Computer science computer networks

Paper: CS6T2 : COMPUTER NETWORKS

PROGRAMME:BSC
SUBJECT: COMPUTER SCIENCE
SEMESTER: 6th SEM
SESSION:30

Text book reference:

Douglas E Comer and M.S.Narayana, “Computer Networks and Internets”, 5th edition,
Pearson Education, 2013
Computer science computer networks

Long-distance and Local Loop Digital Technologies

ISDN, Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Technology, other DSL technologies

The Local Loop

The term local subscriber line or local loop describes the physical connection
between a telephone company Central Office (CO) and a subscriber’s location. To understand
how a local loop can be used, it is important to think of the local loop as independent from
the rest of the phone system. Although the overall phone system is engineered to provide
each dialup call with 4 KHz of bandwidth, the local loop portion consists of a pair of copper
wires, and often has much higher potential bandwidth. In particular, the local loop for a
subscriber close to a CO may be able to handle frequencies above 1 MHz.

ISDN
As data networking became important, telephone companies explored ways to use the
local loop to provide higher-speed data communication. One of the first phone company
efforts to provide large-scale digital services to subscribers is offered under the name
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN). From a subscriber’s point of view, ISDN offers
three separate digital channels, designated B, B, and D (usually written 2B+D). The two B
channels, which each operate at a speed of 64 Kbps, are intended to carry digitized voice,
data, or compressed video; the D channel, which operates at 16 Kbps, is used as a control
channel. In general, a subscriber uses the D channel to request services, which are then
supplied over the B channels (e.g., a phone call that uses digital voice). Both of the B
channels can be combined or bonded to produce a single channel with an effective data rate
of 128 Kbps. When ISDN was first proposed, 128 Kbps seemed much faster than dialup
modems. Newer local loop technologies provide higher data rates at lower cost, relegating
ISDN to a few special cases.

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Technologies

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is one of the main technologies used to provide high-speed
data communication services over a local loop. Figure lists DSL variants.

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Technology

ADSL technology is quite a bit newer than ISDN. It provides very fast downstream
bit rates (as much as 6.144 Mbps) and bit rates upstream which are quite adequate for the
needs of typical Internet users (up to 576 Kbps). ADSL is designed to run over ordinary
analog voice lines in a frequency range where it does not interfere with the analog telephone
service. Both services can use the line simultaneously.
Computer science computer networks

A pair of special ADSL modems has to be installed on the line, in parallel to the
existing circuit. When you run ADSL, it adapts to the unique characteristics of the circuit. It
uses a combination of frequency division multiplexing and inverse multiplexing technologies
(Discrete Tone Modulation: DMT). ADSL finds frequencies with high signal-to-noise ratio
on the line. It pushes more bits per second into those frequencies.
There is no guaranteed data rate with ADSL.ADSL does as well as the line conditions
allow. Downstream rates vary tremendously, from 32 Kbps to 6.4 Mbps, and upstream vary
from 32 to 576/640 Kbps.
The 'original' ADSL requires that a technician install a Network Interface Device
(NID) and splitter- a filter to separate the frequency bands used by voice and data. There is
another standard (ITUG.992.2 or 'G.lite') that does not require a splitter, but uses micro filters
in line with the ADSL modem, phones and fax machines. ‘G.lite’ is cheaper but runs slower -
maybe on the order of 1.5Mbps downstream.
Since the computers of DSL users can stay up and connected to the Internet
continuously, they can be more vulnerable to hackers. It's advisable to use a firewall.

Other DSL Technologies

SDSL is symmetric. It is like ADSL, but provides equal data rates in both directions.
On some lines, SDSL works well but ADSL does not.
"Reverse ADSL" is rare -- a service that is faster upstream than downstream.
HDSL is High-Rate Digital Subscriber Line. It provides the speed of T1/DS1 -- 1.544 Mbps
in both directions. You need two twisted pairs and you have to be very close to the CO.
HDSL2 is like HDSL, but requires only one twisted pair.
HDSL technology can be used on a circuit containing a bridge tap -- some DSL technologies
cannot.
VDSL is very-high bit rate DSL: up to 52 Mbps. It requires "intermediate concentration
points" in neighborhoods, with fiber connections the rest of the way to the CO.