1.1.

Introduction
“I want to understand the world from your point of view. I want to know what you know in the way
you know it. I want to understand the meaning of your experience, to walk in your shoes, to feel
things as you feel them, to explain things as you explain them. Will you become my teacher and
help me understand?”. (Spradley)

In the words of Spradley (1979), qualitative research describes the close relationship between
researcher and participants. That is why, it is imperative for the researcher to achieve a depth
understanding of the way participants interact in their daily activities in particular settings.

This approach, which is used largely in the social sciences, explores social interactions in order to
get the picture of different perspectives and behaviours.

The following activity will provide you an opportunity to express your thoughts and feelings by
sharpening your observational skills.
 Source: https://www.andrews.edu/~freed/qualact.htm

1.2. The historical background

As stated by Academia (n.d), anthropology, philosophy and sociology constitute the basis of
qualitative research. Already during the first years of the twentieth century, this was used as a
method of inquiry to find out about native and foreign cultures by anthropologists such as Malinowski
(1922) and Mead (1935), and sociologists such as Park and Burgess (1925).

Bronislaw Malinowski, an Austro-Hungarian anthropologist, was considered one of the most

important anthropologists of the 20th century because of his findings of social anthropology. Among
his field studies, the following stand out:

 The family among the Australian aborigines: A sociological study (1913)

 Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An account of native enterprise and adventure in the
Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea (1922)
 The sexual life of savages in North-Western Melanesia: An ethnographic account of
courtship, marriage, and family life among the natives of the Trobriand Islands (1929)

Malinowski with natives on Trobriand Islands, 1918

(SciHi, 2017)
Symbolic interactionism was conceived by George Herbert Mead, an American social philosopher
and sociologist, who stated that people’s selves are social products. The book published by Huebner
and Hans, Mead’s students, Mind, Self and Society (1935) highlights the core concept of social
interactionism in which Mind refers to the individual’s ability to use symbols to create meanings for
the world around him/her, Self implies the individual’s ability to reflect on the way that the individual
is perceived by others, and Society is where all of these interactions are taking place.

Socialization and Mead’s Theory of Self (2016)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d7eyM_uintU

In the 1920s, Robert E. Park, Ernest W. Burgess and Roderick D. McKenzie, American and
Canadian sociologists published their study The City (1925), which contains “both key theoretical
expositions and interpretative essays about the cultural patterns of urban life”. (Introduction, 1925,
p. 5)

Growth of the City

(Park and Burgess, 1925)

These early qualitative studies were considered unsystematic and journalistic therefore unscientific
in those days. However, since the 1960s, these have grown steadily so much so that relevant
approaches emerged, like symbolic interactionism (Blumer et al., 1969), grounded theory (Glaser
and Strauss, 1967) and publications in ethnography (Spradley, 1980).

Based on Mead’s Theory of Self, Herbert Blumer (Chicago School), Manford Kuhn (Iowa School)
and Sheldon Stryker (Indiana School) developed the symbolic interactionism (Carter & Fuller, 2015).
This aims that individuals use language and significant symbols in their communication with others
to make sense of their world from their unique perspectives. The basic principles affirm that:

 Individuals act based on the meanings objects have for them;

 Interaction occurs within a particular social and cultural context in which physical and social
objects (persons), as well as situations, must be defined or categorized based on individual
meanings;
 Meanings emerge from interactions with other individuals and with society; and
 Meanings are continuously created and recreated through interpreting processes during
interaction with others (Blumer, 1969)
 Symbolic Interactionism (2013)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ux2E6uhEVk0

In the 1960s, Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, American sociologists, developed the Grounded
theory based on a study of staff’s handling of dying patients in hospitals. In line with Punch (cited by
Bulawa, 2014), this theory is a research strategy aimed at generating theory from data. Addressing
it is essential to make comparative analysis constantly in order to force the researcher to be close
to the data and keep away from subjective understanding of it (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Rennie,
2000).

Grounded theory research

(Research gate, 2016)

The American ethnographer, James Spradley wrote some relevant books on ethnography and
qualitative research.

The Ethnographic Interview (1979) is a self-teaching handbook that focuses on interview techniques
used to research ethnography and culture. This describes three important ethnographic elements:

1. Explicit purpose
2. Ethnographic explanations
3. Project explanations
4. Recording explanations
5. Native language explanations
6. Interview explanations
7. Question explanations
8. Ethnographic questions
9. Descriptive questions
10. Structural questions
11. Contrast questions

Participant Observation (1980), an ethnographic research handbook, describes the degree of the
involvement, both with people and in the activities they observe.
 Types of participation

(Spradley, 1980)

Under the umbrella of these studies, professionals in the education and healthcare fields started on
researching in their own areas. In education, The Journal Qualitative Sociology and the International
Journal for Qualitative Studies in Education were published in 1978 and 1988; respectively, in the
United States of America (USA). In the 1970 and 1980s, texts used in educational sociology were
also published in Britain.

On the other hand, qualitative research as a type of inquiry was considered appropriate and
respectable in medicine but not wholly accepted as an alternative form of research (Webb et al.,
cited by Academia, n.d.). Nevertheless since 1991, papers in the field of public health have been
published in the Qualitative Health Research, an American medical journal. In the same way as the
USA, a series of articles were published in the British Medical Journal (Mays, 1996; Pope, 1999),
Apart from that, an overview of qualitative concepts and methods was published by the World Health
Organisation (Hudelson, 1994).

Academic paper on education

(International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 1988)

 Academic paper on healthcare

(British Medical Journal, 2003)

It was undeniable that qualitative research, no matter the different terms to define it, has contributed
in different disciplines of human activities. Even though this has been dismissed as non-scientific, it
has been proved that this approach can play a key role in understanding deeply the context within
a social controversy takes place and based on that, establishes foundations for significant
interventions.

Resources
Socialization and Mead’s Theory of Self (2016) is based on the book Mind, Self and
Society (1935) that highlights the core concept of social interactionism in which mind, self and
society interact.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d7eyM_uintU

Symbolic interactionism (2013) focuses on the use of language and significant symbols in
individuals’ communication with others to make sense of their world from their unique
perspectives.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ux2E6uhEVk0

Adapting Grounded Theory in Qualitative Research: Reflections from Personal

Experience (2014) is a paper that suggests adopting and adapting the grounded theory approach
depending on users’ research.
 https://formamente.guideassociation.org/wp-content/uploads/Bulawa.pdf

The Ethnographic Interview is an ethnographic handbook written by Spradley (1979) that

focuses on interview techniques used to research ethnography and culture.

http://faculty.washington.edu/stevehar/Spradley.pdf

Participant observation is an ethnographic handbook written by Spradley (1980) that points the
degree of the observation involvement, both with people and in the activities they observe.
https://www.uio.no/studier/emner/sv/sai/SOSANT4110/h17/pensumliste/spradley_doing-participant-observation.pdf
2.1. Definition
Because of its increasingly prevalent at the present time, some definitions of qualitative research
from different philosophical perspectives will be exposed in order to better understand its usefulness
and relevance.

John Creswell (1994) defines qualitative research as an inquiry process of understanding that is
based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry to explore a social or human problem. In this
inquiry process, a qualitative research builds a complex and holistic picture, analyses words, reports
detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting.

Sharan B. Merriam, professor emeritus at University of Georgia, emphasises on the qualitative

theory and focus. Merriam states (2009) that “Qualitative researchers are interested in
understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how people make sense of their world
and the experiences they have in the world. (p. 13)
Dr. Leslie Curry (2015), professor at Yale University, explains that qualitative research is a strategy
to collect, organise and interpret textual information systematically to generate insights into
phenomena that are difficult to measure quantitatively.

Fundamentals on Qualitative Research Methods:

What is Qualitative Research, Module 1 (2015)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wbdN_sLWl88

2.2. Characteristics
As claimed by Bogdan and Biklen (2007), there are different types of qualitative research that have
common characteristics and similar procedures even though differences in data collection and
analysis exist.

(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007)

 Naturalistic

The word naturalistic comes from ecological approaches in biology and is defined as a no
experimental approach in which subjects are studied in their natural settings. They are observed by
the researcher, whose presence might be either known (overt observation) or unknown (covert
observation).

There is no manipulation of the environment; that’s why, activities are observed in the setting in
which they occur habitually. Most of the time, this is used during the initial stage of a research study
because of its worth of descriptive value and as a base for hypotheses.

Based on naturalistic approach, Grady, Ale and Morris (2012) conducted a study to assess the
impact of parental departure during daily drop-off at preschool on children’s settling into daily
preschool routines.
 A naturalistic observation of social behaviours

during preschool drop-off

(Routledge, 2012)

 Descriptive data

The data collected in qualitative research take the form of words or pictures rather than numbers.
The data could imply interview transcripts, photographs, field notes, videos, personal documents,
and other official records.

Researchers describe the data deeply, which means all the details must be considered. Qualitative
articles and reports often contain quotations in order to narrate a particular situation as accurately
as possible.

Sandelowski (2000) noted that researches present comprehensive narratives of phenomena or

events based on open-ended questions. No matter what type of question, exploratory, descriptive
or interpretative, they have to produce findings closer to the data.

In-depth narrative descriptions were used in educational research. Some studies include The Good
High School (Lightfoot, 1985), Life in Classrooms (Jackson, 1990), Teaching and Learning in an
Innovative Middle School Program (2007), and The Impact of Texting on Writing Professors (Carr,
2015).
 A descriptive case study of teaching and learning in

an innovative middle school program

(Armfield, 2007)

 Concern with process

Qualitative research focuses on process rather than outcomes; that’s why, this uses multiple
interactive. The three main methods of data collection, focus group, in-depth interviews and
participant observation, involve more active participation by participants.

The concept of growing involvement of participants has a decisive importance in case of qualitative
research, and then qualitative strategies suggest the participant expectations are translated into
daily activities, procedures and interactions. (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007)

This research has been particularly helpful in clarifying students or teachers’ performance in
education field. A participant observation study was conducted by Luschen (1998) in a day care
centre for high student-mothers in order to show how teachers continually worked to shift the
students’ understanding of mothering; and in 2000, Middleton and Hewitt studied the transition of
caring when people with deep learning difficulties were moved from long-term care in hospitals to
community-based living (p. 6).

 Inductive

Qualitative research analyses the data in an inductive which means that theories or concepts are
built on the base of gathering data. This approach uses a bottom-up direction to understand
situations, focus on behaviours, construct theories and reach conclusions.

When researchers develop theories, they have to spend time with participants to experiment
themselves particular situations. In the words of Bogdan and Biklen (2007), the qualitative
researcher “constructs a picture that takes shape as he/she collects and examines the parts”. (p. 6)
 Inductive approach

(ResearchGate, 2019)

 Meaning

Qualitative researchers know that meaning is of essential concern to the qualitative approach; and
that is the reason, why they are really interested in participants’ perspectives (Erickson, 1986); and
these perspectives focus on the assumptions participants make about their lives and what they
take for granted.

Then the key element is to capture perspectives as precise as possible. For this, sometimes
researcher’s interpretations will be checked with those of the participants; and even though this
procedure is criticized, this reflects a deep concern to discover “what they are experiencing, how
they interpret their experiences, and how they themselves structure the social world in which they
live”. (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007, p. 8)

2.3. Ethical considerations

In qualitative research, participants have a vital role and as explained by Hossain (2011), they
contribute to the analysis of the data they generate. So the treatment of participants becomes an
ethical issue to be considered.

Codes of ethics have to be set by researches in order to protect participants and support ethical
approaches to fieldwork. Bodgan and Biklen highlight the following basic ethical considerations:

1. Avoid research sites where participants may feel coerced to participate in the research.
2. Honour the participants’ privacy.
3. Consider difference in participants’ time commitment.
4. Protect participants’ identities to avoid embarrassment or harm.
5. Treat participants with respect and seek their cooperation in the research.
6. Negotiate with the participants the terms of the agreement to do a study.
7. Tell the truth when writing up and reporting the findings.

Ethical principles can make researchers achieve the goals of a research as well as respect the
participants’ rights, and this is discussed in a study about Ethics in Qualitative Research conducted
by Orb, Eisenhauer and Wynade (2000).
 Academic paper on ethics

(Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 2000)

In qualitative studies, conducting an ethical research is vital because dealing with human subjects
in depth can affect both participants and researchers. Then clear strategies must be adopted to
carry out sensitive studies and provide trustworthy outcomes.

Resources
Fundamentals on Qualitative Research Methods: What is Qualitative Research, Module
1 (2015) highlights the importance of qualitative research to generate insights into phenomena that
are difficult to measure quantitatively.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d7eyM_uintU

A naturalistic observation of social behaviours during preschool drop-off (2012) assesses

the impact of parental departure during daily drop-off at preschool on children’s settling into daily
preschool routines.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231180720_A_naturalistic_observation_of_social_behaviours_during_presc
hool_drop-off

Observation paper (2014) focuses on the impact of parental observation at the UB Child Care
Center.

https://www.studocu.com/en-us/document/university-at-buffalo/intro-to-child-devlearn/essays/observation-paper-2-b-
intro-to-child-devlearn/1024460/view

Ethics in Qualitative Research (2000) is a paper that analyses the importance of ethics on
researcher and participants.
http://www.columbia.edu/~mvp19/RMC/M5/QualEthics.pdf
3.1. Epistemological dimensions
As discussed earlier, in qualitative research it is required to know the relevance of data, setting and
participants. However, in order to have an in-depth understanding, it is crucial to analyse the
meaning that individuals attribute to the construction of this knowledge – their thoughts, feelings,
beliefs and actions (Illingworth, 2006).

There is no an outstanding method or theory; that is the reason why researchers have to use a wide
range of epistemological dimensions to understand participants’ interpretations. To do this, there is
a range of epistemologies that underlines how knowledge can be generated.

Three epistemologies

(Crotty, 1998)

As claimed by Bryman (2004), researchers who are interested in the social world are critical to some
of these epistemologies but this reflection enables them to describe, explain or interpret the social
reality.

In the videos below, relevant issues about these three epistemologies are analysed.

Objective vs Subjective (2016)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jlutlCrVQN4

Theory in action: Constructivism (2011)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kYU9UfkV_XI

3.2. Philosophical assumptions

Researching qualitatively implies to find meaning in action; that’s to say, researchers have to
interpret in a particular way what participants are doing (Schwandt, 2000). This interpretation can
be represented through hermeneutics, phenomenology and symbolic interactionism.

These philosophical assumptions provide a key idea through which researchers can examine the
research process and data.
 (Crotty, 1998)

Phenomenology

Phenomenology has its origin in the Greek word phainomenon that means appearance, and in the
opinion of Edmund Husserl (as cited in Mambrol, 2018) phenomenology focuses on the way objects
appear to people away from the external world and the subjective contribution to this process of
appearing.

Phenomenological research (2014)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_poJRQygJtc

Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics is conceived as the methodology of interpretation which can contribute to solving

problems of interpretation of human actions (Mantzavinos, 2016). And with the same vision,
Heidegger (1927) developed the concept of hermeneutic circle to explain that understanding moves
back and forth between the whole and the parts constantly.
 Hermeneutics: A very short introduction (2016)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wPTV5hyB0Y

Symbolic interactionism

Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective developed by George H. Mead in 1920. In the

words of Mead, this is the study of the subjective meaning that people give to objects, events and
behaviours based on what they believe and not what it is objectively true (as cited in Carter & Fuller,
2015).

Symbolic Interactionism (2013)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ux2E6uhEVk0

No matter how challenging epistemology could seem, this is the only way to provide reliable
foundation to qualitative research. An epistemological perspective provides not only a framework
for collecting, describing and interpreting data, but also and mainly to construct or deconstruct
knowledge that leads to understand people’s cosmology, and only then propose alternatives to
human dilemmas.

Resources
Epistemological Dimensions in Qualitative Research: The Construction of Knowledge
Online. (2012) is a video that analyses relevant aspects of epistemological perspectives.
 https://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/28466_02_James_%26_Busher_Ch_01.pdf

Objective vs Subjective (2016) focuses on the differences between objective and subjective
approaches.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jlutlCrVQN4

Theory in action: Constructivism (2011) highlights how people construct their own
understanding and knowledge of the world.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kYU9UfkV_XI

Phenomenological research (2014) reviews the human experience and the ways things are
experienced.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_poJRQygJtc

Hermeneutics: A very short introduction (2016) reviews hermeneutics as the theory of

interpretation.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wPTV5hyB0Y

Symbolic interactionism (2013) focuses on the use of language and significant symbols in
individuals’ communication with others to make sense of their world from their unique
perspectives.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ux2E6uhEVk0
4.1. Deciding on methods
The important thing to remember when a method has to be chosen is that there is no a perfect
epistemological assumption either a method. To do this, it is advantageous to consider the context
of the research and only then a method or a combination of methods can be used.

In agreement with Mack et al. (2005), the three most common qualitative methods are:

4.2. Participant observation

This qualitative method based on ethnographic research – observation of participants in their natural
environment- aims to gain a deeper understanding of participants’ perspectives about what they
believe and do. (Mack et al.)

Being participant according to Dawson’s criterion (2002) implies that “The researcher becomes
much more involved in the lives of the people being observed.” (p. 32)

Participant observation can be conducted in two different ways:

 Covert participant observation means that the researcher participates in the participants’
activities without anyone knowing what he/she is doing.
 Overt participant observation entails that everyone knows who the research is and what
he/she is doing.

Behaving ethically

When participant observation is conducted, it is advisable to consider some ethical guidelines

(Mack et. al).

 Obtain the participants’ consent before beginning the observation and communicate them
that there will be no repercussions if they do not participate or not continue participating.
 Not to interrupt participants’ activity; that’s to say, the researcher has to be discreet enough
about who he/she is and what he/she is doing.
 Be confident with participants’ data, including eventual presentation in public events, as well
as in printed publications.

Planning observation

When observation is conducted, Mack et al. (2005) focuses on the following tips:
  Preparing for participant observation
 Determine the purpose of the participant observation activity as related to the overall
research objectives.
 Determine the population to be observed.
 Consider the accessibility of the population and the venues in which you would like to
observe them.
 Investigate possible sites for participant observation.
 Select the site, time of day, and date, and anticipate how long you will collect participant
observation data on each occasion.
 After participant observation
 Schedule time soon after participant observation to expand notes.
 Type notes into computer files using the standard format set for the study. (p. 27)

Writing field notes

As claimed by Emerson et al. (as cited in Mason, 2002) “Field notes are a form of representation,
that is, a way of reducing just-observed events, persons and places to written accounts.” (p. 98)

Each researcher takes notes in a very personal way; however, there are some tips that could be
useful when writing field notes.

Focusing on strengths and weaknesses

Conforming to Mack et al. (2005), there are strengths and weaknesses of participant observation
that have to be considered.

 Strengths
 Allow for insight into context, relationships, and behaviour.
 Can provide information previously unknown to a researcher that is crucial for project
design, data collection, and interpretation of other data.
 Weaknesses
 Time-consuming.
 Documentation relies on memory, personal discipline, and diligence of researcher.
 Require conscious effort at objectivity because method is inherently subjective. (p. 15)
 TPR Exercise - Participant Observation-Part 1 (2014)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RgebvaOdtKY

Sample Participant Observation Field Notes

(Mack et al., 2005, p. 26)

4.3. In-depth interviews

In-depth or unstructured interviews are described as life history interviews because the interviewer
(researcher) has to make an attempt to achieve an all-inclusive understanding of the interviewee’s
(participant) interpretation (Dawson, 2002).

In order to ensure of interviewee’s life history, the interviewer has to ask few questions and permit
the interviewee talks freely. And even though this method could seem easy, the interviewer has to
be alert to identify relevant information and inquiring for more details. Besides he/she has to be very
tactful, diplomatic and perseverant to create an appropriate environment. Another and no less
important issue is the great deal of data to be analysed.

Being a reliable interviewer can make the difference between the success and failure when
collecting meaningful data. Some interviewer’ characteristics include:
Behaving ethically

Some ethical guidelines (Mack et. al) to bear in mind are the following:

 Explain the purpose of the interview clearly and in the same way possible risks and
benefits.
 Obtain interviewee’s consent first of all. Depending on the research, it can be oral or
written.
 Protect participants’ privacy. This can make them trust on interviewer and elicit well-
founded data.

Planning in-depth interview

Mack et al. (2005) points out some steps to be counted:

 Getting familiar with the instruments

 Study the interview guide.
 Study the informed consent document if necessary.
 Day of the interview
 Use a checklist to have a look of instruments.
 Label all data documentation materials.
 Arrive early at the interview site to set up and test equipment.
 Conducting the interview
 Greet the participant in a friendly manner to begin establishing positive rapport.
 Describe the steps of the interview process briefly.
 Conduct the interview according to the interview guide.
 Give the participant the opportunity to ask questions.
 Turn off the equipment and thank the participant.
 Clarify any factual errors expressed by participants during the interview.
 After the interview
 Check the equipment to see if the interview was recorded. If it was not, expand your notes
immediately.
 Make sure all materials are labeled with the archival number.
 Expand your notes within 24 hours if possible. (p. 48)

Writing field notes

When interviews are conducted, field notes aim to backup recording, capture nonverbal
information and note down confidential data.
Focusing on strengths and weaknesses

Strengths and weaknesses should be carefully considered when conducting a depth interview
(Mack et al., 2005; Parveen & Showkat, 2017).

 Strengths
 Provide in-depth responses and detailed data.
 Permit the interviewer not to focus only on oral information but also on interviewee’s
behaviour including gestures and body language.
 Get an interpretative perspective that involves connections between interviewer and events
or beliefs.
 Weaknesses
 Choose only small sample size taking into account researcher’s judgement.
 Time consuming method because of planning and analysing a great deal of data.
 Be susceptible to bias.
 Many ethical issues to be considered.

Demo qualitative interview with mistakes (2014)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U4UKwd0KExc

Demonstration qualitative interview-how it should be done (2014)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eNMTJTnrTQQ
 Sample Interview Guide with Field Notes

(Mack et al., 2005, p. 46)

4.4. Focus group

Dawson (2002) claims that a focus group is “A number of people who are asked to come together
in order to discuss a certain issue for the purpose of research” (p. 76). The focus group is a popular
method used in market, political and educational research.

Even though there are two researches -a moderator who leads the discussion by asking open-ended
questions and a note-taker who takes detailed notes-, it is advisable to videotape because of the
large amount of information.

There is not a perfect number of participants; however, Dawson (2002) suggests nine or eleven
because odd numbers not to allow to pair up in breakaway conversations.

Being a moderator is a crucial role in a focus; that’s why, Mack et al. emphasises on these
behavioural techniques:
Behaving ethically

There are some ethical considerations to bear in mind before beginning (Mack. et al., 2005)

 Get participants’ consent and provide them information about the use of data.
 Explain the purpose of the focus group in a broader way not in detail because this can
influence on participants.
 Maintain confidentiality avoiding using participants’ names.

Moderating a focus group

Mack et al. (2005) emphasises on the following steps:

 Preparing for the focus group

 Study the focus group guide.
 Study the informed consent document.
 Practice both moderating and taking notes.
 Prepare a checklist of everything to conduct a focus group.
 Confirm the reservation of the focus group location.
 Day of the focus group
 Use a checklist to verify the equipment and location.
 Label all data documentation materials.
 Greet and check in participants.
 Assign identifying pseudonyms or numbers to participants.
 Introduce yourself and explain your role.
 Lay the ground rules.
 Lead the discussion or take brief notes.
 Give the participants the opportunity to ask questions.
 After the focus group, clarify any factual misconceptions expressed by participants.
 Immediately after the focus group
 Participate in the debriefing session led by the note-taker.
 Gather data using a checklist.
 Expand your notes, within 24 hours if possible. (p. 80)

Writing field notes

The note-taker is the responsible for taking detailed notes to backup focus group discussion.
Focusing on strengths and weaknesses

Dawson (2002) focuses on the following strengths and weaknesses:

 Strengths
 Can receive a wide range of responses during one meeting.
 Participants can ask questions of each other, lessoning impact of researcher bias.
 Help participants to overcome inhibitions, especially if they do not know other people in the
group.
 Weaknesses
 Some participants may be uncomfortable in a group setting and nervous about speaking in
front of others.
 Not everyone may contribute.
 Venues and equipment can be expensive.
 Difficult to extract individual views during the analysis. (p. 30)

Modeling focus group teaching (2017)

Source: https://www.aitsl.edu.au/tools-resources/resource/modelling-focus-group-teaching-illustration-of-practice
 Sample Focus Group Debriefing Form

(Mack et al., 2005, p. 46)

Resources
TPR Exercise- Participant Observation-Part 1 (2014) highlights an overview to TPR, an effective
method in learning language and culture.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RgebvaOdtKY

Demo qualitative interview with mistakes. (2014) focuses on mistakes made by this interviewer.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U4UKwd0KExc

Demonstartion qualitative interview-how it should be done (2014) shows good quality of attention
and listening when interviewing.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eNMTJTnrTQQ
Modeling focus group teaching (2017) presents a teacher who models teaching strategies she uses
to ensure students’ literacy requirement are met.

https://www.aitsl.edu.au/tools-resources/resource/modelling-focus-group-teaching-illustration-of-practice

In-depth interview (2017) explores the strengths and limitations of an in-depth interview.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319162160_In-depth_Interview
5.1. Research design
Qualitative research design can be defined as a flexible framework of methods and procedures
aimed to achieve the research purposes. Then it is important to remember that processes and not
outcomes are what really matter in this type of research (Hatch, 2002).

Under the same umbrella, Mason (2002) claims that research processes in qualitative research are
“fluid and flexible, data-driven and context-sensitive” (p. 24).

In the words of Hatch (2002) the basic elements that need to be considered in qualitative research
design are:

5.2. Basic elements

 Theories

No doubt it is essential to focus not only on the epistemological dimensions but also on the
methodological theories that might lead a research process.

There is no an outstanding epistemological dimension and based on this, Crotty (1998) suggested
these three epistemologies:

 Objectivism
 Constructivism
 Subjectivism

But it is also relevant to focus on these philosophical assumptions that let researchers conduct the
research studies (Crotty, 1998).

 Phenomenology
 Hermeneutics
 Symbolic interactionism

In agreement with Dawson (2002) the research methodology implies the general principles that
guide the research, and the research methods are the tools to gather data.
  Research questions

According to Maxwell (as cited in Hatch, 2002), identifying the research questions is a crucial
activity because they lead the research.

Research is most useful when there is a genuine uncertainty about the answer to a question
(Patton & Cochran, 2002); that’s why, it is advisable to search literature previously.

Some characteristics that Hatch (2002) states useful are the following:

 Open-ended
 Few in number
 Direct language.
 Creating a good research question (2013)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=89NonP_iZZo

 Context

Bondy (as cited in Hatch, 2002) explains that context in qualitative research involves the physical
setting, the relationships between participants and the activities they are involved. This is not static
instead this is dynamic and complex because of cultural, political and historical aspects.

Unquestionably a meaningful context should provide useful data but it should also be:

- Accessible

- Feasible

- Familiar

 Participants

In the light of Hatch (2002), selecting contexts and identifying participants are closely related
because of the participants’ interpretation of their contexts.

Qualitative researchers attempt to understand participants’ perspectives about particular events

without regard to the number of participants. That is the reason why the sample size is selected
based on researcher’s judgment.

For qualitative studies, Dawson (2002) states that purposive sampling is suitable because this
describes rather than generalises, and proposes the following samples:
  Data collection and analysis

As specified by Hatch (2002), qualitative research is flexible and does not respond to a strict
process, then strategies for data collection and analysis can be considered all along the research
design.

In the next themes, outstanding and extensive discussion about data collection and analysis will
be reviewed.

 Findings

For qualitative researchers it is essential to anticipate the findings in order to have a reference to
reflect upon what they are doing at each step of the research process (Hatch, 2002).

In agreement with Wolcott (as cited in Hatch, 2002) describes three alternatives to anticipate
findings:

 Description
Taking into account that researchers describe what they observe through their own lenses, they
could anticipate findings.

 Analysis

The analysis is the result of systematic methods, then the process can be generalised using
excerpts from the data.

 Interpretation

Interpretation is a mental process and it is here that the researcher uses his/her own thinking to
describe and analyse data.

To sum up, building a qualitative research design is a flexible process that can be modified if the
study evolves or changes (Hatch, 2002), but it is enforced to have a reliable plan that ensures that
the purposes of the research are achieved.

Resources
Designing Qualitative Studies. (2002) describes design elements to be considered in qualitative
research.

https://epdf.pub/doing-qualitative-research-in-education-settings.html

Creating a good research question (2013) highlights four steps to develop a good research
question.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=89NonP_iZZo
6.1. Data collection
As claimed by Mason (2002), it is essential to make difference between data sources and methods
for generating data. Data sources are people, places or phenomena from which data can be
generated; however, methods are techniques and strategies used to gather data.

When a qualitative researcher wants to collect data, this can be provided from different sources
(Mason, 2002).

Once the data sources have been selected, the design of instruments to collect data is
indispensable.

On the authority of Cohen (2007), it is advisable to identify the appropriate qualitative instruments
for different situations.

 In-depth-interviews point out the interviewer and interviewee’s interpretation of the setting
in which they are involved. Woods (as cited in Cohen, 2007) states that trust, curiosity and
naturalness are attributes an interviewer needs to have.

Mason (2002) suggests some ideas to consider when an in-depth interview is conducted:

 Listen -really listening- to what participants are saying.

 Remember not only what participants say but also what the researcher already asked them.
 Achieve a good balance between talking and listening.
 Observe verbal and non-verbal language.
 Conducting in-depth interviews skilfully.

 Observation lets the researcher gather live data occurring in a natural setting. Even though
it can be direct or participant, this enables the researcher to understand not only the
participants’ interpretation but also his/her context.

There are some reasons for doing observation:

 Be interested in human interactions.

 Generate meaningful and maybe unique data.
 Be active and reflexive.
 Be more ethical.
  Focus group occurs within a context of debate in which the moderator tries all the
members of the group participate. This can be time-consuming but participants’ behaviour
and attitudes could contribute to achieve a deep understanding.

It is possible to have awkward situations, then these expressions can be valuable (Dawson, 2002).

 Break-away conversations

I’m sorry, would you mind rejoining the group as this is really interesting?

 Digressions

That’s interesting, what do the rest of you think about ….?

 Dominance

Thank you for your contribution. Can we get some opinions from the rest of you, please?

 Leadership

Can you let others express their opinion as I need to get as a wide a variety as possible?

 Disruption by participants

Would you like to adhere to what we all agree at the beginning?

 Defensiveness

Would you like to express your opinion later?

 Documents are different sorts of physical or digital data from secondary sources. The two
easiest and most accessible to get this data are libraries and the internet.

When surfing the net, there are some convenient precautions to consider (Dawson, 2002)

 Use websites known and reliable.

 Check the About Us section.
 Use another source to check information.
 Look for a stamp of approval.
 Check national sources for specific information. (p. 43)

Qualitative data collection (2016)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2oFnSAG576c

6.2. Data analysis

Data analysis implies organising, accounting for and explaining the data but in qualitative studies,
this describes data considering participants’ interpretation (Cohen, 2007).

Cohen presents some ways to organise and present data analysis as follows:
  By groups of participants
 By individuals
 By issues
 By research questions
 By instruments

In the opinion of Miles and Huberman (as cited in Cohen 2007), there are some tactics to be
considered when transcribing data:

 Counting frequencies of occurrence

 Noting patterns and themes that can distract
 See plausibility
 Set items into categories
 Use metaphors and narrative language
 Split variable to be analysed
 Build a logical chain of evidences
 Be coherent

Developing a coding scheme, as specified by Patton and Cochran (2002), is an essential activity to
be developed as soon as initial data is collected. A coding scheme is a list of all the themes
generating from the data. Once the coding scheme is created, it has to be applied to the whole data.

In the example provided by Saldaña (as cited in cessda training, 2019) key words or phrases are
identified in order to link the data to the research idea.
In agreement with LeCompte and Preissle (as cited in Cohen, 2007) there are some methodological
tools for analysing qualitative data.

 Analytic induction

Data are examined to generate categories and relationships between categories. When negative
or discrepant cases are identified, they are analysed to modify a theory if necessary.

 Constant comparison

The researcher compares newly with existing data in order to achieve a perfect fit with categories
or theories.

 Typological analysis

Data is put into groups or categories in order to identify dimensions or key characteristics.

 Enumeration

Words, units of analysis, ideas, categories or frequency of codes are counted to determine
incidence.

Fundamentals of qualitative research methods: Data analysis (2015)

 Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=opp5tH4uD-w

Data collection and analysis undoubtedly are significant processes to bear in mind in qualitative
research. It is necessary to be as rigorous as possible when collecting and analysing information,
only then it can be feasible to get credible outcomes and achieve research purposes.

Resources
Qualitative data collection. (2016) describes four methods to gather information.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2oFnSAG576c

Fundamentals of qualitative research methods: Data analysis (2015) highlights the process to
describe or interpret data.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=opp5tH4uD-w
7.1. Findings
Writing up findings is a process that goes beyond reporting results, findings are used to construct
meaning in text considering relationships and patters in different ways, and if necessary to go back
to data analysis in order to generate new analysis.

Haanen (as cited in Hatch, 2002) proposes some general considerations when writing up findings.

 How much data has to be included

 Balance depends on what the researcher wants, and this will be different for each study.
 Identify representative data excerpts to support results of analysis
 One or two excerpts are usually sufficient to support major points.
 Balance theory when finds are presented
 Explanation about the relationship between findings and theory has to be simple and clear.
 Use visual representations if necessary
 Visual material should help clarify complex data and not to confuse it.
 Level of generality used to frame presentation
 Units of analysis (participants, settings, events, etc.) have to be identified.
 Determine a narrative form
 Organisation and presentation depend on the different kinds of data.

The Setup-Quote-Comment model focuses on presenting in a practical way the qualitative findings
(Weaver-Hightower, 2014).

Writing Tip 3: Writing qualitative findings paragraphs (2014)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mmKuvwk8x84

7.2. Writing choices

It is now clear that qualitative research contributes in many human disciplines by describing,
interpreting and generation theories. That’s the reason once a qualitative study has been completed,
the results must be presented.

Under this perspective, SAGE (2009) emphasises on three main reasons to present results.

 Presenting findings
 Evaluating procedures
 Reflecting on future considerations

Regardless of the reason, it is important to bear in mind not only the interaction between the
researcher and the study but also the interaction between the researcher and the prospective
readers (Clifford, as cited in SAGE, 2009). Then it is of the utmost importance to write a qualitative
report.

There are many qualitative report criteria, but the standards suggested by O’Brien et al. (2014)
summarises the main ones for reporting a qualitative research.
 Standards for reporting qualitative research:

A synthesis of recommendations (2014)

Source: http://www.mmcri.org/deptPages/core/downloads/QRIG/Standards_for_Reporting_Qualitative_Research___
A_990451.pdf

Using different methods, Dawson (2002) proposes these main ways to be analysed.
  Written reports

When writing reports, rules and guidelines established by universities or organisations have to be
followed (Dawson, 2002).

Thinking about the aimed audience, including relevant material and selecting an appropriate
written report format are guidelines that should be considered.

Dawson (2002, p. 139) states ten reasons for the failure of written reports.

 Journal articles

If the idea is to have a wider audience, the alternative is producing an article for a journal. Writing
for a journal is not an easy activity; however, the following suggestions could be practical
(Dawson, 2002).

 Choose newsworthy and original piece of research.

 Do market research.
 Check on submission guidelines.
 Read several copies of the journal to get an idea about the preferences of editors.
 Approach editors and send a short summary of the proposed article.
 Produce a concise, clear, interesting and well-written article.
 Make sure there are no mistakes.
 Ask for advice. (p. 140)

 Oral presentations
An oral presentation at a conference could be another alternative to present findings. And if the
researcher wants to have a wider audience, the written report and the oral presentation might be a
better choice.

Dawson (2002) presents a list of DOS and DON’T to be taken into consideration when a slideshow
is created.

Fundamentals of qualitative research methods: Data analysis (2015)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=opp5tH4uD-w

Conducting a research is not complete till the research report has been presented in such a way
as is deemed convenient for the researcher. However, it is important to bear in mind some useful
considerations when findings are presented.

Resources
Writing Tip 3: Writing qualitative findings paragraphs (2014) presents a formula for writing
findings paragraphs in research reports.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mmKuvwk8x84

Standards for reporting qualitative research: A synthesis of recommendations. (2014)

describes standards for reporting qualitative data.
 http://www.mmcri.org/deptPages/core/downloads/QRIG/Standards_for_

Reporting_Qualitative_Research___A_990451.pdf

Writing up qualitative data analysis (2015) highlights a range of issues that need thinking about
when writing up qualitative research.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFj2ucSP2jc
8.1. Introduction
What is ethnography?

Ethnography is the study of social interactions, behaviours, and perceptions that occur within
groups, teams, organisations, and communities. (Reeves, Cooper & Hodges, 2008)

Who was the pioneer?

Its origins are traced to the work of both the British anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski and the
American anthropologist Margareth Mead. Malinowski and Mead supported their work on the use
of participant observation by describing everyday action to understand human interactions and
generate anthropological knowledge.

Malinowski with natives on Trobriand Islands, 1918

SciHi, 2017
 Mead standing between two Samoan women, 1926

Science, 1999

What are the key features?

According to Eriksson and Kovalainen (2008), there are some key featuress that have to be
considered in ethnographic research.

Eriksson & Kovalainen, 2008

Ethnography, 2019

Source: https://es.coursera.org/lecture/qualitative-methods/2-1-ethnography-KnkHh

When is ethnography used?

Ethnography is a systematic study of people and culture (Baral, Uprety & Lamichhane, 2019);
that’s why, it could be used in the following situations:

 Searching for the meanings of cultural norms and views.

 Trying to understand the reasons for the use of certain behaviour or practices.
 Examining social trends and instances like divorce, illness, and migration.
  Examining social interactions and encounters.
 Understanding the roles of families and organizations and their behaviour.
 Identifying new patterns and gain new insights into social phenomenon.
 Understanding the hygiene and sanitation practices of communities.
 Observing the types of punishment given to children at school.
 Studying the behaviour of workers in an organization. (p. 3)

8.2. The historical background

In the words of Eriksson and Kovalainen (2014), an ethnographic research must follow these
steps:

1. Choosing a field site

2. Doing fieldwork

* Participant observation

* Ethnographic interviews

* Site documents

3. Writing field notes

4. Analysing and interpreting ethnographic data
5. Writing the research report or findings

Participant observation (2019)

Source: https://es.coursera.org/lecture/qualitative-methods/2-2-participant-observation-XrXJx

8.3. Advantages and disadvantages

In the words of Baral, Uprety and Lamichhane (2019), ethnography implies some advantages and
disadvantages to be considered.
8.4. Examples
In order to make clear the purpose and process of ethnographical research, some examples are
presented.

 An ethnographic study of professional relationships

  An ethnographic study of working-class youth culture

No doubts that an ethnographical researcher has to be very sensitive towards the culture, values
and behaviours of the social setting in which the study is being conducted. Only in this way, it
would be possible to achieve the research objectives.
Resources
La investigación etnográfica y la observación participante (2016) is a paper that discusses about
ethnographic interview and participant observation used by qualitative researchers.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311848171_LA_INVESTIGACION_

ETNOGRAFICA_Y_LA_OBSERVACION_PARTICIPANTE

Ethnography (1988) is a paper that aims to relevant aspects when conducting an ethnographic
research.

https://www.herd.org.np/uploads/frontend/Publications/PublicationsAttachments1/1480653184-
Ethnography_1.pdf
9.1. Introduction
What is action research?

As stated by Carr and Kemmis (as cited in Smith, 2007), action research is a “form of self-reflective
enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice
of their own practices, their understanding of these practices, and the situations in which the
practices are carried out” (p. 162).

From a wider perspective, Bogdan and Biklen (1992) define action research as a “systematic
collection of information that is designed to bring about social change” (p. 223).

Who was the pioneer?

Kurt Lewin, a German-American psychologist, is considered one of the founding fathers of action
research. In the light of Lewin, it is not possible to separate the research from the action needed to
solve a problem, hence the importance of ensuring the researcher’s involvement in the research
process.

What are the key features?

In the words of Borgia and Shulter (1996), the components of action research are the Five Cs:

Borgia & Shulter, 1996

Otherwise Mills (as cited by NN, 2000), there are some features that must be considered when
conducting action research.
 Ferrance, 2000

Trayectorias de investigación acción: concepciones, objetivos y planteamientos

Olivéira & Waldenez, 2010

When is action research used?

If it is considered that action research entails learning by doing, O’Brien (1998) emphasises that this
has to be used in:

 Real situations rather than experimental studies due to the fact that it focuses on solving real
problems.
 Preliminary or pilot research when the situation is unclear to conduct a rigorous research.
 Situations that imply flexibility, participants’ involvement and immediate changes.
 Studies done by practitioners who need to improve their research practice, social change
activists who want to achieve an immediate change or academics in specific fields who lack
of in-depth knowledge of research methodologies.

Action research for professional learning, 2016

bien, algunas de las cosas que quiero resolver mi nombre es Jason, así que soy el líder principal en
aprendizaje de tallos, hay ciencia, tecnología, ingeniería y matemáticas, y los puntajes australianos de
ciencias y matemáticas van a lo básico, así que mi nombre es Amanda y yo Conozco a un profesor de
ciencias y matemáticas en los sitios australianos en esa escuela en Adelaide y actualmente estoy
enseñando en equipo con Jason. Tomamos esto como un proyecto de investigación de acción para ver
qué diferencia hicieron los modelos reales de enseñanza en equipo en el enfoque de enseñanza en
equipo. el aprendizaje de los estudiantes y los resultados de los estudiantes te golpea en menos de un
segundo obtienes el máximo efecto probamos una amplia gama de enfoques diferentes el año pasado
53 personas algunas con gran éxito otras no tanto, así que hemos decidido eliminar algunas de las que
no funcionó tan bien para nosotros pensar en lo que sería apropiado muy parte de nuestra reflexión de
investigación de acción con nosotros y con los otros maestros del equipo, así que supongo que refinar
aún más los modelos qué hacer realmente hacemos eso que no podemos hacer fuera de un aula de
enseñanza en equipo que realmente funciona bien el año pasado estábamos viendo cómo podemos
usar la enseñanza en equipo para mejorar los resultados de aprendizaje para todos los estudiantes
ustedes desarrollaron algunos modelos diferentes de la última vez que no ¿tú? ¿Estaría buscando
desarrollar más o simplemente más, especialmente usando los modelos que ha desarrollado?
Realmente me gustaría continuar con esto y comenzar a mirar nuevamente el compromiso Quiero decir
que hay una gran variedad de cosas que podemos ver ahora que he visto un cambio en nuestra
pedagogía, incluso están más preparados para trabajar con los dos maestros al mismo tiempo, así que
obtuve algunos de los datos de la encuesta que recopilamos el año pasado cuando se lo mostramos a
los estudiantes uno de los cosas que han encontrado más valiosas los estudiantes estaban comenzando
a ser muy conscientes de quién aprenden mejor en diferentes momentos ambas lentes, por lo que si
querían algo que fuera más una entrega de concepto, acudían a mí si querían algo más estructurado
Amanda y ellos en realidad fueron bastante buenos para articular que lo que me interesa es el
compromiso con el sitio web. Está mirando los datos del año pasado. El otro maestro soltero enseñó
que las clases de matemáticas eran aproximadamente tres veces más y cuando obtuviste ese tipo de
cosas durante todo el año, sí, eso fue bastante sorprendente para mí. ¿Qué es la asistencia? Una
medida realmente precisa de participación es lo que usamos para el emulador. en su mayoría grupos
focales y encuestas de estudiantes, muchos de los datos que regresaron, la asistencia en realidad no
se pensaron demasiado tarde, pero justo cuando los sacamos del portal, los resultados fueron tan
diferentes que los pusimos también por estructurar un proceso de investigación de acción formal en la
escuela y nos da tiempo para sentarnos así, discutir algunas de las cosas que hemos hecho, algunas
de las cosas que hemos intentado y comenzar a plantear algunas de las preguntas sobre hacia dónde
queremos mirar en el futuro, todavía queremos intentar mejorar el rendimiento. En realidad, todavía no
tenemos una forma de medir el rendimiento. averigüen cuál es su experiencia en su clase y vean si me
entienden. Dejé que me enfoquen en grupos nuevamente porque tenemos algunos estudiantes que
también se están cruzando ahora y están en nuestra clase de matemáticas y también hay viceversa, no
están formalmente no siguen ninguno de los dos vienen a la clase Me gusta espacio de enseñanza para
ellos sobre por qué encajar cómodamente cuando la concentración en mi torrente sanguíneo llega a 15
partes por millón el liderazgo se lo llevamos y les dijimos mira, tenemos que cambiar, tenemos que
movernos, sabes que estoy feliz como Larry y cambió nuestro dinámico lo que estábamos haciendo y
eso ha sido un gran resultado desde algunos investigadores desde las perspectivas de los estudiantes
fue el compromiso colaboración asistencia estrés y ansiedad No sé si realmente miramos eso, pero
creo que, como estudiante, hay un efecto secundario del compromiso. Mayor compromiso. Creo que
reduce el estrés y la ansiedad porque tal vez quiera tener algo sobre eso. a los que socialmente no les
gusta hablar frente a un grupo grande de personas Creo que no ayuda porque no tenemos un grupo
grande, así que será interesante ver que es un tiempo de texto sí, debe haber tiempo para que el
maestro reflexione sobre lo que fue exactamente lo que fue innovador y cómo eso influyó, cambió y
mejoró los resultados de los estudiantes. Puedo ver cómo nuestra investigación de acción ha tenido un
impacto que ahora se está extendiendo a otros aspectos de la escuela donde están los maestros.
enseñar porque tenemos datos que dicen que sí ha mejorado la participación de los estudiantes sí, los
maestros se están beneficiando y aprendiendo unos de otros y también disfrutan más de su trabajo y
esa es una de las cosas brillantes sobre el proceso de investigación de acción en el escuela

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F-KJMDxpEaw

9.2. How to conduct action research

For Mertler (2008), action research implies a spiral of steps in which planning, acting, developing
and reflecting converge to achieve a new cycle or the end of a research.
 Step-by-Step Process of Action Research

Mertler, 2008

Planning stage

 Identify and limit the topic

It all starts with a question to be answered, which is related to a manageable problem to be

solved.

 Gathering information

In line with Mills (as cited in Mertler, 2008), preliminary data is collected by taking time to reflect,
talking with key participants, and reviewing documents (self-reflection, description and
explanation).

 Reviewing related literature

Data is reviewed by using research methods and it provides a solid foundation for conducting a
research.

 Developing a research plan

Observations, interviews or experiments are just some of the methods that can be used to design
a research plan.

Acting stage

 Collecting data

It is important to determine the data collection techniques (instruments) to be used in the study.

 Analysing data

Data must be analysed by looking for themes, categories, or patterns.

Developing stage

 Developing an action plan

The action plan must include guidelines for implementing alternative solutions.

Reflecting stage

 Sharing and communicating results

Reporting results makes participants understand the relevance of the project.

 Reflecting on the process

Reflecting on practice determines the project effectiveness and future implementations of the
project.

The process of action research

Adapted from Mertler and Charles, 2008

Action research, 2017

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ov3F3pdhNkk

https://www.academia.edu/8652023/INTRODUCTION_TO_ACTION_RESEARCH
9.3. Advantages and disadvantages
There are a number of reasons why action research should or shouldn’t be chosen. (Dick, 1993)

Advantages and disadvantages

Dick, 1993

Action research theses

Dick, 1993

9.4. Examples
The examples below highlight two ways drawings might be used in action research. (University of
Maryland, 2012)

* Example from an ESL Classroom

Mr. B wanted to better understand the experiences his ninth grade ESL science students had with learning science in
order to provide them with more relevant and effective instruction. Because of their diverse backgrounds, he thought
drawings might serve as a rich data source not limited by English language skills.

He also knew that drawing would be enjoyable for his students and could serve to get them talking about science. With
his five-year performance review coming up, he wanted to have additional content for his portfolio, and action research
would be a valuable addition.

Action Research Question

He started with the research question, "What are the experiences of my ESL students with science?" After reviewing
the literature using Google Scholar, he modified his question to be more specific. His new question was "W hat
experiences do my ninth grade ESL students have learning science prior to entering my class?" He also added the
question, "To what extent do my learners (and my science teaching) show evidence of 21st-Century recommendations
for science education made by the US National Research Council?"

Research Plan

His plan was to collect drawings from students in each of his ESL science classes in response to the prompt "Draw
yourself learning in science before coming to this country." Mr. B also asked students in his non-ESL classes to draw
themselves learning science to allow for a comparison. In order to strengthen his research, he also planned to use
additional sources of data. This included having students describe what they drew in writing on the back of their drawing
and conducting interviews with five students about their experiences.

To guide his research Mr. B decided to use social constuctivism as a conceptual framework (or theory of understanding)
because of its focus on social and cultural aspects of learning.

To analyze and interpret the data, Mr. B planned to use the rubric found on this site. To help reduce any bias he asked
a fellow teacher to also score the drawings using the rubric. This also gave him the opportunity to collaborate and
discuss his research with another educator.

In addition to modifying his own instruction, Mr. B planned to share the results of his research with other teachers in the
science department at their monthly meeting and with other ESL teachers in the school.

* Action research about science experiences

Ms S, a fourth grade teacher, was pursuing her Master's in education. Action research was a large part of the
requirement for a course in her program. For her action research project, she decided to study her students' experiences
with science outside of the classroom.

She had noticed that some students would discuss trips to museums, parks, and after-school science programs. Ms S
wondered how common these experiences were and which students were involved.

Ms. S thought this information would be valuable in connecting her students' experiences to classroom instruction. In
addition, it would allow her to encourage students to contribute to discussions and activities. She also hoped that by
understanding what her students were doing outside of school she could offer suggestions to parents and encourage
science learning.

Action Research Question

After discussing her research with her professor and peers she decided to investigate the research questions, "What
experiences outside of the classroom during the summer break do my students self-identify as associated with learning
science? How do they compare what and how they learn science in the differing environments (formal science
classrooms and informal science settings)? How can I use that information to enhance my science instruction?" Since
Ms. S planned to collect data at the beginning of the school year she wanted to focus on what took place over summer
vacation. This information would then be useful for the rest of the year and help her get to know her students at the
beginning of the school year.

Research Plan

After visiting www.DrawnToScience.org, Ms S thought drawings might be a useful and non-threatening way to collect
data from her students, especially early in the school year. In order to collect data, Ms S planned to use a modified
version of the drawing prompt used on this website. The revised prompt would ask students to "draw the science-related
activities you did over the summer." Students would also be asked to write a description of the activity on the back of
the drawing.

Ms S conducted a review of the literature in order to understand what research had already been done, and for ideas
on conducting her action research project. Based on what she found she then developed a plan to collect and analyse
data. To analyse the data she planned to develop her own scoring rubric for the drawings using the rubric on this website
as a model and from information found in her literature review.

At the end of the semester, Ms S planned to turn in the final paper on her research to her professor and give a
presentation. She also was considering submitting a proposal to present at a local education conference.

Even though action research is considered only a procedure, not a method (McTaggart, 1996), it
can be a useful device for some disciplines that need changes to improve situations or redirect
processes.

Resources
* Trayectorias de investigación acción: concepciones, objetivos y planteamientos (2010) focuses
on the historical background, new insights, objectives, approaches and main features of action
research.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277259562_Trayectorias_de_investigacion_accion_Con
cepciones_objetivos_y_planteamientos

* Action research theses (1993) is a paper that explains how to conduct and report action
research.

http://www.aral.com.au/DLitt/DLitt_P50arth.pdf
10.1. Introduction
What is case study?

There are a variety of definitions of case study; however, the most common definitions come from
Stake and Merriam (as cited in Harrison, Birks, Franklin & Mills, 2002).

In the words of Stake (1995), this studies the particularity and complexity of a single case
considering the context. On the other hand, for Merriam (2009) a case study implies a depth
description and analysis of an individual unit emphasizing developmental factors in relation to
context.

Who was the pioneer?

A French sociologist called Frederic Le Play was the first who introduced the case-study method
into social science in 1829. He developed this method when he was collecting data for his research
about the family as the main agent of social stability and moral authority in the face of
industrialization and its social conflicts (Enciclopaedia Brittanica, 2019).

On Family, work and social change

Amazon.com, 2019

In the 1900s, Sigmund Freud and his daughter, Anna Freud, Austrian neurologist and psychologist;
respectively, conducted in-depth psychoanalytic investigations into their patients’ private lives in
order to understand human personality and behaviour. (History and Biographies, 2019)

Sigmund and Anna Freud

 Lifestyle, 2014

What are the key features?

Based on Harrison et al. (2002), a case study involves the following key attributes:

In order to achieve the credibility in a case study, Sturman (1997) suggests the following strategies:

When is case study used?

Taking into account that a case study is a comprehensive description of an individual case and its
analysis (as cited in Starman, 2013), it could be used in these situations:

 Complex issues in real-life context.

 Situations where the contextual details have to be analysed, but the phenomenon is not
distinct from context.
 Generation of research questions of social settings.
 Human experiences studies.
 Individuals’ studies in their natural settings.
 Conceptualization of phenomena.

10.2. How to conduct a case study

In agreement with Teegavarapu and Summers (2008), a typical case study method implies three
distinctive stages:
Once the case study design is clear, Yin (2003) states that it is necessary to consider these
components:

 Case study questions: How and Why types of research questions.

 Case study propositions: They are similar to hypothesis and guide the researcher into the
right way.
 Units of analysis: Individual, group, organization, event or process.
 Logic linking data to propositions: Specific methods for data analysis and interpretation.
 Criteria to interpret case study results: Formulate well distinguishable theories, rather than
theories with subtle difference.

10.3. Advantages and disadvantages

In the words of Starman (2013), a case study involves some benefits and objections to be
considered.
 El estudio de casos

López, 2013

10.4. Examples
The following examples are based on data gathered for previous research about breaks from caring, as
part of a review of a break service for people with dementia.

* Susan has been caring for her dad who has had Alzheimer
Susan said that she and her family struggled with the diagnosis at first, because they thought it would be a quick journey
downhill. The reality has been a bit different. Though they didn’t know where to turn to get help at the start, the carers’
centre and dementia café have been a lifeline. And her dad has more friends through the dementia café than he had
before.

She described how the whole family were unhappy with the idea of respite at first. Her dad didn’t want to go because
he was anxious that he was ‘going into a home’ and Susan and her brother felt guilty as a result.

However, from the first visit, the respite worked well and Susan reported that her dad is really well looked after which
gave her and her brother the confidence to keep going with it, in the knowledge that he is being well treated. Susan said
that she now paces herself; knowing that she is going to get a break every four weeks is making a big difference and
she can focus on and work towards the respite date. Without the dates ahead she doesn’t think she could cope with
rising stress levels.

Susan said her dad described himself as ‘one of the boys’ in respite, and is animated afterwards because he has lots
to talk about. Her main concern is that he should still be able to keep regular contact with friends in the new service.

* Jim is caring for his wife and they are both in their late 70s

Jim says that he is coping with caring for his wife and that he will keep on coping because it is his duty and he doesn’t
want to let her down. However, Jim doesn’t think he could cope without breaks and a chance to ‘recharge his batteries.’
Jim is conscious of the fact that there aren’t a lot of resources and doesn’t want to take ‘more than his fair share’.

What he would like to change is to have more of a choice in the dates available for respite. For example, he would like
to spend more time with his grandchildren during the school holidays.

Jim found out about respite through his daughter’s friend who works in the carers centre. He said that he felt like he was
letting his wife down the first time she went to respite but he was reassured when he saw how nice it was. He wouldn’t
say that she was happy there, but she was settled.

Jim says he would have appreciated a bit of help, or an intermediary, to persuade his wife that it was a good idea. She
was very suspicious at first and it was only when her friend went that she would be persuaded.

Jim says he does not want to have to deal with lots of new staff, because his wife does not take kindly to strangers’,
preferring familiar faces.

All case study: Positive Education

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XGNLyJSiSBc

If the aim is to get a deeper concrete and unbiased understanding of a real-life situation, a case study
could be an appropriate alternative to be considered.

Resources
El estudio de casos: una vertiente para la investigación educativa (2013) shows the results of a
theoretical review whose main objective was to determine the key elements included in a case
study design.

https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/356/35630150004.pdf
11.1. Introduction
What is phenomenological research?

As claimed by Husserl (1970), pure phenomenological research describes rather than explains,
based on a perspective free from preconceptions or bias. Even though more recent humanist
researchers like Plummer, Stanley and Wise (1993), emphasise the importance of interpretations
on findings as well as the researcher’s participation.

In 1999, Lester claimed that phenomenological research has the purpose to identify phenomena
based on the participants’ perception in a situation. Besides gathering perceptions implies the use
of qualitative methods such as in-depth interviews and participant observation.

Phenomenology is a form of qualitative research that in agreement with Neubauer, Witkop and
Varpio (2019) focuses on the study of an individual’s lived experiences within the world.

Who was the pioneer?

Britannica, 2019

Phenomenology originates in the early 20th century with Edmund Husserl. Husserl’s approach gave
equal value both objective and subjective experiences; that’s why, he rejected absolute positivism
and argued that the way individuals perceived the phenomena should be the object of scientific
studies.

For Husserl all scientific knowledge is the result of inner evidence, which is seen as what appears
in consciousness. That’s why to understand the phenomenon as it is lived by a person is so relevant
in phenomenological research.

What are the key features?

 Try to find the core of a phenomenon by exploring it from the participants’ perspective.
 Focus on what was experienced and how it was experienced.
 As stated by Neubauer, Witkop and Lara (2019), there are three contemporary
phenomenological blended approaches to be considered.
  Orient or reorient the way experiences are understood based on new meanings and
appreciations.
 Deal with other qualitative approaches such as ethnography, hermeneutics and symbolic
interactionism.
 Based on this interaction, make comparisons between transcendental and hermeneutic
phenomenology is required. (Neubauer, Witkop & Lara, 2019, p. 92)

When is phenomenological research used?

Phenomenological research is very common to find in the following cases:

 Complex issues in real-life context.

 Clarifying the nature of being human.
 Own direct experiences or other people’s experiences acquired during the research process
to describe and analyse the phenomenon, in order to produce in-depth knowledge of it.
 Prospective methodology for subjective experiencing in science education research.

11.2. How to conduct phenomenological research

In the words of Strebert’s (as cited in Vilakati (n.d.), the phenomenological research involves these
procedural steps:

 Explicate a personal description of the phenomenon of interest.

 Bracket the researcher’s presuppositions.
 Interview participants in unfamiliar settings.
 Carefully read the interview transcripts to obtain a general sense of the experience.
 Review the transcripts to uncover essences.
 Apprehend essential relationships.
 Develop formalised descriptions of the phenomenon.
 Review the relevant literature (literature control).
 Distribute the findings to the community. (p. 6)

In order to conduct a phenomenological research, it is suggested the following four strategies:

 Intuiting

This is a “process of thinking through the data so that a true comprehensive or accurate
interpretation of what is meant in a particular description is achieved”. (Streubert & Carpenter,
1999, p. 331)

 Bracketing

Holloway and Wheeler (1996) infer that bracketing is a “process of holding assumptions and
presuppositions in suspension to improve the rigour of the research” (p. 207).

 Analysing

This process involves “identifying the essence of the phenomenon under investigation based on
the data obtained and how data are presented. (Brink & Wood, 1998, p.20)

 Describing

This final strategy refers to “communicate and describe (verbal and written) distinct, critical
elements of the phenomenon thereby communicating to others what the researcher has found.
(Brink & Wood, 1998, p.23)

11.3. Advantages and disadvantages

This type of research implies some benefits but and at the same time some downsides that have to
keep in mind (Armstrong, 2010; Connect us Fund, 2020).
11.4. Focus group
These are two examples of phenomenological studies.

* A qualitative phenomenological exploration of teachers' experience with nutrition

education
Background: Nutrition education delivered by classroom teachers has become a popular intervention designed to
combat childhood obesity. However, few qualitative studies have explored nutrition education with teachers Purpose:
The purpose of this study was to explore how elementary teachers describe their experience with nutrition education.

Methods: A qualitative phenomenological approach was used. Semistructured interviews, observations, and document
analysis were conducted with 10 teachers who delivered nutrition education in their classrooms. Inductive coding was
used to determine invariant constituents, reduce constituents to categories, and cluster categories into themes.

Reliability and validity were accomplished through intercoder agreement, audio recording, triangulation, bracketing, and
member checking. Results: Results identified 5 core themes related to roles teachers play in nutrition education, the
importance placed upon nutrition, motivation for supplementary activities, barriers, and a triadic relationship between
students, teachers, and curriculum. Discussion: Findings reveal interactions within the nutrition education experience in
which teachers balance barriers with their value of nutrition education and motivation to help students make healthy
choices. Translation to Health Education Practice: Health educators should work with classroom teachers at the program
design, implementation, and evaluation stages of curriculum development to better address needs and facilitate the
delivery of high-quality nutrition education for students.

* The looking glass effect: A phenomenological study of graduate Asian students’ English
writing challenges

Increasingly more students from China are looking to the USA for learning opportunities. Despite being beneficial for
both stakeholders, this phenomenon has some deep-rooted issues pertaining to cross cultural language acquisition
barriers that may be preventing such learners from reaching their full potential in academic accomplishments.

This phenomenological study of five Chinese students in the USA, engaged in the process of English language
communication, is a step towards understanding this phenomenon. The study’s findings led to the development of a
new metaphorical paradigm (Looking Glass Effect Paradigm) to explain the key issues faced by such learners, a new
pedagogical approach (Globally Infused Pedagogy), and an innovative teaching strategy recommendation (Customized
Learning Camp) to assist Chinese learners in gaining English language competencies.

In few words, pphenomenological studies conjugate perceptions and perspectives to understand

how people live a phenomenon.

Resources
* Phenomenology (2014) refers to a journey to learn about types, methods and limitations of
phenomenology.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7uNp7okdc-E

* Investigación cualitativa: Método fenomenológico hermenéutico (2019) explains the fundamental

conceptions of phenomenology.

http://www.scielo.org.pe/pdf/pyr/v7n1/a10v7n1.pdf
12.1. Introduction
What is grounded theory?

Grounded theory (GT) is a systematic and flexible methodology in the social sciences. This focuses
on the generation of theory, which is supported on data that has been methodically collected and
analysed. (Noble & Mitchell, 2016)

In agreement with Glaser and Strauss (as cited in Chun Tie, Birks & Francis, 2019), GT aims to
construct an explanatory theory that exposes a process inherent to the fundamental area of inquiry.

In few words, GT points out to produce theory that is found a basis on data.

Who was the pioneer?

When little is known about a phenomenon, GT could be conducted as a research method. It was
developed by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, American sociologists, in 1967 in the United
States. After writing their success on the medical community, Awareness of Dying, they decided to
write The Discovery of Grounded Theory. This book of methodology implies a comparative strategy
to discover grounded theory, the use of qualitative and quantitative data, and the implications of
grounded theory. (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)

Eduso.net, 2019

Even though GT was aimed primarily to sociological field, now it could be applied in any social field
like educational, psychological, political, economic, and so on.

In 1990 Glaser decided to write the book Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory
Procedures and Techniques with Juliet Corbin. This publication caused Strauss’ criticism. It took a
little time to solve this issue, and in 1996, Glaser and Strauss decided to write a second edition of
their successful methodology book, but unfortunately Strauss died before it was completed. (Morse,
2010)

What are the key features?

Based on Noble and Mitchell (2016), grounded theory focuses on the following key features:
Data can be collected using in-depth interviews, participant observation and focus groups because
of data-rich these methods provide.

Glaser and Strauss (as cited in Noble & Mitchell (2016) first made reference to theoretical sampling,
process which implies:

On the other hand, Howitt and Cramer (2011) focuses on some principles that have to be considered
when grounded theory is conducted are as follows:
When is grounded theory used?

No doubt the grounded theory is designed to be usable in the context of a variety of theoretical
approaches (ScienceDirect, 2019).

 Construct of a theory.
 Modify existing theories from different perspectives.
 Expand on or uncover differences from what is already known about a theory.

12.2. How to conduct grounded theory

On the words of Howitt and Cramer (2011, p. 352), grounded theory analysis focuses on the
following guidelines:

 Develop research question: This guides initial data collection.

 Begin data collection: Data collection is an enfolding process.
 Code of data: Give each line of data a code or label to describe its content.
 Theoretical sampling: As theoretical ideas develop, modify data collection to test these
ideas.
 Category development based on coding: Monitor for evidence of category saturation.
 Theoretical sampling of new sorts of data to test developing ideas: Monitor for evidence of
category saturation based on these new ideas.
 Test hypothesis based on the theory which developed above: This is based on the
information available in the present study.
 Test ideas in other settings to see whether the theory works in these: This is about
developing a formal theory which works more widely.
 Overall: Any stage should be compared with relevant other stages in order to maximise fit
of theories, categories and data.

Grounded theory, 2014

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M2DyB-hGX-Q

12.3. Advantages and disadvantages

As stated by El Hussein, Hirst, Salyers and Osuji (2014), grounded theory implies some benefits
and objections to bear in mind. (p. 3)
 La teoría fundamentada en el marco de la investigación educativa

Alarcón, Munera & Montes, 2016

12.4. Examples
The following examples are given on the basis of grounded theory applied to education.

* Jim A Grounded Theory of Professional Learning in an Authentic Online Professional

Development Program
Online professional development (OPD) programs have become increasingly popular. However, participating in
professional development does not always lead to profound professional learning. Previous research endeavours have
often focussed on measuring user acceptance or on comparing the effectiveness of OPD with a face-to-face delivery,
but there is little knowledge of how the process of professional learning actually occurs in OPD.

This study explores how professional learning takes place in an OPD program designed according to the principles of
authentic e-learning, and how the learning design and technologies used impact on the professional learning
experienced by the participants.

The context of the study is an international OPD program in vaccine management developed and offered by World
Health Organization. A grounded theory approach was employed to develop a theorised model of the professional
learning process in an authentic online learning environment.

The findings show that professional learning was facilitated in a dynamic web of interactions rather than by covering
content: the learner is at the centre of the process, actively engaged in authentic tasks in collaboration with peers, while
mentors and content play a supporting role. Technology facilitates and enables the web of interactions. The learning
process was found to bear resemblance to the type of professional learning that occurs in authentic workplace settings,
which implies that the authentic e-learning principles provide a helpful learning design framework for OPD.

* A Grounded Theory Analysis of Beginning Teachers’ Experiences: Illuminating Leadership

Capacities

Based on a grounded theory analysis of beginning teacher experiences, this article describes the process identified as
negotiating the paradox of loving the idea of being a teacher but not necessarily liking the work as teacher. Beginning
teachers recognized the often overwhelming professional responsibilities of teaching, yet assumed personal
responsibility for creating contextually relevant learning experiences for students.

This analysis includes an unprecedented finding in that participants manifested what were coined leadershipping skills,
attitudes and characteristics to describe what they themselves do as leaders.
Further, it discusses the fact that while beginning teachers perceive themselves as teachers and they know the tasks
they perform are leadership-type activities, the word leader is embedded in the culture of education in such a manner
that only those with administrative duties are considered leaders.

The study also considers how the image of beginning teachers may be enlarged to foster critically conscious
practitioners.

In few words, grounded theory is aimed to construct theories based on data systematically gathered
and analysed.

Resources
* La teoría fundamentada en el marco de la investigación educativa (2016) explains the theory
and methodology within the research framework.

https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=6069707
13.1. Introduction
What is narrative research?

As human beings make their way through life, they have endless experiences and dialogue
interactions both with their surrounding environment and with themselves. Structuring these
experiences and dialogs implies the use of a meaningful unit and this unit could be a story; that’s to
say, a narrative. (Moen, 2006)

Then a narrative is a human feature that focuses on the description of people’s experiences to be
told to themselves and others.

For this reason, it is key to understand narrative as a research process. Gudmundsdottir (2001)
expresses that “a narrative research is the study of how human beings experience the world, and
narrative researchers collect these stories and write narratives of experience.” (p. 56)

Bleakley and Lieblich (as cited in Butina, 2015) state that narrative research uses stories as data in
order to have a depth understanding of culture, historical experiences, identity, and lifestyles of the
narrator. At that point, conducting narrative research implies making inquiries regarding human
experiences’ narratives or making inquiries that generate data in a narrative way.

In line with Butina (2015), narrative studies “include the collection of narrative (stories) from
individuals or small groups.” (p. 190). It is also exposed that the lack of a universal narrative
approach involves to focus on research purpose and questions. However, there are guidelines and
processes that can be considered when collecting and analysing data.

Who was the pioneer?

Taking into account some meaningful terms that define the narrative research -human beings,
experience, environment and dialogue- Vygotsky’s and Bakhtin’s contribution will be considered.

BlogUCLM, 2020

In the light of Lev Vygotsky (as cited in Moen, 2006, p. 57), “human learning and development occur
in socially and culturally shaped contexts.” Under this perspective, becoming what an individual is
depends on what he has experienced in the social contexts in which he has involved in. However,
it is relavant to consider that historical conditions are always changing, and as a consequence
human mind and behaviour also change. (Schribner, 1985)

In few words, he claimed that human mind is not fixed; that’s to say, it is not possible to comprehend
its functioning without considering how and where this occurs.

Mikhai Bakhtin (as cited in Moen, 1986) was the creator of dialogism, a language philosophy and
social theory that focuses on dialogic. Life is dialogic because human beings conduct dialogues not
only with the surrounding environment but also with themseleves in their consciousness.
 Amazon.es, 2017

For Bakhtin, a dialogue denotes that none of the things people say or do, whether they speak, listen,
write, read, or think, occur in a vacuum.

To have an in-depth understanding of what a dialogue is, three main concepts – utterance, addresse
and voice- must be considered.

There are some researchers such as Dysthe (2001), Elbaz-Luwisch, Moen and Gudmundsdottir
(2002), Hundeide (2001), Wertsch (1991) and other, who have supported Bakhtin’s theories as a
useful complement to Vygotsky’s ideas.

What are the key features?

Based on literature, there are some features to be taken into account in narrative research.

Creswell (2012) believes that before selecting a type of narrative, it is essential to answer these
questions:

Then a type of narrative design can be selected. (Hoshmand, 2005)

When is narrative research used?

Because of its narrative perspective (McAlpine, 2016), narrative research can be used in these
fields.

 Psychology and psychiatry fields

 Sociology and anthropology studies
 Business and organisational studies
 Education, sociolinguistics, gender and history studies
 Health issues

Why to think in narrative, 2011

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dPCfDfrFzx4

13.2. How to conduct narrative research

There are seven common steps to conduct a narrative study. Even though these steps are listed
sequentially, this is only a suggestion to researchers (Colorado State University, n.d.).

1. Identify a problem or phenomenon to explore

Identifying an issue or concern provides the purpose for a study and enables the researcher to
understand personal or social experiences of an individual or group of individuals.

2. Select one or more participants to study

Select an individual or group of individuals who can provide an understanding of the issue. Based
on their experiences, they have to be selected carefully.

3. Collect the story from that participant

The participant can share verbally a story through conversations or interviews, or provide written
information through field texts. Journal or diary entries, letters sent by the individual, photographs,
memory boxes, and stories acquired through friends or family members can be considered.

4. Restory or retell the individual’s story

This involves examining the raw data, identifying key elements, organizing and sequencing these
elements, and then retelling a story that describes the individual’s experiences. Restorying helps
the reader to understand the story by sequencing it in a logical order. Stories commonly include the
following elements: setting, characters, problems, actions, and resolution.

5. Collaborate with the participant/storyteller

All over the narrative process, the researcher works with the participant/storyteller to ensure that his
experiences are accurately portrayed.

6. Write a story about the participant’s experiences

The participant’s life experiences are written into a story by the researcher. Highlighting specific
themes that emerged throughout the story and involving a section about the importance of narrative
research can be helpful to readers.
 7. Validate the report’s accuracy

An accurate report is essential to preserving the story. Conferring with individuals and searching for
disconfirming evidence will protect the.

13.3. Advantages and disadvantages

In the words of Butina (2015), it is essential to consider some benefits and limitations narrative
research has.

Advantages and disadvantages

Butina, 2015

In order to reinforce the relevance of the content covered, further information about narrative
research has been included in the sources as follows.

Narrative research, 2016

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKDB6MeIe34
 La investigación biográfico-narrativa, una alternativa para el estudio de los docentes

Aguilar & Reyes, 2013

13.4. Examples
Some examples of narrative research are shown below.

* Narrative research: An alternative approach to study language teaching and learning

* A Narrative Research Approach: The Experiences of Social Media Support in Higher
Education

Narrative research gives the opportunity to explore personal experiences beyond the objective data,
providing an in-depth understanding of participants and their social environment.

Resources
La investigación biográfico-narrativa, una alternativa para el estudio de los docentes (2013)
focuses on the incidence of this approach on education.

https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/447/44729878019.pdf
14.1. Introduction
What is feminist research?

In the light of Robbins (as cited in Brayton, Ollivier and Robbins, 2019), feminist research makes
reference to research done by, for and about women.

Feminist researchers believe that women experiences have been ignored for a long time because
research was focused on male topics and the results generalised the whole population.

On the other hand, feminist researchers not only critique the topics of research but also the methods.
For them, people must be treated as research subjects not objects. (Dawson, 2002)

Who was the pioneer?

Feminist research first emerged with work related to social equality for women. A passionate activist
was Mary Wollstonecraft, an English writer, who published Thoughts on the Education of
Daughters in 1787, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman and The Changing Woman in 1792. Her
works were calls for women and men to be educated and treated equally.

ProProfs, 2013

Another women’s rights activist was Sojourner Truth, an African-American abolitionist, who argued
that women had limited rights because of men's erroneous perception of women. In 1851, Truth
published Ain't I a Woman, a speech that focuses on how black women face slavery, not only for
blackness but also for womaness.

Karashall, 2011

The American feminist psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, Jean Baker Miller, was analysing the self-
worth of women on society for almost 50 years. In her pioneering 1976 book, Toward a New
Psychology of Women, she questioned why women believe there is something wrong with them,
when the wrong lies with the way modern culture views them. (Harvard Square Library, 2019)
 Wikipedia, 2017

Nancy F. Cott is a highly qualified American professor at Yale and Harvard universities, who focused
particularly on women’s suffrage in the 1920s. At the beginning, she argued that a woman must be
respected as a universal entity; as a consequence, she has the right to vote. But later she
emphasised on woman's condition as a social construct, gender identity and relationships within
and between genders. (Cott, 1989)

Yale, 2001

No doubt, there is a diversity of women such as Susan Kingsley Kent, Juliet Mitchell, Simone de
Beauvoir, Toril Moi, Marilyn French and so on, who have contributed significantly with the feminist
theories.

What are the key features?

According to Willsher and Goel (2017), there are three main perspectives to be considered in
feminist theory.
It is also relevant to mention the key principles of feminist research theory. (Willsher & Goel, 2017)

When is feminist research used?

Because of its social perspective (Neuman, 2006), feminist research can be used in all situations
where women are involved.

 Social work, anthropology and education

 Race, social class and gender inequity
 Unethical situations that cause women’s oppression
 Political, economic, business and environmental issues

How Equality Happens: The Power of Women’s Movements, 2017

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqSFjxD9h0M

14.2. How to conduct a feminist research

For feminist researchers, traditional research often marginalises women’s life. Incorporating gender
only as a variable under study makes it a mere referential point without assuming centrality (Kaur &
Nagaich, 2019).

Considering the above, feminist research can follow quantitative or qualitative methodologies and
methods, but in the words of Kaur and Nagaich, this must emphasise on gender-sensitive indicators
and measurements of change.
For Jayaratne and Stewart (1991), a feminist research could follow these steps:

1. Selection of research topic must imply a potential to help women’s lives.

2. Methods should be appropriate for the kind of question asked and the information needed.
3. Research designs should combine quantitative and qualitative methods whenever possible.
4. The research procedures should be bias-free.
5. Adequate time and efforts should be taken to do quality research.
6. Political analysis of the findings must be attempted.
7. There should be active participation in the dissemination of research results. (p. 48)

Introductory Video Clip-Feminist research methods (2019)

Source: https://libguides.uvic.ca/educationresearchmethods/education/researchmethods/books/feministresearch

Understanding Feminist Research Methodology in Social Science

Kaur & Nagaich, 2019

14.3. Advantages and disadvantages

According to Kaur and Nagaich (2019), feminist research involves some advantages and
disadvantages to be considered.
 Advantages and disadvantages

Kaur & Nagaich, 2019

La construcción de una metodología feminista cualitativa de enfoque narrativa-crítico

Beiras, Cantera & Casasanta, 2017

14.4. Examples
In order to make clear the purpose and process of feminist research, some examples are exposed.

*A Religious and Political Fundamentalisms as a Threat to Women’s Rights: Challenges in

the Legislature in Brazil
The debate about the right to safe abortion in Brazil and many countries in Latin America is closely linked to religious
and political fundamentalisms that historically have been associated with the political right. However, in recent years we
have observed that leftist governments and parties, to protect their own interests and political alliances, have attempted
to negotiate the rights won by women—and particularly the right to legal abortion.

In the specific case of Brazil, religious fundamentalisms of different origins exist in many spheres that should be secular
according to the federal Constitution, including the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government. This case
study describes and analyses the composition and strategies of the fundamentalist forces in Brazil. This analysis serves
as a framework for the Centro Feminista de Estudos e Assessoria’s (CFEMEA, Feminist Centre for Studies and Advisory
Services) advocacy work: in the national parliament (located in Brasilia) to counteract the influence of fundamentalist
groups. This case study focuses on bill 1135/1991as a concrete example of this broader situation. The bill would
decriminalize abortion during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy.

In 2008, the bill was voted on and rejected by two parliamentary committees, whose reports quoted biblical passages.
The article concludes with reflections and proposals for feminist action in the future. (Rodriguez, Alessander, Mori &
Fleischer, 2009)

* Religious Fundamentalisms in Indigenous Contexts in Chiapas and the Violation of

Women's Rights

This case study encompasses two cases involving indigenous women in Tzeltal communities in Chiapas, south-eastern
Mexico. The two cases were integrated because the context and the ways religious fundamentalisms operate in both
are similar. The marginalization and social exclusion experienced by indigenous women negatively impact the exercise
of their rights.

These women live in an environment in which religious fundamentalist practices and ideas are promoted by state and
local actors, with complex impacts on the situation of women. Also, the involvement of Colectivo de Encuentro entre
Mujeres de San Cristóbal de las Casas (COLEM, Women’s Collective of San Cristóbal de las Casas) in both the cases
required a common set of assumptions, actions and strategies.

In one case, a woman was expelled from her community in the 1990s as a result of events linked to religion and cultural
practices and customs. The other case involved the rape of a young disabled woman, who was then denied the right to
terminate her pregnancy. The young woman faced discrimination when she and her family attempted to seek justice.
Both cases involve various violations of women’s rights by individuals and leaders in their communities, as well as
actions and omissions by the local authorities and state institutions, which aggravated the violations of these women’s
rights. The religious beliefs, practices and ideas associated with some indigenous customs and practices – as well as
sexism, ethnic discrimination and other issues – form the back drop to these cases of injustice and violence against
women in indigenous communities. In this same context, several women and organizations struggle using legal,
communications, alliance-building and political strategies to promote the rights of women and the elimination of beliefs
and practices associated with Evangelical and Catholic fundamentalisms that also create a situation that violates
women’s rights. (Molina & Figueroa, 2019)

Providing knowledge to enhance understanding of feminist research can contribute to empower

women and other social oppressed groups, as long as a social change benefits the whole society.

Resources
La construcción de una metodología feminista cualitativa de enfoque narrativa-crítico (2019)
emphasises on qualitative methodology of narrative-critical approach.

https://scielo.conicyt.cl/pdf/psicop/v16n2/0718-6924-psicop-16-02-00054.pdf