular channels are relatively expensive to construct, since the walls must
be designed as earth retaining structures, the construction costs can be somewhat offset by
the reduced costs associated with right of way, materials, and channel excavation.
6.10 Channel Design

Hydraulic design associated with natural channels and roadway ditches is a process that
selects and evaluates alternatives according to established criteria. These criteria are the
standards established to insure that a highway drainage system meets its intended purpose
without endangering the structural integrity of the facility itself and without undue adverse
effects on the environment or the public welfare.
Side drains are essential for the performance of the road and they should be properly
designed. Any savings in design cost will be far outweighed by increased maintenance
costs over the life of the road.
The design of side drains should consider:
• Whether the drain serves the whole width of the road or just half the width;
• Does the drain serve just the road or does it also provide drainage to the adjoining
areas (refer to Figure 6.11);
• The gradient of the road; and
• The nature of the materials the road is crossing: are they easily eroded like silts and
sands or erosion resistant like stiff clays or rock
The designer controls a range of variables to fit the side drains to their environment:
• The channel shape and size;
• Whether or not the channel is lined;
• Whether scour checks are provided and if so their spacing; and
• The spacing of turnouts or side drain relief culverts.

Chapter 6
Figure 6-11: Roadside ditch collecting lateral flows

(At CMC Roundabout, North of Addis Ababa)
The need for scour checks should be assessed according to the gradient, soil type, velocity
and volume of water in the side drain.
Look for evidence of erosion to assess the severity of the problem and the frequency of
scour checks required. In extreme cases (steep slopes where there is no possibility of using
relief culverts to evacuate water) the side drain will have to be lined in either masonry or
concrete to prevent erosion. Where gullies outlets are proposed, the discharge can be
controlled by using check dams (see figure 6.12) built from rock just downstream of the
gully outlet. Gabion baskets should be used for stability in deeper gullies.
Figure 6-12: Check dams in Tigray Region on the left and in Gojam on the right
Although it is more of a construction rather than a design issue, it is best practice to leave a
solid bund of earth to dam the drain downstream of the turnout. If drains are being built by
hand then a short section of drain can be left un-excavated to provide the bund (refer to
Figure 13).
The frequency of turnouts is controlled by various factors. On flat ground, the capacity of
the side drain is critical: turnouts are required to prevent the side drain from overflowing.
On sloping ground concentration of flows is critical: as the ground and hence the side drain
becomes steeper more turnouts are required to prevent the flow concentration leading to

Chapter 6
erosion at the end of the turnout.
Figure 6-13: Photo of a Turnout (in Wollega)
Relief culverts are different from watercourse culverts. Their purpose is to relieve the flow
from long stretches of side drain ditches located on the uphill side of a road where miter
drains cannot be provided. These culverts should be used where possible instead of using
a long side ditch without relief culverts.
Side drain relief culverts are normally provided with a catch pit inlet structure. This is
designed to capture the water flowing along the side drain and turn that flow through 90o.
It then flows under the road and is discharged through an outfall channel.
Figure 6-14: Typical photo of catch pit inlet structure (Gojam)

Chapter 6
The provision of access across drainage channels is often overlooked in Ethiopia. If access
across drainage channels is not provided, people will block the drain if it presents an
obstruction, causing water to flood the road. Therefore, access needs to be considered
carefully at a design stage (refer to figures 6.15, 6.16 and 6.17).
In rural areas a small number of accesses may be required in villages – for a market or
shop for instance. Lined drains with cover slabs are a typical solution (see figure 6.16).
Figure 6-15: Typical town section drainage channels

(Addis Ababa left and Assossa town right)
Junctions with other roads may also need access culverts to maintain continuity of
drainage. The same covered drain detail can be used to avoid raising the road locally to
accommodate larger structures.
The purpose of an access culvert is to allow water in side drains to flow under a minor road
where it branches off from the main road at a junction.
• An access culvert will be required if the minor road slopes towards the main road;
• But if the minor road slopes away from the main road the side drains can be
connected.

Chapter 6
Figure 6-16: Typical layout of junction drain ditch design
An access culvert will normally be required at junctions between a feeder road and a
collector road. Crossroads junctions will typically require one or two access culverts unless
located on a natural ridge or saddle. Access to plots or property is usually provided in the
form of access slabs over lined drains.
Figure 6-17: Sample photos of access slabs
The invert level of an access culvert should be the same as (or slightly lower) than that of
the uphill side drain that needs to be passed under the road.
It is common to provide a bell mouth to allow longer turning vehicles to negotiate the
junction. For reasons of economy, the access culvert is often sited away from the collector
road edge before the bell mouth where the feeder road is of normal width. The collector

Chapter 6
road side drain should be diverted to flow through the access culvert. Such diversions are
frequently lined in stone pitching and may have a slightly greater fall than the side drain to
encourage the change in flow direction.
Access culverts should be of just sufficient capacity to accommodate the maximum side
drain flow.
6.11 Design Criteria of Channels

Design criteria establish the standards by which an open channel shall be constructed. They
form the basis for the selection of the final design configuration. Listed below are
examples of design criteria that shall be considered for channel design.
The following design criteria apply to natural channels:

• The hydraulic effects of flood plain encroachments shall be evaluated over a full
range of frequency-based peak discharges from the design frequency to the
check/review recurrence intervals on any major highway facility as deemed
necessary by the designer;
• If relocation of a stream channel is unavoidable, the cross-sectional shape,
meander, pattern, roughness, sediment transport, and slope should conform to the
existing conditions as much as practicable. Some form of energy dissipation may
be necessary when existing conditions cannot be duplicated;
• Stream bank stabilization shall be provided, when appropriate, to any stream
disturbance such as encroachment and should include both upstream and
downstream banks and the local site; and
• Features, such as dikes and levees, associated with natural channel modifications
should have a 5-meter minimum top width with access for maintenance equipment.
Vehicle turning points shall be provided no further than 500 meters apart and at the
end of any such feature.
Figure 6-18: Sample photo of stream channel
Side drains Keep water off the surface of the road and keep the foundations of the road dry.
Effective side drains will reduce the need for maintenance by preventing deterioration of
the surface and will provide a drier and hence safer road.

Chapter 6
If the side drains are missing or not working then, water running along or across the road
may lead to gully erosion. The foundations may get wet and soft leading to rutting.
A common reason that side drains stop working is that people crossing the drain block
them: either vehicles driving across the drain and damaging it or pedestrians trying to make
walking over it easier.
Water Disposal
Side drains collect runoff water. That water then has to be discharged from the drain. This
can be either:
• To the adjoining ground by means of a turnout; or
• Across the road to the side drain on the downstream side of the road via a side drain
relief culvert.
The position and number of turnouts should be indicated on the design drawings. The final
location should be determined by site inspection so they are provided where they will
work.
Erosion Control
Side drains channel water and concentrate flows, especially where water is discharged via
turnouts. Scour of the side drains, if not controlled, can lead to the formation of gullies that
eventually can become so deep that the road may have to be abandoned. The construction
of simple scour checks and check dams in the side drains will reduce velocity, remove silt,
and allow vegetation to become established thus controlling erosion.
Erosion downstream of turnouts can affect not only the road but also the adjoining land. To
prevent erosion provide sufficient turnouts to disperse the flow and provide erosion
protection where necessary.
Channel Location and Type
Assuming adequate functional design, the next most important design consideration is
channel location. Locations that avoid poorly drained areas, unstable soil conditions, and
frequently flooded areas can greatly reduce drainage related problems.
Often drainage and open channel considerations are not considered the primary decision
factors in the roadway location; however, they are factors, which will often directly or
indirectly affect many other considerations. Often minor alignment adjustments can avoid
serious drainage problems.
If a channel can be located far enough away from the highway, the concerns of traffic
safety and aesthetics can be somewhat mitigated. The cost of additional right of way may
be offset somewhat by the reduced cost of erosion control, traffic protection, and
landscaping.
Ditches should be located where they can fully intercept the flow from the natural
catchments adjacent to the road. The location of ditches is mainly dependent on the space
available. Possible locations are:
• Along the edge of the road;
• Along the top of cuttings; or
• At the toe of embankments.

Chapter 6
In cuttings, ditches should preferably be positioned at the top of the cuttings to avoid
potential erosion of the slope by surface water. Large sized ditches may create stability
problems in the cutting slope and, therefore, appropriate measures should be taken.
Figure 6-19: Typical Road Side Ditch Locations
Where ditches are located alongside the road, they may be designed to convey the runoff
from the carriageway as well as that of the natural catchment. Ditches should preferably
consist of earth channels lined with a native grass species (or combination of species), in
order to provide adequate resistance to flow erosion. However, this depends on the
availability of water throughout the year in order for the native grass to grow.
The following design criteria apply to roadside channels:
• Channel side slopes shall not exceed the angle of repose of the soil and/or lining
and shall be 2:1 or flatter in the case of rock-riprap lining. Stone pitching or grouted
riprap must be used for channel side slopes steeper than 2:1;
• Flexible linings shall be calculated using the method of allowable tractive force;
• The design discharge frequency for permanent, roadside, ditch linings and for
temporary linings shall be per Table 2.1, Chapter 2; and
• Channel freeboard shall be 0.3 meters.
6.12 Open Channel Flow

Design analysis of both natural and artificial channels proceeds according to the basic
principles of open channel flow. The basic principles of fluid mechanics continuity,
momentum, and energy can be applied to open channel flow with the additional
complication that the position of the free surface is usually one of the unknown variables.
The determination of this unknown is one of the principle problems of open channel flow
analysis and it depends on quantification of the flow resistance. Natural channels display a
much wider range of roughness values than artificial channels. The drainage designer is
expected to posses the knowledge of theoretical principles of open channel flow; hence
most of the theoretical equation are not included in this chapter. The designer should refer
to open channel flow text books for theoretical background information.

Chapter 6
The classification of open channel flow is summarized as follows:

Steady Flow
• Uniform Flow;
• Non uniform Flow;
o Gradually Varied Flow;
o Rapidly Varied Flow.
Unsteady Flow
• Unsteady Uniform Flow (rare);
• Unsteady Non uniform Flow;
o Gradually Varied Unsteady Flow;
o Rapidly Varied Unsteady Flow.
The steady uniform flow case and the steady non uniform flow case are the most
fundamental types of flow treated in highway engineering hydraulics.
The following equations are those most commonly used to analyze open channel flow and
are included here.
Continuity Equation – The continuity equation is the statement of mass in fluid
mechanics. For the special case of one dimensional, steady flow of an incompressible fluid,
it assumes the form:
= = (6-1)
Where
Q = discharge, m3/s
A = cross-sectional area of flow, m2
V = mean cross-sectional velocity, m/s (which is perpendicular to the cross
section). Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to successive cross sections along the flow path.
Manning’s Equation –For a given depth of flow in a channel with a steady, uniform flow,
the mean velocity, V, can be computed with Manning’s equation:
/ /
= (6-2)
Where
V = velocity, m/s
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter, m
S = slope of the energy gradeline, m/m (note: for steady uniform flow,
S = channel slope, m/m)

Chapter 6
The selection of Manning’s ‘n’ is generally based on observation; however, considerable

experience is essential in selecting appropriate ‘n’ values. The range of ‘n’ values for
various types of channels and floodplains is given in Table 6-1. A further guide to the
selection of ‘n’ values is the series of channel Photographs 6.1- 6.8 following Table 6.1.
For a given channel geometry, slope, and roughness, and a specified value of discharge Q,
a unique value of depth occurs in steady uniform flow. It is called the normal depth. The
normal depth is used to design artificial channels in steady, uniform flow and is computed
from Manning’s Equation:
/ /
= (6-3)
Where:
Q = discharge, m3/s
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
A = cross-sectional area of flow, m2
R = hydraulic radius = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter, m
S = channel slope, m/m
If the normal depth computed from Manning’s Equation is greater than critical depth, the
slope is classified as a mild slope. Conversely, if the normal depth is less than critical
depth, the slope is a steep slope. Thus, uniform flow is subcritical on a mild slope and
supercritical on a steep slope.
In channel analysis, it is often convenient to group the channel properties in a single term
called the channel conveyance K:
/
= (6-4)
and then Manning’s Equation can be written as:
/
= (6-5)
The conveyance represents the carrying capacity of a stream cross-section based upon its
geometry and roughness characteristics alone and is independent of the streambed slope.
The concept of channel conveyance is useful when computing the distribution of overbank
flood flows in the stream cross section and the flow distribution through the opening in a
proposed stream crossing. Manning’s Equation should not be used for determining high-
water elevations in a bridge opening.

Chapter 6
Energy Equation - The energy equation expresses conservation of energy in open channel
flow as energy per unit weight of fluid that has a dimension of head and it therefore called
energy head. The energy head is composed of potential energy head (elevation head),
pressure head, and kinetic energy head (velocity head). These energy heads are scalar
quantities that give the total energy head at any cross section when added. In comparing an
upstream open channel cross section designated 1 and a downstream cross section
designated 2, the energy equation is:
ℎ + ∝ = ℎ + ∝ + ℎ (6-6)
Where:
h1 and h2 = the upstream and downstream stages, respectively, m
α = kinetic energy correction coefficient
V = mean velocity, m/s
hL = head loss due to local cross-sectional changes (minor loss) as well as
boundary resistance, m
The stage ‘h’ is the sum of the elevation head ‘z’ at the channel bottom and the pressure
head, or depth of flow ‘y,’ i.e. h = z + y. The terms in the energy equation are illustrated
graphically in Figure 6-2. The energy equation states that the total energy head at an
upstream cross section is equal to the energy head at a downstream section plus the
intervening energy head loss. The energy equation can only be applied between two cross
sections at which the streamlines are nearly straight and parallel so that vertical
accelerations can be neglected.
Figure 6-20: Terms in the Energy Equation
(Source: R A Crowder FDG2 – Chapter 7, 2009)

Chapter 6
6.13 Hydraulic Analysis

Hydraulic design is about ensuring that drainage structures are selected to avoid flooding,
that there is sufficient space for the water to flow at times of flood. It is also about avoiding
potential problems such as erosion and siltation.
The hydraulic analysis of a channel determines the depth and velocity at which a given
discharge will flow in a channel of known geometry, roughness, and slope. The depth and
velocity of flow are necessary for the design or analysis of channel linings and highway
drainage structures.
Two methods are commonly used in hydraulic analysis of open channels. The Single-
Section method is a simple application of Manning’s Equation to determine tailwater rating
curves for culverts, or to analyze other situations in which uniform or nearly uniform flow
conditions exist. The Step-Backwater method is used to compute the complete water
surface profile in a stream reach to evaluate the unrestricted water surface elevations for
bridge hydraulic design, or to analyze other gradually varied flow problems in streams.
The single-section method will generally yield less reliable results because it requires more
judgment and assumption than the step-backwater method. In many designs, however, the
single-section method is all that is justified, for example, for a standard roadway ditch,
culvert, storm drain outfall, etc.
A computer program best performs hydraulic analysis of open channel problems. The
recommended personal computer program is the US Army Corps of Engineers HEC-RAS
River Analysis System. The Program was specifically developed for analysis of Highway
Bridge and culvert backwater analysis. HEC-RAS is designed to perform one-dimensional
hydraulic calculations for a full network of natural and constructed channels. HEC-RAS is
capable of importing GIS/CAD data. For more information on computer programs refer to
Chapter 15.
Another open channel modelling software is ISIS. ISIS is a full hydrodynamic simulator
for modelling flows and levels in open channels. ISIS is able to model complex looped and
branched networks, and is designed to provide a comprehensive range of methods for
simulating floodplain flows. ISIS incorporates both unsteady and steady flow solvers, with
options that include simple backwaters, flow routing and full unsteady simulation. The
simulation engine provides a direct steady-state solver and adaptive time-stepping methods
to optimize run-time and enhance model stability.
ERA should adapt standard software program to be used in all its drainage design works.
HEC-RAS should be used in all routing design except minor ditches. Based on our
assessment, only a minority of drainage designers use software for hydraulic analysis. The
current drainage design practice in Ethiopia is based on manual calculation in the form of
spreadsheet. It is recommended that drainage engineers to adopt hydraulic analysis
software in the design of road drainage systems.
The mathematical equations provided in this manual are embedded in the software
program; however, some of these equations have been retained in the manual as the
majority of drainage designers in Ethiopia use tradition manual calculation methods. Once
the skill in the use of software programs is developed in the country, these equations
should be used for information only.

Chapter 6
Manning’s ‘n’ is affected by many factors and its selection in natural channels depends
heavily on engineering experience. Pictures of channels and flood plains for which the
discharge has been measured and Manning’s ‘n’ has been calculated are very useful (see
Ref. 3 and 4). Once the Manning’s ‘n’ values have been selected, it is highly recommended
that they be verified with historical high water marks and/or gauged stream flow data.
Manning’s ‘n’ values for artificial channels are more easily defined than for natural stream
channels. See Table 6-1 for typical ‘n’ values for both artificial and natural stream
channels. Photos 6.1-6.8 following table 6-1 also illustrate various types of channels and
their corresponding Manning’s n.

Chapter 6
Table 6-1: Values of Roughness Coefficient n (Uniform Flow)
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

EXCAVATED OR DREDGED
a. Earth, straight and uniform
1. Clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018 0.020
2. Clean, after weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025
3. Gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025 0.030
4. With short grass, few weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033
b. Earth, winding and sluggish
1. No vegetation 0.023 0.025 0.030
2. Grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033
3. Dense Weeds or aquatic plants in deep channels 0.030 0.035 0.040
4. Earth bottom and rubble sides 0.025 0.030 0.035
5. Stony bottom and weedy sides 0.025 0.035 0.045
6. Cobble bottom and clean sides 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Backhoe-excavated or dredged
1. No vegetation 0.025 0.028 0.033
2. Light brush on banks 0.035 0.050 0.060
d. Rock cuts
1. Smooth and uniform 0.025 0.035 0.040
2. Jagged and irregular 0.035 0.040 0.050
e. Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut
1. Dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.050 0.080 0.120
2 Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.040 0.050 0.080
3. Same, highest stage of flow 0.045 0.070 0.110
4. Dense brush, high stage 0.080 0.100 0.140
NATURAL STREAMS
1 Minor streams (top width at flood stage < 30 m)
a. Streams on Plain
1. Clean, straight, full stage, no rims or deep pools 0.025 0.030 0.033
2. Same as above, but more stones and weeds 0.030 0.035 0.040
3. Clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0.033 0.040 0.045
4. Same as above, but some weeds and stones 0.035 0.045 0.050
5. Same as above, lower stages, more ineffective
slopes and sections 0.040 0.048 0.055
6. Same as 4, but more stones 0.045 0.050 0.060
7. Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.050 0.070 0.080
8 Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways 0.075 0.100 0.150
with heavy stand of timber and underbrush
b. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks
usually steep, trees and brush along banks
submerged at high stages
1. Bottom: gravel, cobbles, and few boulders 0.030 0.040 0.050
2. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.040 0.050 0.070
2 Flood Plains
a. Pasture, no brush
1. Short grass 0.025 0.030 0.035
2. High grass 0.030 0.035 0.050

Chapter 6
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

b. Cultivated area
1. No crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
2. Mature row crops 0.025 0.035 0.045
3. Mature field crops 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Brush
1. Scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0.050 0.070
2. Light brush and trees in winter 0.035 0.050 0.060
3. Light brush and trees, in summer 0.040 0.060 0.080
4. Medium to dense brush, in winter 0.045 0.070 0.110
5. Medium to dense brush, in summer 0.070 0.100 0.160
d. Trees
1. Dense willows, summer, straight 0.110 0.150 0.200
2. Cleared land with tree stumps, no sprouts 0.030 0.040 0.050
3. Same as above, but with heavy growth of
spouts 0.050 0.060 0.080
4. Heavy stand of timber, a few down trees,
little undergrowth, flood stage below 0.080 0.100 0.120
branches
5. Same as above, but with flood stage
reaching branches 0.100 0.120 0.160
3 Major Streams (top width at flood stage > 30 m).
The n value is less than that for minor streams of
similar description, because banks offer less
effective resistance.
a. Regular section with no boulders or brush 0.025 -- 0.060
b. Irregular and rough section 0.035 -- 0.100
4 Various Open Channel Surfaces
a. Concrete 0.012- 0.020
b. Gravel bottom with:
Concrete 0.020
Mortared stone 0.023
Riprap 0.033
c. Natural Stream Channels
Clean, straight stream 0.030
Clean, winding stream 0.040
Winding with weeds and pools 0.050
With heavy brush and timber 0.100
d. Flood Plains
Pasture 0.035
Field Crops 0.040
Light Brush and Weeds 0.050
Dense Brush 0.070
Dense Trees 0.100

Chapter 6
Photo 6-1: n = 0.045
Photo 6-2: n = 0.035
Photo 6-3: n = 0.08

Chapter 6
Photo 6-4: n = 0.05
Photo 6-5: n = 0.1
Photo 6-6: n = 0.07

Chapter 6
Photo 6-7: n = 0.08
Photo 6-8: n = 0.15
Equations can be calibrated to ensure that they accurately represent local channel
conditions. However, the calibration process requires a large amount of data, including
cross-sections, recorded water levels and flow rates. It should be considered if the failure
of a facility would increase risk to life or property.
The calibration process involves varying input parameters until a good agreement exists
between measured and simulated values. Hydraulic parameters which are varied include
roughness coefficients and expansion and contraction coefficients. The parameter with the
greatest influence on water levels is the Manning roughness coefficient.
If the cross section is improperly subdivided, the mathematics of the Manning’s Equation
causes a switchback. A switchback results when the calculated discharge decreases with an
associated increase in elevation. This occurs when, with a minor increase in water depth,
there is a large increase of wetted perimeter. Simultaneously, there is a corresponding
small increase in cross-sectional area which causes a net decrease in the hydraulic radius
from the value it had for a lesser water depth. With the combination of the lower hydraulic
radius and the slightly larger cross-sectional area, a discharge is computed which is lower

Chapter 6
than the discharge based upon the lower water depth. More subdivisions within such cross-
sections should be used in order to avoid the switchback.
This phenomenon can occur in any type of conveyance computation, including the step-
backwater method. Computer logic can be seriously confused if a switchback were to
occur in any cross-section being used in a step backwater program. For this reason, the
cross-section should always be subdivided with respect to both vegetation and geometric
changes. Note that the actual n-value, itself, may be the same in adjacent subsections (refer
to example, calculations for further details).
The single-section analysis method (slope-area method) is simply a solution of Manning’s

Equation for the normal depth of flow given the discharge and cross-section properties
including geometry, slope, and roughness. It implicitly assumes the existence of steady,
uniform flow, however, uniform flow rarely exists in either artificial or stream channels.
Nevertheless, the single-section method is often used to design artificial channels for
uniform flow as a first approximation, and to develop a stage-discharge rating curve in a
stream channel for tailwater determination at a culvert or storm drain outlet.
A stage-discharge curve is a graphical relationship between stream-flow depth or elevation

and discharge at a specific point on a stream. This relationship should cover a range of
discharges up to at least the base (100-year) flood. The stage-discharge curve can be
determined as follows:
• Select the typical cross-section at or near the location where the stage-discharge
curve is needed;
• Assign a roughness coefficient (Manning’s n-value) as described above;
• Estimate water-surface slope: since uniform flow is assumed, the average slope of
the streambed can usually be used;
• Apply a range of incremental water surface elevations to the cross-section;
• Calculate the discharge using Manning’s Equation for each incremental elevation.
Total discharge at each elevation is the sum of the discharges from each subsection
at that elevation; in determining hydraulic radius, the wetted perimeter shall be
measured only along the solid boundary of the cross-section and not along the
vertical water interface between subsections; and
• After the discharge has been calculated at several incremental elevations, a plot of
stage versus discharge shall be made, this plot is the stage-discharge curve and it
can be used to determine the water-surface elevation corresponding to the design
discharge or other discharge of interest.
Channels can also be sized using the charts listed as Charts 6-1 through 6-3 at the end of
this chapter, for differing shapes, linings, widths, side slopes, linings, and channel slopes.

Chapter 6
In stream channels the transverse variation of velocity in any cross section is a function of
subsection geometry and roughness and may vary considerably from one stage and
discharge to another. It is important to know this variation when designing erosion control
measures and locating relief openings in highway fills, for example. The best method of
establishing transverse velocity variations is by current meter measurements. If this is not
possible, the single section method can be used, whereby the cross section is divided into
subsections of relatively uniform roughness and geometry. It is assumed that the energy
grade line slope is the same across the cross section so that the total conveyance KT of the
cross section is the sum of the subsection conveyances:
= + + ⋯ + (6-7)
The total discharge is then KtS1/2 and the discharge in each subsection is proportional to its
conveyance. The velocity in each subsection is obtained from the continuity equation,
V = Q/A.
Alluvial channels present a more difficult problem in establishing stage-discharge relations
by the single-section method because the bed itself is deformable and may generate bed
forms such as ripples and dunes in lower regime flows. These bed forms are highly
variable with the addition of form resistance, and selection of a value of Manning’s ‘n’ is
not straightforward. Instead, several methods (Ref. 35) have been developed for this case
and shall be followed unless it is possible to obtain a measured stage-discharge relation.
There may be locations where a stage-discharge relationship has already been measured in
a channel. These could exist at gauging stations on streams monitored by the Ministry of
Water and Energy. Measured stage-discharge curves will generally yield more accurate
estimates of water surface elevation and should take precedence over the analytical
methods described above.
Step-backwater analysis is useful for determining unrestricted water surface profiles where
a highway crossing is planned, and for analyzing how far upstream the water surface
elevations are affected by a culvert or bridge. Because the calculations involved in this
analysis are tedious and repetitive, a computer program such as U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers HEC-RAS can be used to assist with the equations.
The method requires definition of the geometry and roughness of each cross section.
Manning’s n-values can vary both horizontally across the section as well as vertically.
Expansion and contraction head loss coefficients, variable main channel and overbank flow
lengths, and the method of averaging the slope of the energy grade line can all be specified.
To develop the methodology, the energy equation is repeated from Section 6.4:
ℎ + ∝ = ℎ + ∝ + ℎ (6-8)
Where:
h1, h2 = the upstream and downstream stages, respectively, m
α = velocity distribution coefficient
V = mean velocity, m/s
hL = head loss due to local cross-sectional changes (minor loss) as well as boundary
resistance, m

Chapter 6
The stage ‘h’ is the sum of the elevation head ‘z’ at the channel bottom and the pressure
head, or depth of flow y, i.e., h = z+y. The energy equation is solved between successive
stream reaches with nearly uniform roughness, slope, and cross-sectional properties.
The total head loss is calculated from:
(∝ ) (∝ )
= − + (6-9)
Where:
Km = expansion or contraction loss coefficient.
Sf = mean slope of the energy grade line evaluated from Manning’s equation and a
selected averaging technique m/m
L = discharge-weighted or conveyance-weighted reach length, m
These equations are solved numerically in a systematic procedure called the Standard Step
Method from one cross section to the next.
Water surface profile computation requires a beginning value for elevation or depth
(boundary condition) and proceeds upstream for subcritical flow and downstream for
supercritical flow. In the case of supercritical flow, critical depth is often the boundary
condition at the control section, but in subcritical flow, uniform flow and normal depth
may be the boundary condition. The starting depth in this case can be found either by the
single-section method (slope-area method) or by computing the water surface profile
upstream to the desired location for several starting depths and the same discharge. These
profiles should converge toward the desired normal depth at the control section to establish
one point on the stage-discharge relation. If the profiles do not converge, then the stream
reach may need to be extended downstream, a shorter cross-section interval shall be used,
or the range of starting water surface elevations shall be adjusted. In any case, a plot of the
convergence profiles can be a very useful tool in such an analysis (see Figure 6.21).
Given a sufficiently long stream reach, the water surface profile computed by step-
backwater will converge to normal depth at some point upstream for subcritical flow.
Establishment of the upstream and downstream boundaries of the stream reach is required
to define limits of data collection and subsequent analysis. Calculations must begin
sufficiently far downstream to assure accurate results at the structure site, and continued a
sufficient distance upstream to determine accurately the impact of the structure on
upstream water surface profiles(refer to chapter 4 how to define limits of data collection).
Refer to Figure 6-21.

Chapter 6
Figure 6-21: Profile Convergence Pattern Backwater Computation
Water and sediment routing methods should be employed where possible scour and/or
sediment are of concern. It is generally not used at stable stream locations. Various
computer models can be employed to investigate water and sediment routing. The latest
version of HEC-RAS has a sediment transport-modeling module. The scour or deposits in
each stream tube, determined by sediment routing, will give the variation of channel
geometry in the vertical direction.
6.14 Channel Design Procedure

The design procedures for all types of channels have many similar elements; however each
type of channel will require unique inputs. This section will:
• Outline a process for assessing a natural stream channel: and
• Offer a more specific design procedure for roadside channels.
The analysis of a stream channel, in most cases, takes place in conjunction with the design
of a highway hydraulic structure such as a culvert or bridge. In general, the objective is to
convey the water along or under the highway in such a manner that will not cause damage
to the highway, stream, or adjacent property. An assessment of the existing channel is
usually necessary to determine the potential for problems that might result from a proposed
action. The detail of studies necessary shall be commensurate with the risk associated with
the action and the environmental sensitivity of the stream and adjoining flood plain.
Although the following step-by-step procedure may not be appropriate for all possible
applications, it does outline a process that, in general, will be applicable.
Step 1 Assemble Site Data and Project File (Consult Chapter 4 for more details)
A. Data Collection
• Topographic, site, and location maps
• Roadway profile
• Photographs
• Field reviews
• Design data at nearby structures
• Gauging records.

Chapter 6
B. Studies by other agencies

• Ministry of Water and Energy studies
• Ministry of Agriculture studies
• Floodplain studies
• Catchment area studies
• River Basin Master Plan studies.
C. Environmental constraints
• Floodplain encroachment
• Floodway designation
• Fish habitat
• Commitments in review documents.
D. Design criteria
• See Section 6.11.
Step 2 Determine the Project Scope
A. Determine level of assessment
• Stability of existing channel
• Potential for damage
• Sensitivity of the stream.
B. Determine type of hydraulic analysis
• Qualitative assessment
• Single-section analysis
• Step-backwater analysis.
C. Determine additional survey information
• Extent of streambed profiles
• Locations of cross sections
• Elevations of flood-prone property (threshold level)
• Details of existing structures
• Properties of bed and bank materials.
Step 3 Evaluate Hydrologic Variables
A. Compute discharges for selected frequencies
B. Consult Hydrology, Chapter 5.
Step 4 Perform Hydraulic Analysis
A. Single-section analysis (6.14.6)
• Select representative cross section (6.14.6)
• Select appropriate n values (Table 6-1)
• Compute stage-discharge relationship.
B. Step-backwater analysis (6.14.6)
C. Calibrate with known high water marks.
Step 5 Perform Stability Analysis
A. Geomorphic factors
B. Hydraulic factors
C. Stream response to change.

Chapter 6
Step 6 Design Countermeasures

A. Criteria for selection
• Erosion mechanism
• Stream characteristics
• Construction and maintenance requirements
• Vandalism considerations
• Cost.
B. Types of countermeasures
• Meander migration countermeasures
• Bank stabilization
• Bend control countermeasures
• Channel braiding countermeasures
• Degradation countermeasures
• Aggradation countermeasures.
C. For additional information
• HEC-20 Stream Stability
• Highways in the River Environment
• See Reference List.
Step 7 Documentation
• Prepare report and file with background information.
Each project is unique, but the following six basic design steps are normally applicable:
Step 1 Establish a Roadside Plan
A. Collect available site data
B. Obtain or prepare existing and proposed plan-profile layout including highway,
culverts, bridges, etc.
C. Determine and plot on the plan the locations of natural basin divides and roadside
channel outlets. An example of a roadside channel plan/profile is shown in Figure
6.9; and
D. Perform the layout of the proposed roadside channels to minimize diversion flow
lengths.
Step 2 Obtain or Establish Cross Section Data
A. Provide channel depth adequate to drain the sub-base
B. Choose channel side slopes based on geometric design criteria including safety,
economics, soil, aesthetics, and access;
C. Establish cross sectional area required and determine appropriate ditch shape and
size;
D. Identify features that may restrict cross section design:
• Right-of-way limits, trees or environmentally-sensitive areas;
• Utilities, and existing drainage facilities.

Chapter 6
Step 3 Determine initial channel grades

A. Plot initial grades on plan-profile layout (Slopes in roadside ditch in cuts are usually
controlled by highway grades)
B. Provide minimum grade of 0.3 percent. Note that this gradient does not necessarily
need to be equal to the roadway gradient.
C. Consider influence of type of lining on grade
D. Where possible, avoid features that may influence or restrict grade, such as utility
locations
Step 4 Check flow capacities and adjust as necessary
A. Compute the design discharge at the downstream end of a channel segment (see
Hydrology, Chapter 5)
B. Set preliminary values of channel size, roughness coefficient, and slope
C. Determine maximum allowable depth of channel including freeboard
D. Check flow capacity using Manning’s Equation and single section analysis
E. If capacity is inadequate, possible adjustments are as follows:
• Increase bottom width;
• Make channel side slopes flatter;
• Make channel slope steeper;
• Provide smoother channel lining; and
• Install drop inlets and a parallel storm drain pipe beneath the channel to supplement
channel capacity.
F. Provide smooth transitions at changes in channel cross sections
G. Provide extra channel storage where needed to replace floodplain storage and/or to
reduce peak discharge.
Step 5 Determine channel lining/protection needed (HEC-15)
A. Select a lining and determine the permissible shear stress τp in Pascals (N/m2) from
Table 6-2 and/or Table 6-3
B. Estimate the flow depth and choose an initial Manning’s n value from Table 6-4
C. Calculate normal flow depth yo (m) at design discharge using Manning’s Equation
and compare with the estimated depth. If they do not agree, repeat Steps 5B and 5C
D. Compute maximum shear stress at normal depth as:
τd (Pa) = 2990 yo S where S = channel slope, m/m
E. If τd < τp then lining is acceptable, otherwise consider the following options:
• Choose a more resistant lining,
• Use concrete, gabions, or other more rigid lining either as full lining or composite,
• Decrease channel slope,
• Decrease slope in combination with drop structures, and/or
• Increase channel width and/or flatten side slopes.
Step 6 Analyze outlet points and downstream effects
A. Identify any adverse impacts to downstream properties that may result from one of
the following at the channel outlet:
• Increase or decrease in discharge,
• Increase in velocity of flow,
• Confinement of sheet flow,
• Change in outlet water quality, or
• Diversion of flow from another catchment area

Chapter 6
B. Mitigate any adverse impacts identified in 6A, possibilities include:

• Enlarge outlet channel and/or install control structures to provide detention of
increased runoff in channel,
• Install velocity control structures,
• Increase capacity and/or improve lining of downstream channel,
• Install sedimentation/infiltration basins,
• Install sophisticated weirs or other outlet devices to redistribute concentrated
channel flow, and
• Eliminate diversions that result in downstream damage and which cannot be
mitigated in a less expensive manner.
6.15 Stream Morphology

The three-dimensional form assumed by a natural stream is a function of many variables
for which cause-and-effect relationships are difficult to establish. The stream may
discharge the same amount of sediment that it receives although there may be short-term
adjustments in its bed forms in response to flood flows. On the other hand, the stream
reach may be aggrading or degrading as a result of deposits or scour in the reach. The plan-
form of the stream may be straight, braided, or meandering. The complexities of stream
morphology can be assessed by inspecting aerial photographs and topographic maps for
changes in slope, width, depth, meander form, and bank erosion with time.
A qualitative assessment of the river response to proposed highway facilities is possible
through a thorough knowledge of river mechanics and accumulation of engineering
experience.
Table 6-2: Classification of Vegetal Covers as to Degrees of Retardancy
Retardance Cover Condition

A Native grass Excellent stand, tall >750 mm
B Native grass Good stand, tall (average 300 – 600 mm)
C Native grass Good stand, uncut 150 – 300 mm
D Native grass Good stand, uncut 50 – 150 mm
E Native grass Good stand, cut to 40 mm, Stubble

Chapter 6
Table 6-3: Summary of Shear Stress for Various Protection Measures
Protective Cover Category τp (Pa)

Class A 177
Class B 101
Vegetation Class C 48
Class D 29
Class E 17
Woven Paper 7
Jute Net 22
Temporary Straw W/Net 69
Curled Wood Mat 74
Synthetic Mat 96
Gravel: D50 = 25 mm 19
D50 = 50 mm 38
Rock: D50 = 150 mm 120
D50 = 300 mm 239
Gabions 1676
Geoweb 479
Soil Cement (8%) >2155
Concrete construction blocks, granular filter under layer >958
Wedge-shaped blocks with drainage slot >1197

Chapter 6
Table 6-4: Manning’s Roughness Coefficients (HEC-15)

n – value : Depth Ranges
Lining Category Lining Type 0-0.15m 0.15–0.06m > 0.6m
Concrete 0.015 0.013 0.013
Grouted Riprap 0.040 0.030 0.028
Rigid Stone Masonry 0.042 0.032 0.030
Soil Cement 0.025 0.022 0.020
Asphalt 0.018 0.016 0.016
Bare Soil 0.023 0.020 0.020
Unlined
Rock Cut 0.045 0.035 0.025
Woven Paper Net 0.016 0.015 0.015
Jute Net 0.028 0.022 0.019
Fiberglass Roving 0.028 0.022 0.019
Temporary*
Straw with Net 0.065 0.033 0.025
Curled Wood Mat 0.066 0.035 0.028
Synthetic Mat 0.036 0.025 0.021
25 mm D50 0.044 0.033 0.030
Gravel Riprap
50 mm D50 0.066 0.041 0.034
150 mm D50 0.104 0.069 0.035
Rock Riprap
300 mm D50 -- 0.078 0.040
Note: Values listed are representative values for the respective coefficients, n, vary with the
flow depth.
*Some “temporary” linings become permanent when buried.
The natural stream channel will assume a geomorphologic form that will be compatible
with the sediment load and discharge history that it has experienced over time. To the
extent that a highway structure disturbs this delicate balance by encroaching on the natural
channel, the consequences of flooding, erosion, and deposits can be significant and
widespread. The hydraulic analysis of a proposed highway structure should include a
consideration of the extent of these consequences.
The major complicating factors in river mechanics are: 1) the large number of interrelated
variables that can simultaneously respond to natural or imposed changes in a stream
system; and 2) the continual evolution of stream channel patterns, channel geometry, bars,
and forms of bed roughness with changing water and sediment discharge. In order to
understand better the responses of streams to the actions of man and nature, a few simple
hydraulic and geomorphic concepts are presented.
Any natural or artificial change that alters channel slope can result in modifications to the
existing stream pattern. For example, a cutoff of a meander loop decreases channel
sinuosity and increases channel slope. Conversely, it is possible that a slight decrease in
slope could change an unstable braided stream into a meandering one.
The different channel dimensions, shapes, and patterns associated with different quantities
of discharge and amounts of sediment load indicate that as these independent variables
change, major adjustments of channel morphology can be anticipated. Further, a change in
hydrology may cause changes in stream sinuosity, meander wavelength, and channel width
and depth. A long period of channel instability with considerable bank erosion and lateral

Chapter 6
shifting of the channel may be required for the stream to compensate for the hydrologic
change.
A countermeasure is defined as a measure incorporated into the crossing of a stream to

control, inhibit, change, delay, or minimize stream and bride stability problems.
Countermeasures may be installed at the time of highway construction or retrofitted to
resolve stability problems at existing crossings.
The practice of retrofitting makes good economic sense and in many locations it is also
good engineering practice. This is because the magnitude, location, and nature of potential
stability problems are not always discernible at the design stage, and indeed, may take a
period of several years to develop.
The selection of an appropriate countermeasure for a specific bank erosion problem is
dependent on factors such as the erosion mechanism, stream characteristics, construction
and maintenance requirements, potential for vandalism, and costs. Below is a brief
discussion of possible countermeasures for some common river stability problems.
Note: The reader is encouraged to consult with the references listed at the end of this
chapter for detailed information on the design and construction of countermeasures.
The best countermeasure against meander migration is a crossing location on a relatively
straight reach of stream between bends. Other countermeasures include the protection of an
existing bank line, the establishment of a new flow line or alignment, and the control and
constriction of channel flow. Countermeasures identified for bank stabilization and bend
control are bank revetments, spurs, retardant structures, longitudinal dikes, vane dikes,
bulkheads, and channel relocations. Measures may be used individually or in combination
to combat meander migration at a site (Refs. 30 and 21).
Countermeasures used at a braided stream are usually intended to confine the multiple
channels to one channel. This tends to increase sediment transport capacity in the principal
channel and encourage deposits in secondary channels.
The measures usually consist of dikes constructed from the limits of the multiple channels
to the channel over which the bridge is constructed. These include spur dikes at bridge
ends used in combination with revetments on highway fill slopes; rip rap only on highway
fill slopes; and spurs arranged in the stream channels to constrict flow to one channel.
Degradation in streams can cause the loss of bridge piers in stream channels, as well as
piers and abutments in caving banks. A check dam, which is a mini dam or weir
constructed across a channel, is one of the most successful techniques for halting
degradation on small to medium streams.
Longitudinal stone dikes placed at the toe of channel banks can be effective
countermeasures for bank caving in degrading streams. Precautions to prevent outflanking
such as tiebacks to the banks, may be necessary where installations are limited to the
vicinity of the highway stream crossing. In general, channel lining alone is not a successful
countermeasure against degradation problems (Ref. 21).
Current measures in use to alleviate aggradation problems at highways include
channelization, bridge modification, continued maintenance, or any combination of these.
Channelization may include excavating and cleaning channels, constructing cutoffs to

Chapter 6
increase the local slope, constructing flow control structures to reduce and control the local
channel width, and constructing relief channels to improve flow capacity at the crossing.
Except for relief channels, these measures are intended to increase the sediment transport
capacity of the channel, thus reducing or eliminating problems with aggradation.
6.16 Design of Outfalls for Surface Water Channels

Surface water channels for drainage of run-off from highways can be a suitable alternative
to conventional kerbs and gullies or filter drains. Amongst other advantages, such as
providing separate systems for drainage of surface and sub-surface water, they allow
greater distances between outlets when compared with conventional gully systems.
This section describes suitable layouts for outlets from triangular and trapezoidal surface
water channels and provides methods of designing each type according to the flow rate in
the channel.
The design methods enable the performance of the outlets to be assessed for channel-full
conditions and for surcharging conditions when the flow may extend to the edge of the
carriageway. The channel-full conditions are normally specified to correspond to storms
with a return period of 1 year whereas the surcharged situation typically refers to storms
with a return period of 5 years. It should be noted that surcharging is not allowed for
channels built in the central reserve.
The design methods apply to symmetrical triangular channels with cross-falls of 1:5 and
also channels with a trapezoidal cross-section and cross-falls of 1:4.5 or 1:5. High capacity
channels are required for drainage of wide roads and long lengths with flat gradients. In
such situations, trapezoidal cross-sections provide higher capabilities than triangular
channels of the same depth and surface width. The trapezoidal channels considered have a
base width equal to twice the channel-full depth. In order to promote self- cleansing
conditions, the base of the channel has a cross-fall of 1:40 towards the verge (or central
reserve).
The channel shape can be modified at the outlet to accommodate gratings in the invert by
steepening the sides of the channel locally to slopes not exceeding the allowable limit of
1:4. Figures B1 and B2 in Appendix A show the cross-sectional shapes of the recommended
channels. As shown in these figures, y1 is the depth of the channel from the lower edge of
the carriageway, y2 is the depth of the channel from the upper edge of the carriageway, and
y3 is the overall depth of the surcharged channel.
Three alternative geometries of outlet are recommended. One is an in-line outlet, where the
water is essentially collected symmetrically either side of the channel invert. Another type
is an off-line outlet, where the channel is widened away from the carriageway and the
outlet is off-set from the centreline of the channel.
A third type of outlet, a weir outlet, is recommended for steep slopes (typically >1:5)
where the water is made to curve towards a side-weir.

Chapter 6
The flow rate to use in the design of the outlets should be calculated using Manning's
resistance equation:
/ /

=
where Q is the flow rate (m3/s); A is the cross-sectional area of the flow (m2), S is the
longitudinal gradient of the channel (m/m); and n is the Manning roughness coefficient.
The hydraulic radius R is defined by:
where P is the wetted perimeter, ie the perimeter of the channel in contact with the water
flow. If the longitudinal gradient of the channel is not uniform along its length, an
equivalent value of the slope, S, should be used in the calculation of the flow rate.
When checking for surcharged conditions, the flow rate, Qs , to use in the design of outlets
can be estimated from Figure B3 for triangular channels and Figure B4 for trapezoidal
channels. In these Figures Bd and Qd are respectively the surface width of the flow and the
discharge corresponding to the design capacity of the channel. Qd is equal to the value of Q
given by Manning’s Equation when A and R corresponds to the design depth of flow, y1, in
the channel (measured from the invert centerline to the lower edge of the carriageway).
The curves in Figures B3 and B4 in Appendix 6A are based on 1m width of surcharging of
the carriageway at cross-falls of 1:30, 1:40 and 1:60. The value of Qs /Qd can be read off
the curves and, with Qs calculated using Manning’s Equation, the value of Qd can then be
determined.
Channels outlets can be defined as intermediate or terminal according to their position

along a channel. Terminal outlets are located at low points along a length of channel and
should be designed to collect all the flow carried by the channel. Intermediate outlets are
located at points part-way along a length of channel where the flow rate of water from the
road reaches the carrying capacity of the channel.
The design methods in this section are based on a minimum value of the waterway area
(defined as the total area of openings) in relation to the plan area of the grating. If G is the
width of the grating, the minimum waterway area needed to produce the required hydraulic
performance is 0.44G2. The efficiencies of outlets comprising grating with bigger
waterway areas and similar bar patterns will not be less that given by these methods.
Alternative designs of in-line and off-line outlets are recommended for each of the two
types of channels (triangular and rectangular). For triangular channels the inline outlet
recommeneded is generally more efficient than the off-line outlet but resason for chusing
between them will mainly depend on construction aspects.
Other aspects being equal, in-line outlets are poreferable to off-line outlets since they
require a smaller land take. However, in-line and off-line outlets are not suitable for steep
channels where the high kinetic energy of the flow renders gratings less effcetive. In such
situations the flow should be collected by curving it towards an off-line wier.

Chapter 6
Triangular Channels
The in-line outlet geometry recommended for this type of cahnnel consisits of pairs of
gratings positioned on the side slopes of the channel (see Figure B5). The number of pairs
of gratings reqiured will depend on the amount of flow in the channel. More than three
pairs of gratings are likely to be uneconomical, and other measures should be taken to cope
with higher flows.
The spacing between pairs of gratings should not be less than 1.7G, where G is the width
of the gratings (see Figure B4, Appendix 6A). The size of the required gratings should be
chosen so that the ratio of the width G over the depth of the channel y1, is within the
following limits:
1.5 ≤ 5.1
The lower limit corresponds to the minimum width of grating necessary to achieve the
performance specified. The upper limit corresponds to the widest grating that can be
installed in the channel. The required length H of each grating is given by:
≥
The lower edge of each grating should be set as close as possible to the invert of the
channel in order to maximize flow interception, ie distance in Figure B5 should be
minimized. A design of in-line outlet with gratings set flat in the channel invert is not
included because the limit with maximum cross fails of 1:4 would allow the use of only
small gratings with inefficient flow capacity.
The recommended geometry for off-line outlets is shown in Figure B6. The number of
gratings may vary from one to three depending on the amount of flow approaching the
outlet. However, outlets formed by a single grating may have the disadvantage of being
easily blocked by debris, particularly when the outlets are widely spaced than 1.25G where
G is the width of the gratings. The size of the gratings is determined by:
≥ 4.5
Trapezoidal Channels
The in-line outlet geometries recommended for trapezoidal channels are shown in Figures
B7 and B9, Appendix 6A. The width of the gratings is determined by:
= 3.0
The off-line geometries recommended are shown in Figure B8 and B10, Appendix 6A. The
width of the gratings is determined by:
≥ 4.0
Terminal Outlets
The requirement that surface water channels should not have any sides steeper than 1:4
applies also to the geometry of terminal outlets. When not protected by a safety barrier,
surface water channels must therefore terminate with a smooth transition, without abrupt
changes in level or width. Examples of recommended terminal outlets are shown in dashed
lines in Figures B5 to B10, Appendix 6A. The terminal ramps should be built at a certain

Chapter 6
minimum distance from the grating furthest downstream. This reduces the probability of
blockage of the gratings by debris since some of the debris will tend to accumulate in the
area between the gratings and the terminal ramp. For in-line and off-line outlets in
triangular channels, this distance should equal the grating width. For in-line and off-line
outlets in trapezoidal channels, the recommended distances are given in terms of the
grating width, G, and are shown in Figures B7 to B10.
An outfall conveys water from one or more outlets in surface water channel to a suitable
discharge point. The design of an outfall may vary considerably depending on the general
topography and nature of the ground, the layout of the road scheme and weather the water
is discharged to a watercourse or below –ground pipe system. A chamber or gully pot
should be located below or immediately adjacent to each outlet to collect sediment carried
with the flow from the surface water channel. Standard circular gully pots have a limited
hydraulic capacity and it is recommended that they should not be used for flow rates
exceeding 5 l/s unless their suitability has been determined by test. The plan shape of the
chamber will be determined by the layout of the gratings forming the outlet. The invert of
the outgoing pipe from the chamber should be set a minimum of 300mm above the bottom
of the chamber to retain an adequate volume of sediment.
The invert level of the outgoing pipe should be chosen so that the water level in the
chamber does not raise high enough to prevent flow discharging freely from the surface
water channel into the outlet. For design, it is recommended that the water level in the
chamber should be at least 150mm below the underside of the gratings when the outlet is
receiving flow from the channel under surcharged condition. The height Z (in m), of the
water surface in the chamber above the invert of the outgoing pipe can be estimated from
the equation:
= + 0.23
2
where D is the diameter of the pipe (in m) and Q is the flow rate (in m3/s) in the chamber
corresponding to surcharge conditions in the surface water channel. The gradient and
diameter of the outgoing pipe should be determined from standard flow tables or resistance
equation so that the pipe is just flowing full under surcharged conditions.
Provided the chamber below the outlet is designed to trap sediment, the outgoing pipe from
the chamber may be connected directly to a collector pipe by means of a 45o Y junction
without the need for a manhole at the junction. If weir outlet is used, the collecting channel
into which flow drops from the weir should be deep enough to allow the outlet to discharge
freely when the surface water channel is flowing under surcharged conditions. The design
flow depth, J (in m), can be estimated from the equation:
= 4.82( )

Chapter 6
Where E is the top width of flow (in m) and Q is design rate of flow (in m3/s). The overall
depth of the channel is obtained by adding 0.15m to the value of J14. The top width of the
channel should not be less than 0.5m. It is recommended that the collecting channel below
a weir outlet should discharge into a chamber with a removable cover in order to sill the
flow and allow sediment to be collected.
6.17 References
1. AASHTO, Vol. VI-Highway Drainage Guidelines, “Hydraulic Analysis and Design
of Open Channels,” AASHTO Task Force on Hydrology and Hydraulics, 1982.
2. American Society of Civil Engineers, High Velocity Flow in Open Channels: A
Symposium, “Design of Channel Curves for Supercritical Flow,” Transactions, Vol.
116, 1951.
3. Arcement, G.J., Jr., and Schneider, V.R., “Guide for Selecting Manning’s Roughness
Coefficients for Natural Channels and Flood Plains,’ Report No. FHWA-TS-84-204,
Federal Highway Administration, 1984.
4. Barnes, Harry H. Jr., “Roughness Characteristics of Natural Channels,” U.S.
Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1849, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C., 1975.
5. Behlke, C.E., “The Design of Supercritical Flow Channel Junctions,” Highway
Research Record No. 123, Transportation Research Board, 1966.
6. Blodgett, J.C., “Rock Riprap Design for Protection of Stream Channels Near
Highway Structures,” Vol. 1, Water Resources Investigations Report 864127, U.S.
Geological Survey, prepared in cooperation with Federal Highway Administration,
1986.
7. Blalock, M.E., and Sturm, T.W., “Minimum Specific Energy in Compound Open
Channel,” Journal of Hydraulics Division, ASCE, Vol. 107, No. HY6, pp. 699-717,
June 1981.
8. Blodgett, J.C., and McConaughy, C.E., “Rock Riprap Design for Protection of
Stream Channels Near Highway Structures,” Vol. 2, Water Resources Investigations
Report 864127, U.S. Geological Survey, prepared in cooperation with Federal
Highway Administration, 1986.
9. Brice, J.C., and J.C. Blodgett, ‘Countermeasures for Hydraulic Problems at Bridges,
Vol. 1, Analysis and Assessment,” Federal Highway Administration /RD-75-162,
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., 1975.
10. Brown, S.A., “Streambank Stabilization Measures for Stream Crossings--Executive
Summary,” FHWA/RD-84/099, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.,
1985.
11. Brown, S.A., “Design of Spur-Type Streambank Stabilization Structures,” Federal
Highway Administration /RD-84/101, Federal Highway Administration,
14
Design of Outfalls for Surface Water Channels, HA78/96.

Chapter 6
12. Brown, S.A., “Streambank Stabilization Measures for Highway Engineers,’ Federal
Highway Administration /RD-84/100, Federal Highway Administration,
13. Chow, V.T., Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill, 1970.
14. Clopper, Paul E., “Hydraulic Stability of Articulated Concrete Block Revetment
Systems During Overtopping Flow,” FHWA-RD-89-199, FHWA, Washington, D.C.,
November 1989.
15. Davidian, Jacob, “Computation of Water Surface Profiles in Open Channels,”
Techniques of Water Resources Investigation, Book 3, Chapter A15, U.S. Geological
Survey, 1984.
16. Federal Highway Administration, “Highways in the River Environment,” Training
and Design Manual, 1990.
17. Federal Highway Administration, “Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for
Culverts and Channels,” Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 14, U.S. DOT, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1983.
18. Federal Highway Administration, “Design of Roadside Channels with Flexible
Linings, “ Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 15, U. S. DOT, U. S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1985.
19. Federal Highway Administration, “Use of Riprap for Bank Protection,” Hydraulic
Engineering Circular No. I-1, U.S. Department of Transportation, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1967.
20. Federal Highway Administration, “Design Of Riprap Revetments,” Hydraulic
Engineering Circular FHWA 89-016 Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,
1989.
21. Federal Highway Administration, “Stream Stability,” Hydraulic Engineering Circular
No. 20, U.S. DOT, 1991.
22. Henderson, F.M., Open Channel Flow, Macmillan, 1966.
23. Lane, E.W., “A Study of the Shape of Channels Formed by Natural Stream Flowing
in Erodible Material,” M.R.D. Sediment Series No. 9, U.S. Army Corps of Engineer
Division, Missouri River, Corps of Engineers, Omaha, Nebraska, 1957.
24. Molinas, Albert, Users Manual for BRI-STARS, NCHRP Project HR 15-11, 1990
(Dram Report), National Cooperative Highway Research Program.
25. Molinas, Albert, BRI-STARS Expert System For Stream Classification, NCHRP
Project 15-11, 1990 (Dram Report).
26. Odgaard, A. Jacob, and Spoljaric, Anita, “Sediment Control by submerged Vanes,”
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 112, No. 12 December 1986.
27. Odgaard, Jacob A., and Mosconi, Carlos E., “Streambank Protection by Submerged
Vanes, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 113, No. 4, April 1987.
28. Richardson, E.V., D.B. Simons, and P.Y. Julien, “Highways in the River
Environment,” prepared for the Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.
by the Department of Civil Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins,
Colorado, June 1990.

Chapter 6
29. Rouse, Hunter, ed., Engineering Hydraulics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1950.
30. Shearman, J.0., “WSPRO User’s Instructions,” FHWA IP-89-27, 1990.
31. Shen, H.W., Schumm, S.A. Nelson, J.D. Doehring, D.O. and M.M. Skinner,
“Methods for Assessment of Stream-Related Hazards to Highways and Bridges,”
FHWA/RD-80/160, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., 1981.
32. Sturm, T.W., “Simplified Design of Contractions in Supercritical Flow,” Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 11, No. 5, May 1985.
33. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, “Accuracy of Computed Water Surface Profiles”,
The Hydrologic Engineering Center, Davis, California, December 1986.
34. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, “HEC-2 Water Surface Profiles, User’s Manual,”
The Hydrologic Engineering Center, Davis, CA, 1982.
35. Vanoni, Vito A., ed., Sedimentation Engineering, ASCE Manual No. 54, ASCE, 345
East 47th St., New York, NY, 1977.
36. Drainage Manual, Drainage and Hydrology Section, Highway Design Office,
Ontario Ministry of Transportation, Downsview, Ontario, 1986-1993.

Chapter 6
APPENDIX 6A - TYPICAL CHANNEL DETAILS
Figure: 6A-1 Cross-sectional shape of triangular channel

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-2: Cross-sectional shape of trapezoidal channels

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-3: Relationship between surcharged and channel-full flows: Trapezoidal channels

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-4: Triangular channel In-line outlet

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-5: Trpezoidal Channel Off-line outlets

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-6: Trapezoidal channel with cross-falls of 1:4.5 in-line outlet

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-7: Trapezoidal channel with cross-falls of 1:4.5 - off-line outlet

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-8: Trapezoidal channel with cross-falls of 1:5 in-line outlet

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-9: Trapezoidal channel with cross-falls of 1:5 - off-line outlet

Chapter 6
URBAN DITCH FLOW CAPACITY

CURVE SECTION DIMENSIONS
# LINING n shape B Z D K Scrit
grass
U1 rip rap 0,030 triangular 0 1 0,45 0,9 0,0253

U2 rect 0,5 0 0,45 1,5 0,0396
U3 0,5 0 0,75 2,9 0,0514
U4 1 0 0,75 3,9 0,0252
U5 concrete 0,015 rect 0,5 0 0,75 5,8 0,0129

U6 0,015 1 0 0,75 7,7 0,0063
URBAN Ditch Capacity
3 U1
2,5
U2
2
U3
1,5
U4
Discharge, m3/s
1
CHART 6-1
U5
0,5
U6
0
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08 0,09 0,1 0,11 0,12
Slope, m/m
Chapter 6
DITCH FLOW CAPACITY

curve RURAL
# LINING n Shape B Z D K Scrit
R1 rip rap 0,030 triangular 0,00 1,5 0,75 6,0 0,0172
R2 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 9,8 0,0162
R3 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 13,7 0,0147
R4 0,030 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 16,8 0,0146
R5 0,030 0,50 2,0 0,90 20,9 0,0137
R6 0,030 1,00 1,5 0,90 24,4 0,0136
R7 0,030 1,00 2,0 0,90 28,5 0,0131
C1 concrete 0,015 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 33,7 0,0036
C2 0,015 0,50 2,0 0,90 41,7 0,0034
C3 0,015 1,00 1,5 0,90 48,8 0,0034
C4 0,015 1,00 2,0 0,90 56,9 0,0033
RURAL Ditch Capacity
20,0 R1
18,0 R2
16,0 R3
14,0 R4
12,0 R5
10,0 R6
CHART 6-2
8,0 R7
Discharge, m3/s
6,0 C1
4,0 C2
2,0 C3
0,0 C4
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08 0,09 0,1 0,11 0,12
Slope, m/m

Chapter 6
DITCH FLOW CAPACITY

CURVE RURAL
G1 grass 0,045 triangular 0,00 1,5 0,90 6,5 0,0364
G2 0,045 0,00 2 0,90 9,1 0,0331
G3 0,045 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 11,2 0,0328
G4 0,045 0,50 2 0,90 13,9 0,0308
G5 0,045 1,00 1,5 0,90 16,3 0,0307
G6 0,045 1,00 2 0,90 19,0 0,0294
R2 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 9,8 0,0162
R3 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 13,7 0,0147
R4 0,030 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 16,8 0,0146
R5 0,030 0,50 2,0 0,90 20,9 0,0137
RURAL Ditch Capacity NOTE : DITCH CAPACITY ONLY

6,0
APPLICABLE OVER RANGE
G1 PLOTTED ON CHART. DITHCH
CAPACITIES SHOWN ARE
G2 LIMITED BY BOTH MINIMUM AND
MAXIMUM VELOCITIES
G3
G5
4,0
G6
R1
R2
Discharge, m3/s
2,0 R3
CHART 6-3
R4
R5
G4
0,0
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04
Slope, m/m

Chapter 6
DITCH FLOW CAP ACITY

CURVE RURAL
G1 grass 0,045 triangular 0,00 1,5 0,90 6,5 0,0364
G2 0,045 0,00 2 0,90 9,1 0,0331
G3 0,045 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 11,2 0,0328
G4 0,045 0,50 2 0,90 13,9 0,0308
G5 0,045 1,00 1,5 0,90 16,3 0,0307
G6 0,045 1,00 2 0,90 19,0 0,0294
R2 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 9,8 0,0162
R3 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 13,7 0,0147
R4 0,030 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 16,8 0,0146
R5 0,030 0,50 2,0 0,90 20,9 0,0137
RURAL Ditch Capacity NOTE : DITCH CAPACITY ONLY

6,0
APPLICABLE OVER RANGE
G1 PLOTTED ON CHART. DITHCH
CAPACITIES SHOWN ARE
G2 LIMITED BY BOTH MINIMUM AND
MAXIMUM VELOCITIES
G3
G5
4,0
G6
R1
R2
Discharge, m3/s
2,0 R3
R4
CHART 6-4
R5
G4
0,0
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04
Slope, m/m

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-10: Typical Gutter and Ditch Details

Chapter 6
APPENDIX 6B - WORKED EXAMPLES

Example 6-1
This example describes the process to determine the flow rate, the velocity of a flow and
the state of flow in a stream. The example commences after the stream data (such as cross
section, terrain, condition of channel and stream profile to determine site bed slope) has
been gathered (refer Chapter 4). The task for this example is, given the stream data and
height of flow (see diagram below), determine the velocity of flow in the channel, the flow
rate and state of flow (subcritical / critical / supercritical flow).
Stream Data
Bed slope about the site is 0.8%
Ht of channel bed is 110.60 m
Channel is regular and considered a little rough with a lot of trees and weeds along
the banks.
Solution
We need to determine the velocity of flow using Manning’s formula first, then the flow
rate using the fundamental equation and finally, determine Froude’s number to describe the
state of flow.
Manning’s equation is:
. .

=
Where R is the hydraulic radius, determines as cross sectional area of flow (A) divided by
the wetted perimeter (P). Also, S is the slope of the energy line which we don’t have,
therefore we can use the bed slope (So) to approximate S.
Step 1. Calculate the cross sectional area of the flow.
= 1.2 ∗ 1.2 + 1.2 ∗ 2.5 = 4.44
Step 2. Calculate the wetted perimeter.
= (1.2 ∗ 1.2 + 1.2 ∗ 1.2) ∗ 2 + 2.5 = 5.89

Step 3. Calculate the hydraulic radius.
4.44
= = = 0.75
5.89

Chapter 6
Step 4. Now determine an appropriate Manning’s roughness coefficient.

Using Table 6.1, Manning’s n Values for Natural Channel for this example is assumed
trees and weeds with ” n” values ranging between 0.06 and 0.08. Now, with the bed being
a little rough, a value n = 0.07 (in the middle of range) is considered appropriate.
Step 5. All variables have now been determined, therefore calculate velocity.
. .
0.75 ∗ 0.008
=
0.07
= 1.06 /
Step 6. Using fundamental equation Q = V.A, we can now determine the flow rate in the
channel.
= 1.06 ∗ 4.44 = 4.71 /
Step 7. To determine the ‘state of flow’, we calculate Froude’s number.
We have determined that Q = 4.71 m3/s, A = 4.44 m2 and g is acceleration due to gravity
(taken as 9.81 m/s2), therefore we need to calculate B, the width of flow across the surface.
= 1.2 + 2.5 + 1.2 = 4.9
Therefore:
4.9
= 4.71
9.81 ∗ 4.44
= 0.36
Froude’s number is below 1.0, therefore the flow is subcritical.
End of Example
Example 6-2
This example describes the process to determine the depth and velocity of flow based on a
known discharge / flow rate in a stream, based on discussion in Section 8.4.
The example commences after the stream data (such as cross section, terrain, condition of
channel and stream profile to determine site bed slope) has been gathered (refer Chapter 4)
and the flow rate (as determine using Rational Method) has been determined (refer Chapter
5). The task for this example is, given the stream data and flow rate (see diagram below),
determine the depth and velocity of flow in the channel.
Stream Data
• Discharge/flow rate = 17.86 m3/s
• Bed slope about the site is 1.2%
• Ht of channel bed is 65.10 m
• Max depth of flow is 2.0 m
• Manning’s n = 0.06.

Chapter 6
Solution
To solve for d, we need to use Manning’s formula and develop a Stage-Discharge curve.
. .
∗
=
A Stage-Discharge curve plots discharge against depth of flow. Therefore several

iterations using Manning’s formula are required for several depths of flow.
Step 1. Using the maximum channel depth of 2.0m, calculate stream velocity and flow rate.
Calculate the cross sectional area of the flow, wetted perimeter and hydraulic radius:
A = 12.00 m2, P = 9.66 m therefore R = 1.24 m
Now,
.
1.24 ∗ 0.012 .
= = 2.11 /
0.06
Using Q/VA, Q = 25.33 m3/s
This flow is greater than the known discharge therefore we know that the channel can
easily carry the flow.
Step 2. Now, using the same method, re-calculate stream velocity and flow rate for several
lesser depths (suggest using even increments).
Step 3. Now draw the Stage-Discharge curve for this site/channel (refer next page).
Step 4. From the curve, we can now read of the flow depth for our design flow of
17.86 m3/s.
Q = 17.86 m3/s, therefore d = 1.62 m
Step 5. Now we can use the depth to calculate flow area, then Q = V.A to determine the
average flow velocity.
A = 1.62 2 + 1.62 x 4 = 9.10 m2
17.86 m 3/s = V x 9.10 m2
V = 1.96 m/s

Chapter 6
End of Exercise
Example 6- 3
This example describes the process to determine the flow rate, the average velocity of a
flow in a compound stream.
The example commences after the stream data (such as cross section, terrain, Manning’s n
and stream profile to determine site bed slope) has been gathered (refer Chapter 4).
The task for this example is, given the stream data and height of flow (see diagram below),
determine the average velocity of flow in the channel and the flow rate.
Stream Data
• Bed slope about the site is 0.8%
Solution
To solve for Q, we need to use Manning’s formula for each sub section of stream:
. .
∗
=
After calculating V for each sub-section, use =( ∗ )+( ∗ )+( ∗

) to determine total flow rate.

Chapter 6
Step 1. For sub-section A, calculate VA using Manning’s equation.

Calculate the cross sectional area of the flow, wetted perimeter and hydraulic radius for
sub-section A are:
1.2
= + 1.2 ∗ 4.0 = 5.52
2
= (1.2 + 1.2 ) + 2.5 = 5.70

It is important to remember that that water - water boundary between sub-sections A & B
does not contribute any length to the wetted perimeter.
5.52
= = = 0.968
5.70
Now,
. .
0.97 ∗ 0.008
= = 1.25 /
0.07
Using , = 6.90 /
Step 2. For sub-section B, calculate VB using Manning’s equation.
= 7.39
= 4.83
= 1.53
Now,
. .
1.531 ∗ 0.008
= = 3.40 /
0.035
Using , = 25.09 /
Step 3. For sub-section C, calculate V C using Manning’s equation.
= 3.50
= 4.41
= 0.79
Now,
. .
0.793 ∗ 0.008
= = 1.28 /
0.06
Using , = 4.47 /

Chapter 6
Step 4. Now we can calculate:

= 6.90 + 25.09 + 4.47 = 36.46 /
And
= 5.52 + 7.39 + 3.50 = 16.41
Therefore
36.46
= = 2.22 /
16.41
End of Exercise
Example 6.4
Given: A roadside drainage channel is trapezoidal with a bottom width of 1.2 m and 1V:3H
side slopes. The bed slope is 0.005 m/m and the design flow rate is 0.6 m3/s.
Find: Calculate the required diameter (D50) of a gravel riprap that is to be used as a
permanent channel lining, and the design depth of flow.
Solution: The solution follows the procedure outlined in HEC-15, which is based on
the tractive force method.
(1) Choose a rounded gravel with D50 = 25 mm
Then τp = 19 Pa (Table 6-3)
(2) Estimate n = 0.033 from Table 6-4 for depth y = 0.15 – 0.6 m
(3) Calculate y from Manning’s equation (Figure 6-4)
1.486 1.486(0.033)(0.6)
/ /
= = 0.256
( )( ) (1.2 / )(0.005 / )
Then from Figure 6-4 with Z = 3: y/b = 0.29 and y = 0.35 m
(4) Calculate maximum bed shear stress, τd
τd = 9800 yS = 9800 x 0.35 x 0.005 = 17 Pa
Now because τd < τp, accept D50 of approximately 25 mm.
Otherwise repeat with another riprap diameter.
(5) Side slopes will be stable because side slope is not steeper than
1V:3H. If side slopes are steeper than 1V:3H or if channel slope is
steep, consult HEC-15 for additional computations.

Chapter 6
Example 6-5
Given: A median ditch is lined with a good stand of native grasses (approximately 0.203m
in height). The ditch is trapezoidal with a bottom width of 1.2m and side
slopes of 1V:4H. The ditch slope is 0.010m/m.
Find: Compute the maximum discharge for which this lining will be stable and the
corresponding flow depth.
Solution: From Table 6-2, the native grass has a retardance class of C and from Table
6-3, the permissible shear stress is
τp = 48 Pa
Then the allowable depth can be determined by assuming τp = τd:
48
= = = 0.49
9800 9800 ∗ 0.01
Now determine the flow area A and hydraulic radius R:
= ( + ) = 0.49 1.2 + (4 ∗ 0.49) = 1.55
/ /
= + 2 (1 + ) = 1.2 + (2 ∗ 0.49)(1 + 15) = 5.24
1.55
= = = 0.30
5.24
Finally determine the Manning’s n value from Photo 21 and solve for Q from
Manning’s equation:
From Photo 21, n = 0.080 and
1 / /
=
1
= (1.55)(0.30) / (0.01) / = 0.86 /
0.080
(This method is called the maximum discharge method and is useful for determining
the stable channel capacity for a variety of different linings for purposes of
comparison).
Example 6-6
Given: A rectangular channel on a slope of 0.001 with a width of 1.8m expands to a width
of 3 m in a straight walled transition, Z = 0. The design discharge is 8.5 m3/s
and Manning’s n = 0.02.
Find: Calculate the depth of flow in the upstream 1.8m wide channel if normal depth is the
downstream control.
Solution: (1) Compute the downstream normal depth y2:
1.486 1.486 ∗ 0.02 ∗ 8.5
/ /
= = 0.427
3.0 / ∗ 0.001 /
Then from Figure 6-4 with z = 0: y2/b = 0.68 and y2 = 2.04 m and
for a rectangular channel, yc = ((Q/b)2/g)1/2 = 0.9 m
SUBCRITICAL

Chapter 6
(2) The specific energy downstream is:

( + ) 8.5
= = 2.04 + = 2.14
2 (2 ∗ 9.81)(3 ∗ 2.04)
(3) Choose a straight-walled transition with a divergence angle of 12.5
degrees which has an expansion loss coefficient of 0.5 (HEC-14).
The length of the transition would be:
3.0 − 1.8
= 2 = 2.71
tan 12.5°
(4) Check if subcritical flow is possible by assuming critical depth in
upstream channel.
+
= = + − +ℎ
2
Where: z2-z1 = 0.001(2.71) = 0.003 ≈ 0
y1c = ((8.5/1.8)2/9.81)1/3 = 1.31 m
V1c = Q/A1c = 8.5/(1.8 x 1.31) = 3.6 m/s
V2 = Q/A2 = 8.5/(2.04 x 3) = 1.39 m/s
HL = 0.5 (3.62 – 1.392)/(2x9.81) = 0.281 m
then E1c = 1.31 + 3.62/(2x981) = 1.97 m
and E1 = 2.14 + 0 + 0.281 = 2.42 m
Now since E1 > E1c, a subcritical solution exists. If this were not the
case, the width of 1.8 m would have to be increased.
(5) Solve the energy equation, Eq. 6.10, by trial:
+ +
= + +ℎ
2
(1 − 0.5)(8.5)
+
(2 ∗ 9.81) ∗ (1.8 )
2.14 − 0.5(8.5)
=
(2 ∗ 9.81) ∗ (3 ∗ 2.04)
where: ................................................................................. z1-z2 = 0
.................................................... h1 = 0.5 (Q2/(2gA12) – Q2/(2gA22))
....................................................................................... E2 = 2.14 m
............................................................................. A2 = 3.0 x 2.04 m2
with the result y1 = 1.94 m and V1 = 3.07 m/s
(6) Calculate the water surface profile using the Standard Step Method
if boundary resistance losses are of concern.

Chapter 6
Example 6.7
Given: A rectangular transition contracts from a width of 3.0 m to a width of 1.5 m. The
approach flow rate is 8.5 m3/s with a depth of 0.3 m.
Find: Calculate the depth in the contracted section and the angle and length of the
contraction so that the transmission of standing waves downstream is
minimized.
Solution: (1) ............... Calculate the approach Froude number for a rectangular channel.
8.5
(3.0 ∗ 0.3)
= = = 5.5
( ) / (9.8 ∗ 0.3) /
(2) Determine the contraction ratio:

1.5
= = = 0.5
3.0
(3) Use Figure 6-12
= 5° = 2.1 = 0.62
/
= = 0.66 = 3.6
−
= 2 = 8.57
tan 5°
This design satisfies the criterion F3>2 and also is just to the left of curve, A which means
choking is not possible (for the complete equations see HEC-14 and Storm. 1985).

Chapter 7
Drainage Design Manual – 2013 Culverts
7 CULVERTS
7.1 Introduction
Cross drainage involves the conveyance of surface water and stream flow across or from
the highway right of way. This is accomplished by providing either a culvert or a bridge to
convey the flow from one side of the roadway to the other side or past some form of flow
obstruction.
Photo 7-1: Typical Culvert at Adet Quarit Road Gojjam
In addition to the hydraulic function, a culvert must carry construction and highway traffic
and earth loads. Culvert design, therefore, involves both hydraulic and structural design.
However, this section of the manual is concerned with the hydraulic design of culverts.
Both the hydraulic and structural designs must be consistent with good engineering
practice and economics.
Figure 7-1: Culvert components
A culvert is a structure that is designed hydraulically to take advantage of submergence to

increase hydraulic capacity. It is also a structure used to convey surface runoff through
embankments. A culvert is usually covered with fill and is composed of structural material
around the entire perimeter. These include steel and concrete pipe culverts and concrete
box culverts. However, a culvert can also be a structure supported on spread footings with
the streambed serving as the bottom of the culvert. These include some multi-plate steel
structures and concrete slab culverts. In addition, a culvert can be a structure that is 6
meters or less in centreline span length, or between the extreme ends of openings for
multiple boxes. Structures designed hydraulically as a culvert regardless of length are
treated in this chapter.

Chapter 7
Culverts Drainage Design Manual-2013
In designing culverts, a number of issues must be considered including:

• Economy;
• Eoad immunity – the extent to which flows are passed through culverts under the
road rather than allowed to overflow the road;
• The configuration of culverts including size and number; alternative culvert types
and materials;
• Afflux (that is the increase in water level caused by the road and its culvert);
• The culvert’s outlet velocity;
• The special needs of culverts which are to be used as fishways, for the passage of
terrestrial fauna, or as cattle creeps (larger culverts will often be required for fauna
or fish passage than for hydraulic reasons);
• Safety (that is catering for the needs of pedestrians, cyclists, or maintenance crews);
and
• Environmental issues (minimising the potential for unacceptable environmental
damage).
To provide consistency within this chapter the following symbols are used. These symbols
are selected for their wide use in culvert publications.
Symbol Definition Units

A Area of cross section of flow m²
AHW Allowable Headwater depth m
B Barrel width m
D Culvert diameter or barrel height mm or m
d Depth of flow m
dc Critical depth of flow m
g Acceleration due to gravity m/s2
H Sum of HE + Hf + Ho m
Hb Bend head loss m
HE Entrance head loss m
Hf Friction head loss m
HL Total energy losses m
Ho Outlet or exit head loss m
Hv Velocity head loss m
ho Hydraulic grade line height above outlet invert m
HW Headwater depth (subscript indicates section) m
KE Entrance loss coefficient m
L Length of culvert m
n Manning’s roughness coefficient m
P Wetted perimeter m
Q Rate of discharge m3/s
R Hydraulic radius (A/P) m
S Slope of culvert m/m
TW Tailwater depth above invert of culvert m
V Mean velocity of flow with barrel full m/s
Vd Mean velocity in downstream channel m/s
Vo Mean velocity of flow at culvert outlet m/s
Vu Mean velocity in upstream channel m/s
γ Unit weight of water N/m
τ Tractive force Pa

Chapter 7
7.2 Information Required

The catchment area should be carefully defined from maps, as well as aerial photographs,
LIDAR and photogrammetry if available. It is usual to survey stream bed and adjacent land
upstream and downstream of the culvert site and features such as other culverts, houses
and commercial developments (and possibly their floor levels, if it appears they might be
more at risk of flooding due to the new culvert). Cultivated crops and any utility services,
which may influence the location and level of the culvert, should also be noted.
Important information in relation to the highest known past flood levels can be obtained by
interviewing local residents and ERA road maintenance supervisors. The road drainage
designer should also inspect the site thoroughly as the survey may not show all the details
relevant to good design and ease of construction.
7.3 Culvert Location

In general, culverts should be located to fit natural channels in line and grade, following
moderate curvature and natural changes in grade as far as is practical. A culvert placed on
a different skew to that of the natural channel could cause progressive bank erosion and
protection of the bank at risk could be costly.
Photo 7-2: Erosion and bank instability at Quarit Adet Road

Chapter 7
Figure 7-2: Culvert Alignment Options
The culvert should be designed to suit the outlet conditions even if inlet conditions have to
be modified (e.g. a drop inlet to reduce potential scouring velocities through the culvert).
In most cases, culvert locations are predetermined by the intersection of a watercourse and
an existing roadway. However, where circumstances allow, culverts should be located
away from:
• Erodible or meandering channel bends or banks;
• Critical or isolated aquatic habitat areas; and
• Isolated sections of remnant, valued, or protected riparian vegetation.
If at all possible, culverts should not be located on the bend of an unstable or otherwise
meandering channel. Realigning short sections of an existing channel to fit the culvert
alignment should also be avoided. Where roads traverse broad floodplains or otherwise
interfere with overland flow patterns, regular culverts may be needed to mitigate against
the adverse environmental effects of drainage shadow.

Chapter 7
Photo 7-3: Culvert located on a channel bend Arba Minch
7.4 Outlet Velocity

High outlet velocities can cause bank erosion a significant distance downstream of an
outlet. Where high outlet velocities are expected, appropriate dissipation measures will be
required. Alternatively, in some limited cases, a stabilised scour hole or energy dissipator
may be acceptable; however, the design of these is not covered in this chapter.
Photo 7-4: Erosion at outlet of a culvert at Sodo Sawla Road
Where possible, culverts should be designed to provide acceptable velocities without the
need for additional stream bed protection. Allowable streambed velocities to avoid scour
vary according to soil type and topography. Suggested maximum average culvert velocities
for various stream bed materials are given in Table 7.1. Scour and preventative measures
are discussed further in Section 7.18.

Chapter 7
Table 7-1: Maximum culvert velocities
Material downstream of culvert endwall Allowable velocity (m/s)

Rock 4.5
Stone 150 mm diameter or larger 3.5
Gravel 100 mm or grass cover 2.5
Firm loam or stiff clay 1.2 – 2.0
Sandy or silty clay 1.0 – 1.5
Note: These are target velocities at the culvert outlet
7.5 Vertical Profile

Most longitudinal culvert profiles should approximate the natural streambed. Other profiles
may be chosen for either economic or hydraulic reasons. Modified culvert slopes, or slopes
other than that of the natural stream, can be used to prevent stream degradation, minimise
sedimentation, improve the hydraulic performance of the culvert, shorten the culvert, or
reduce structural requirements. Modified slopes can also cause stream erosion and
deposition. Slope alterations should, therefore, be given special attention to ensure that
detrimental effects do not result from the change.
Channel changes often result in culverts being shorter and steeper than the natural channel.
A modified culvert slope can be used to achieve a flatter gradient to prevent channel
degradation.
7.6 Culverts in Flat Terrain

In flat terrain, drainage channels are often ill-defined or non-existent and culverts should
be located and designed for least disruption of the existing flow conditions. In these
locations multiple culverts can be considered to have a common headwater elevation,
although this will not be precisely correct.
Photo7-5: Multiple culverts
(Sources: Left South African Manual 2006, Right Photo from Tigray Ethiopia)
In flat terrain it may be necessary to construct levee banks (Figure 7.3) to achieve the
design headwater at the culvert location. Where necessary, approval of the local road
authorities should be obtained prior to construction of any levee banks.

Chapter 7
Figure 7-3: Development of headwater
7.7 Culvert Type

The selection of the most appropriate type of culvert is dependent on a range of factors
including economics, site conditions, and environmental considerations. While the
majority of culverts consist of concrete pipe or box culverts, corrugated metal pipes, pipe-
arch or arches, may be appropriate and economic in some situations.
Box culverts are generally used where there is insufficient headroom for pipes, where the
available waterway area for the culvert is at a minimum, or where fauna passage is an
issue. In multi-cell construction, slab linked box culverts are often chosen for economical
purposes. Metal culverts have some advantages such as lower cost, and ease of transport
and installation.
However, they also have some serious disadvantages such as the potential for corrosion,
damage due to poor construction or compaction, and higher cover requirements. Unless
there are large financial savings, or other construction restraints, other more robust and
more durable materials should generally be used.
7.8 Siltation/Blockage
The likelihood of blockage should be considered for all culverts. Blockage can occur
through siltation or vegetation, although blockage by siltation is more likely to be
temporary in nature. This is because during flood events, silt deposits can be removed by
high velocity flows. To prevent siltation the desirable minimum velocity in the culvert
should be above 0.7 m/s. A check of velocities should be undertaken as part of design
process.
Where debris blockage is considered likely, larger culvert sizes may be required, in
accordance with the extent of adverse impacts that could occur to the roadway or to
surrounding properties. Blockage by debris is more likely to occur where the catchment
contains significant woody riparian vegetation. In this case detailed assessment of the
catchment is required.

Chapter 7
Photo7-6: Culvert blocked by siltation and debris Tigray
7.9 Allowable Headwater

One or more of the following conditions will usually determine the allowable headwater
for a culvert:
• The elevation of upstream ponding should not cause unacceptable damage or
adverse effects to adjacent properties. The fact that floods may already enter
properties even without any road embankment should be ascertained in field
investigations or by design calculations;
• Where a road is designed not to be overtopped in the 1 in 50 year or 0.5% Annual
probability event for example, it is desirable to provide freeboard between the
design upstream floodwater surface and the upstream road shoulder edge. Where
this is not economically acceptable, pavement design should make allowance for
higher water levels, and the likely duration of inundation;
• In the event of both of the above conditions permitting a high headwater, the
associated outlet velocity may be intolerably high. In this case, the allowable
headwater may have to be reduced to limit the outlet velocity to an acceptable
value, that is, one that does not cause unacceptable scouring; and
• Where practicable, it is desirable to keep the headwater in the road reserve or
upstream with the landowner’s permission.
7.10 Tailwater
Tailwater (TW) is the depth at the culvert outlet, measured from the water surface in the
downstream channel to the invert of the culvert. Tailwater is significant for the following
reasons;
• A high tailwater may cause the culvert to flow full or under pressure, so increasing
the headwater necessary to pass the flow; and
• A low tailwater relative to the depth of flow in the culvert can result in erosion of
the downstream channel.
If the channel is regular in shape and steady uniform flow conditions can be expected, the
tailwater level can be determined using Manning’s formula as follows:
• Select a trial value of TW. This could be based on the suggested maximum velocity
in Table 7.1 and A = Q/V. The closer the trial TW is to the true value, the less
iteration will be required;
• Calculate the average channel velocity for this trial depth using Manning’s formula,
then calculate Q = AV;

Chapter 7
• If the channel capacity exceeds the design discharge, recalculate with a reduced
depth; or if the channel capacity is less than the design discharge, recalculate with
an increased depth; and
• Repeat these steps until the estimated channel capacity is within 10% of the design
discharge.
For complex channels, backwater models such as HY8, the Hydraulic Engineering Centres
River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) MIKE, or ISIS can be used, although this would
normally only be necessary for large catchments.
7.11 Hydraulic Performance of Culverts

The most important consideration in culvert hydraulics is whether the flow is subject to
inlet or outlet control. Figure 7.4 shows the range of flow types commonly encountered in
culverts. For inlet control two distinct regimes exist, depending on whether the inlet is
submerged or not submerged. Outlet control occurs in long culverts, culverts laid on flat
grades and with high tailwater depths. In designing culverts, the type of control is
determined by adopting the greater of the headwater depths calculated for both inlet
control and outlet control.

Chapter 7
Figure 7-4: Typical conditions under which standard culverts operate
7.12 Inlet Control

When the capacity of the culvert barrel is greater than that of the inlet, the culvert is subject
to inlet control. Then the important factors are the cross-sectional area of the culvert barrel,
the depth of headwater or ponding at the entrance and the entrance conditions, including
the entrance type, existence and angle of headwalls and wing walls, and the projection of
the culvert into the headwater pond.

Chapter 7
For one-dimensional flow, the relationship between the discharge and the upstream energy
can be computed by an iterative process.
Inlet control can occur with the inlet submerged and the outlet not submerged. Under these
conditions, the flow contracts to a supercritical jet immediately downstream from the inlet.
When the tailwater depth exceeds critical depth, hc and the culvert is laid on a steep grade,
flow remains supercritical in the barrel and a hydraulic jump will form near the outlet. If
the culvert is laid on a slope less than critical, then a hydraulic jump will form in the barrel.
When the culvert flows under inlet control, the roughness and length of the culvert barrel
and the outlet conditions (including the depth of tailwater) are not factors in determining
culvert capacity. An increase in the slope of the culvert reduces headwater only to a small
degree, and can normally be neglected for conventional culverts flowing under inlet
control. Design charts for the design of concrete culverts with inlet control are provided in
Appendix 7A.
7.13 Outlet Control

With outlet control the culvert flow is restricted to the discharge which can pass through
the conduit for a given level of water in the outlet channel (tailwater level). The slope,
cross-sectional area, roughness and length of the culvert barrel have to be considered as
these losses exceed the inlet losses. However, inlet edge geometry can still affect the
capacity.
In general the control will be at the outlet if the culvert slope is less than critical. A
tailwater depth equal to 80% or more of the height of the culvert barrel/cell will usually
indicate outlet control, except in rolling or mountainous country with the culvert on natural
surface slopes. However, a check of the design assuming inlet control is such an easy
process that it forms part of standard design procedure.
Culverts flowing with outlet control can flow with the culvert barrel full or with the barrel
part-full for all of the culvert length. With outlet control, and both the inlet and the outlet
submerged the culvert flows full and under pressure. The culvert, also, can flow full over
part of its length with part-full flow at the outlet. The point at which the water surface
breaks away from the barrel soffit depends on the tailwater depth and culvert grade, and
can be determined by using flow profile calculations.
If the culvert is laid at a flat grade, outlet control can occur with both inlet and outlet not
submerged, and part-full flow throughout the culvert length will be flowing under sub-
critical conditions. Variations of these main types can occur, depending on the relative
value of critical slope, normal depth, culvert height and tailwater depth. While the potential
flow conditions shown in Figure 7.4 are the most common for simple culverts, different
flow conditions are possible where complex culvert structures are required and advice may
be required from an expert in such cases.

Chapter 7
Figure 7-5: Hydraulics of culvert flowing full under outlet control
Flow under outlet control can be calculated from the formulae below, the parameters for
which are illustrated in Figure 7.5. The total head (H) required to pass water through a
culvert flowing under outlet control is determined by:
H = Hv+He+Hf
Where:
= ( )=
= ( )=
.
= ( )= .
∗
and
V = velocity of flow in the culvert barrel, (m/s)
Ke = entrance loss coefficient, for values see Table 7.2
N = Manning’s friction factor, for values see Table 7.3
L = length of culvert barrel, (m)
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s²

= ,( ) =

Substituting in the first equation above and simplifying:
.
= + + .
∗
This equation can be solved for H by the use of the full flow nomographs in Figure A 5
and Figure A 6 for concrete culverts and Figure A 7 to Figure A 10 for metal culverts
(refer to Appendix 7A).
From the development of this energy equation and Figure 7.4, H is the difference between
the elevation of the hydraulic grade line at the outlet and the energy line at the inlet. Since

Chapter 7
the velocity head in the entrance pool usually is small when ponded conditions occur
(v2/2g ≈ 0), the water surface of headwater pool elevation can be assumed to equal the
elevation of the energy line.
Notes: The effect of wingwalls reduces with multi-cell culverts for 3 – 6 cell culverts,
assume entrance loss for wingwalls 100 to 250 to barrel; for culverts with more than 6
cells, assume wingwalls parallel (extension of sides), regardless of actual wings.
Table 7-2: Culvert Entry Loss Coefficient
Type of Structure and design of entrance Coefficient of Ke
Concrete pipe
Projecting from fill, socket end (grove end) 0.2
Projecting from fill, square cut end 0.5
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls, socket end of pipe 0.2
Square edge 0.5
Rounded (radius = D/12) 0.2
Mitred to conform to fill slope 0.7
End section confirming to fill slope 0.5
Corrugated metal pipe
Projecting from fill (no headwall) 0.9
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls, square edge 0.5
Mitred to conform to fill slope 0.7
End section confirming to fill slope 0.5
Reinforced concrete box
Headwall parallel to embankment (no wingwalls), square edged on 3 edges 0.5
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of 1/12 cell dimensions 0.2
Wingwalls at 30º to 75º to cell, square edged at crown 0.4
Crown edge rounded to radius of 1/12 cell dimension 0.2
Wingwalls at 10º to 25º to cell, square edged at crown 0.5
Wingwalls parallel (extension of sides), square edged at crown 0.7
Note: end sections conforming to fill slope, refers to the sections available from manufacturers
Source: Bureau of Public Road (1965)

Chapter 7
Table7-3: Recommended Manning’s n Values for Pipe
Type of Conduit Wall Description Manning’s n

Concrete Pipe Smooth Walls 0.010-0.013
Concrete Boxes Smooth Walls 0.012-0.015
Corrugated Metal Pipes and Boxes, 68mm x 13mm corrugations 0.022-0.027
Annular or Helical Pipe 150mm x 25mm corrugations 0.022-0.025
125mm x 25mm corrugations 0.025-0.026
75mm x 25mm corrugations 0.027-0.028
150mm x 50mm structural plate 0.033-0.035
230mm x 64mm structural plate 0.033-0.037
Corrugated Metal Pipes, Helical 68mm x 13mm corrugations 0.012-0.024
Corrugations, Full Circular Flow
Spiral Rib Metal Smooth Walls 0.012-0.013
Headwater depth under outlet control is calculated according to the equation:
HW = H + ho - LSo
where:
ho = tailwater depth (m)
L = length of culvert, (m)
So = slope of culvert barrel, (m/m).
The various components of this equation are illustrated in Figure 7.5 and Figure 7.6
The tailwater level (ho) to be adopted when the tailwater elevation (TW) is below the soffit
of the culvert at the outlet is the greater of the two values:
+

Where:
hc = Tailwater depth (m)
D = Diameter of culvert, (m).
For calculation of the outlet velocity, the TW may be slightly different than shown in Step
11 in Figure 7.6.

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Chapter 5

Drainage Design Manual – 2013 Hydrology

2) Time of concentration for defined water course

L = length of watercourse (km) = 0. 7982

Tct= TC1+TC2 = 0.1973+0.1014= 0.2986 hr = 17.92min

Step 5: Determine rainfall intensity

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IDF Curve Of Rainfall Region A1

Step 6: Determine runoff coefficients

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Step 7: Calculate the Peak flood

Example 2: Rural Runoff Example using SCS Method

Photo showing crossing location

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Step 1: Determine Catchment Area

Step 2: Determine longest flow path and elevation

Name Catchment Stream Elevation @ Elevation @ Elevation @ Elevation @

Step 3: Determine Catchment area Property

Page 5-68 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Step 4: Calculate Time of concentration

Cv = roughness coefficient of land use Table 5…. = 0.15

• Time of concentration for defined water course

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L = length of watercourse (km) = 10.399

Tct = TC1+TC2 = 0.16187+2.2613 = 2.42319 hr = 145.392min

Step 5: Calculate peak flood

1) Rainfall Runoff equation

Return period 2 Years 5Years 10 Years 25 Years 50 Years 100 Years

Page 5-70 Ethiopian Roads Authority

2) Peak Discharge estimation

qp (m3/s) 53.568 74.271 87.444 103.213 114.701 125.163

Example 3: Flood Routing Method

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HEC-HMS Input Parameters

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Flood Hydrograph Determination

* Note: Area in arbitrary units (Total Weighted CN)/(Total Area) = CN = 81.11

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Table 2: Runoff Curve Numbers

Cover Type Hydrologic Curve Numbers

Pasture, grassland, or range— continuous forage

Brush--brush-weed-grass mixture with brush the major element.

Woods--grass combination (orchard or tree farm).

Farmsteads--buildings, lanes, driveways and surrounding lots

There are three components of TC:

Page 5-74 Ethiopian Roads Authority

2. Shallow concentrated flow =

3. Open channel flow =

4. Total TC = TC1 + TC2 + TC3

Table 3: Computation Sheet For Tc, Time of Concentration

Table 4: Sub Basin Characteristics

Sub-Basin Tc(Hours) Area (Square km) CN 100 yr Precip (mm)

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Figure 1: Output for a sub-basin Hydrograph

Figure 2: Combined output hydrograph

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APPENDIX 5B - MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL

Mean Annual Rainfall Region A1

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Mean Annual Rainfall Region A2

30.00 Deber Markos

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Mean Annual Rainfall Region A3

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