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Procedia CIRP 42 (2016) 697 – 702

18th CIRP Conference on Electro Physical and Chemical Machining (ISEM XVIII)

Modeling of White Layer Formation in Electric Discharge Machining

(EDM) by Incorporating Massive Random Discharge Characteristics
J.F. Liu, Y.B. Guo*
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-205-348-2615; fax: +1-205-348-6419. E-mail address: yguo@eng.ua.edu

Abstract

Electric discharge machining (EDM) is a competitive process to machine difficult-to-cut alloys. However, the rapid heating and cooling process
in EDM may result in poor surface integrity such as white layer on the component surface. Complex phase transformations occur in both white
layer and heat affected zone (HAZ) which are detrimental to product performance. This paper presents a numerical approach to predict and
analyze the formation mechanisms of WL and HAZ and corresponding phase transformation in EDM of ASP 2023 tool steel. Massive random
discharges on the machined surface are successfully simulated. The predicted transformed martensite in WL and HAZ matches the
experimental data in reasonable accuracy. Also, the effects of EDM conditions on the thickness of WL and HAZ are investigated. By increasing
the discharge duration and voltage, more thermal damage can be found in EDMed surface including thick WL and HAZ and thick martensite
zone in particular.
© 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
© 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of 18th CIRP Conference on Electro Physical and Chemical Machining (ISEM
Peer-review
XVIII). under responsibility of the organizing committee of 18th CIRP Conference on Electro Physical and Chemical Machining
(ISEM XVIII)
Keywords: EDM, white layer, random discharge, phase transformation, finite element simulation

1. Introduction materials will be re-solidified into debris via rapid quenching,

which is flushed away by dielectric flow or re-deposited on
Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a competitive the machined surface in the form of a white layer. The
process to machine difficult-to-cut materials regardless of thermal damage of EDM causes great concern since it will
hardness and strength. The low force in the EDM gap allows deteriorate surface integrity and functionality of the EDMed
to machine delicate structures of high aspect ratio, complex components [2,3].
parts geometry, and deep grooves with high accuracy. Fig. 1
shows the stochastic nature of the EDM process. Previous Possible Electrode Pulse
discharge generator
experiments show that each electrical discharge occurs at high
frequencies at random discharge locations [1]. The discharge
Electrode
doesn’t necessarily occur at the shortest gap between the
Sink direction

workpiece and the electrode, but happens in a probabilistic

way. As shown in Fig. 1, each discharge will occur at a
random location on the workpiece surface. This inherent
random nature of discharging makes the EDM gap
phenomenon very complex. Electrical Crater
Machined area Crater Workpiece
discharge
In the plasma channel, workpiece materials will be
evaporated and expelled into the dielectric. As a result, a Fig. 1. Random discharging characteristics and material removal mechanism
discharge crater forms on the workpiece surface. The expelled in Die-sinking electrical discharge machining.

2212-8271 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of 18th CIRP Conference on Electro Physical and Chemical Machining (ISEM XVIII)
doi:10.1016/j.procir.2016.02.304
698 J.F. Liu and Y.B. Guo / Procedia CIRP 42 (2016) 697 – 702

“White layer” (WL) is a re-deposited or recast layer caused

by rapid quenching in dielectrics in EDM. Unlike the uniform
solid WL by a mechanical cutting, the WL in EDM at main
cutting mode is a bi-layer structure [4]. The upper region of
the WL is a porous structure, which consists of re-deposition
of evaporated materials in the gap. The lower part of the WL
is a solid structure, which recasts from the molten materials
after the plasma channel collapse.
Moreover, the microstructure of EDMed WL is
dramatically different from the bulk material as the result of
complex phase transformation during rapid quenching. Both
Kruth [5] and Cusanelli [6] found that the white layer of
EDMed steel mainly consisted of dendritic and columnar
structures which were orientated in the same direction.
Ekmekci [7] detected saturated carbon in the white layer when
machining ferritic steel by EDM. Cusanelli [6] also studied
the WL in EDMed steel using transmission electron
microscopy (TEM), and found that the outer portion of the
WL consisted of residual austenite and the underlying
sublayer was martensite.
Numerical modeling provides a suitable tool to study the
transient dynamic phenomenon. However, the EDMed surface
experiences multiple melting–recasting cycles due to the high-
frequency discharging, which is very challenge to simulate.
The current EDM models in literatures are limited to a single
discharge, which cannot capture the random and dynamic
multiple discharging responsible for WL formation. An
efficient model accounting for massive random discharges is
highly needed to investigate the WL formation mechanism.
In this study, the research objectives are in several folds to:
(1) develop a 3D finite element model to account for massive
random discharges; (2) predict and analyze the white layer
(WL) and heat affected zone (HAZ) formation in EDM of tool
steel; (3) model the phase transformation behavior in WL and
HAZ; and (4) investigate the effect of discharge duration and
discharge voltage on the thickness of WL and HAZ.
૛
࡯ ൈ ࢁ ൈ ࡵ ሾି࢓ ૛࢘ሺ࢚ሻሿ
ࡴሺ࢘ǡ ࢚ሻ ൌ ࢋ ࡾ
࣊ࡾ૛ ሺ࢚ሻ
Z
Y
X
Fig. 2. 3D FEM mesh design of die-sinking EDM.
2.2. Initial and boundary conditions
In the heat transfer analysis, initial temperature of the
entire model is set to ambient temperature (20 °C). One
boundary condition of heat convection is applied to the top
surface to simulate the quenching effect from dielectric
flowing. The coefficient of heat convection (h) is calculated
as 4.8×104 W/m2K based on laminar flow in Eq. 1 [8]:
k
h u Nux (1)
x
where the local distance (x) is chosen as average value of 0.75
mm, thermal conductivity (k) of water dielectric is 0.6
W/m∙K, and Nusselt number (Nux) is calculated as 60 at the
flow rate of 1 m/s based on heat transfer model [8].
The other 4-side surfaces and the bottom surface of the
model are also applied to heat convection (106 W/m2K) as
boundary conditions to allow rapid heat dissipation through
the model.

2. Simulation procedures of die-sinking EDM 2.3. EDM conditions

2.1. Model configuration and mesh design Table 1 shows a series of simulation conditions in
die-sinking EDM. The ranges of discharge duration
Finite element software ABAQUS/standard was used to (50 µs -200 µs) and discharge voltage (20 V- 40 V) are based
simulate die-sinking EDM of ASP 2023 tool steel in water on practical EDM conditions. For each simulation condition, a
based dielectric. Fig. 2 shows the mesh design of the 3D total of 1000 random discharges are simulated to capture the
model, consisting of both 8-nodes and 4-nodes finite WL evolution and characteristics.
elements. The mesh dimensions are 1500 × 1500 × 400 µm,
which is large enough to accommodate massive random Table 1. Die-sinking EDM simulation conditions.
discharges and reflect the stochastic nature. The top surface Case Pulse Pause Discharge Discharge Discharge
has the finest mesh (4 × 20 × 20 µm) to provide a high spatial # duration (µs) duration (µs) voltage (V) current (A) #
resolution. 1 50 50 20 30 1000
A few assumptions are made for the modeling method: 2 75 75 20 30 1000
x Each discharge has the same discharge duration,
3 100 100 20 30 1000
current, and voltage.
x The major heat transfer modes are conduction and 4 200 200 20 30 1000

convection, while the radiation is ignored. 5 50 50 30 30 1000

x Materials reach the maximum temperature above its 6 50 50 40 30 1000
boiling temperature will be vaporized and will not be
re-deposited on the machined surface.
 J.F. Liu and Y.B. Guo / Procedia CIRP 42 (2016) 697 – 702 699

2.4. 3D heat flux model 3. Modeling of white layer and phase transformation

For single discharge, 3D heat flux model with Gaussian 3.1. Material property of tool steel
distribution is used to simulate the electrical discharge via a
user subroutine DFLUX as shown in Eq. 2: Table 2 lists the temperature-dependent physical properties
of ASP 2023 work material. Table 3 shows the critical
C uU u I r2 temperatures for specific phase transformation in equilibrium
H (r , t ) exp[m ] (2) conditions. Since the boiling temperature of ASP 2023 is
SR(t ) 2
R(t ) 2 unknown, a similar one of iron was used as an approximation.

where H(r,t) is time/space-dependent heat flux, r is the radial Table 2. Physical properties of ASP 2023 tool steel.
distance from the plasma center, t is the discharge time, C is Temperature
the fraction of plasma energy to the workpiece, which is Material constant
20 °C 400 °C 600 °C
chosen as 18% in die-sinking EDM based on a previous study
Density (kg/m) 7980 7870 7805
by DiBitonto [9]. U and I are discharge voltage and discharge
current, respectively. Shape coefficient of Gaussian curve (m) Thermal expansion (10-6/°C N/A 12.1 12.7
is set to 2. An improved plasma radius (R(t)) model based on Thermal conductivity (W/m°C) 24 28 27
previous experiment [10] is given in Eq. 3: Specific heat (J/kg°C) 420 510 600

­° C1 u t 3 / 4 0 d t d tc  Table 3. Critical temperatures of ASP 2023 tool steel.

R(t ) ® (3)
°̄ C2 t ! tc  Melting temperature (Tm) 1353 °C
Boiling temperature. (Tb) 2862 °C
4/3 Austenite start temperature (As) 815 °C
where coefficients C1 and C2 are calculated as 0.12 m/s and
1.2×10-4 m based on the experimental data [11]. The critical Austenite finish temperature (Af) 890 °C
time (tc) is estimated as 100 µs, then the plasma radius Martensite start temperature (Ms) 160 °C
remains as a constant.
3.2. Modeling of WL/HAZ formation
2.5. Random discharging location
Fig. 4 shows the schematic of temperature history of WL
As reported by Kunieda [1], electrical discharging in EDM and HAZ formation in EDM. At the top layer when material
occurs at random locations on the machined workpiece temperature reaches above the boiling temperature (Tb), the
surface. Therefore, a mathematic model is developed below to material will vaporize into the dielectric. Partial vaporized
describe the random discharging location in Eq. 4: materials is quenched to debris and flushed away by the
dielectric flow, while the remaining will re-deposit on the
xi pi u L surface to form a porous white layer (PWL).
(4)
yi qi uW
WL HAZ Bulk
where (xi, yi) is the coordinate of discharge center in Cartesian
coordinate system, L is the sample length in x-axis, and W is Porous Solid
the sample width in y-axis (Fig. 3). pi and qi are length ratio in
Temperature

the specific axis, which each has varying values between 0 Tb : boiling temp.
Tm : melting temp.
and 1 independently. By generating random values for pi and Tp : phase transformation
qi separately, an individual discharge will occur at a random Tb t
location. Once massive random discharges occur on the
Tm
machined surface, uniform discharges will be achieved.
Tp

Y Machined surface domain Y

Massive Depth below top surface
random
discharges
(xi , yi) W W Fig. 4. Temperature history in WL/HAZ formation.

In the subsurface layer the maximum temperature of the

X X
L L
Fig. 3. Random discharging locations in EDM.
material is below boiling temperature (Tb) but higher than
melting temperature (Tm), the material will melt first during
discharging and then re-solidify to a solid white layer by rapid
quenching. The next subsurface layer below solid WL is
considered as HAZ, the maximum temperature of material is
lower than the melting temperature but higher than the phase
700 J.F. Liu and Y.B. Guo / Procedia CIRP 42 (2016) 697 – 702

transformation temperature (Tp). Although the temperature in calculated according to Koistinen and Marburger’s equation
HAZ is not high enough to melt the materials, the HAZ will [13] shown in Eq. 6:
still undergo complex phase transformation during
discharging and rapid quenching. For the layer material with fM f A u [1  exp( 0.01u ( M s  Tq )] (6)
the maximum temperature below the phase transformation
temperature (Tp), the material is considered to remain as the
where fA is volume fraction of austenite formed during
bulk characteristics. User subroutine USDFLD was used to
discharging, which can be calculated by Eq. 5. Ms is
implement the procedure.
martensite start temperature setting as the equilibrium
temperature of 160 °C. Tq is the lowest temperature achieved
3.3. Modeling of austenite-martensite phase transformation
by quenching, and set to room temperature of 20°C in this
study.
In the EDM process, the phase transformation consists of
two stages: the transformation from initial ferric phase to
austenite phase during discharging, and the transformation

Martensite volume fraction (fM)

from austenite phase to martensite phase during rapid 1
quenching. Fig. 5 shows the austenite formation in the first
stage during discharging. With the increase of temperature,
austenization initiates at the temperature of As and completes
if the temperature exceeds Af. The temperature-dependent
volume fraction of austenite fA(T) can be obtained from a Ms : Martensite start temp.
modified Mioković model [12] shown in Eq. 5: Tq : Quenching temp.

­0 T d As  0
°° H DF uT
f A (T ) ® As  T  A f  (5)
° A  D F ) u T  H tr
(D 0 Ms – Tq

¯°1 T t As 
Fig. 6. Martensite formation during rapid quenching.

where thermal expansion coefficients of ferrite (αF) and
austenite (αA) phases are estimated as 12.7×10-6 1/K and
23.3×10-6 1/K based on literature [12]. Total strain ε (9.86×10-
3
) and transformation strain of ferrite-austenite εtr (-1.04×10-2)
are calculated by solving the boundary conditions in Eq. 5.
Austenite start (As) and finish (Af) temperatures are very
challenging to determine at extreme temperature gradients
(~108 °C/s) in EDM. It is assumed phase transformation
temperature usually shifts to a higher value when increasing
the heating rate, but the relationship between heating rate and
phase transformation temperature has not been quantified yet.
In this study, As and Af are chosen as equilibrium temperatures
shown in Table 3.
Austenite volume fraction (fA)
4. Results and discussions
4.1. Locations of random discharges
Fig. 7 shows the accumulations of 1000 random
discharges. The maximum temperature contour exhibits the
highest temperature each node has ever reached through 1000
discharges. Each hot spot in the maximum temperature
contour represents a discharge center, which has a higher
temperature than its surrounding area. At the initial stage
shown in Fig. 7(a), 100 discharges were randomly scattered
on the machined surface. With more discharges occurring,
each unit of the machined surface has more chances to be
discharged. At the end stage shown in Fig. 7(b), the entire

1 surface has been discharged. The 1000 random discharges are

As : austenite start temp. evenly dispersed on the machined surface. Therefore, the
Af : austenite finish temp.
developed random discharging model proves to be successful
to describe the stochastic nature of EDM.

(a) (b)

0
As Af
Temperature
Max Temp
(°C)
Fig. 5. Austenite formation during discharging. I = 30
0A
20 V
U = 20
Fig. 6 shows the martensite formation in the second stage Pulsee = 50 µs
Pause = 50 µs
during rapid quenching. When the temperature drops below
martensite start temperature (Ms), previously formed austenite
starts to transform to martensite due to rapid quenching in Fig. 7. Massive random discharging.
dielectric. The volume fraction of martensite (fM) can be
 J.F. Liu and Y.B. Guo / Procedia CIRP 42 (2016) 697 – 702 701

4.2. Surface characteristics of solid WL and HAZ
Fig. 8 shows the martensite distribution in the surface of
solid white layer (WL) from different discharge durations. At
the pulse duration of 50 µs in Fig. 8(a), the surface primarily
consists of martensite zone with a high volume fraction up to
78.6%, while a few areas free of martensite still exist on the
surface. At a longer pulse duration of 100 µs in Fig. 8(b), a
more uniform martensite distribution is found on the solid WL
surface. This is because longer pulse duration will result in a
higher discharging energy, and therefore enables a larger
amount of phase transformation.
(a) (b)
calculated from 20 measurements sampled from even spacing.
The error bars are plotted according to a statistic method of t-
distribution with 95% confidence [14]. At a constant
discharge voltage (20 V) and current (30 A), a thicker solid
WL is generated by increasing the pulse duration in the range
from 50 µs to 200 µs. Also, at a constant pulse duration (50
µs) and discharge current (30A), the thickness of solid WL
increases when a higher discharge voltage is applied. The
increased thickness of solid WL is attributed to the higher
discharge energy, which causes more thermal damage. This
phenomenon matches the experimental studies that a higher
discharge energy results in a thicker white layer [3,4].
Similarly, the thickness of HAZ also increases by increasing
either pulse duration or discharge voltage.

x I = 30 A, U = 20 V
x Pulse = 100 µs
x 1000 discharges
I = 30 A Vol frac
U = 20 V
1000 discharges

Max. Temp
(°C)
Fig. 8. Martensite distribution on the surface of solid white layer at different
pulse duration: (a) 50 µs; (b) 100 µs. Solid WL HAZ
Bulk 20 µm
After removing the solid WL zone, the surface
characteristics of underlying heat affected zone (HAZ) is
Fig. 10. Prediction of solid WL and HAZ layers in the subsurface.
revealed in Fig. 9. Compared to the solid WL in Fig. 8, the
HAZ has much less martensite fraction on the surface. In
Solid WL / HAZ ave. thickness (µm)

50
addition, Fig. 9(a) shows random martensite distribution on WL HAZ
the surface machined at pulse duration of 50 µs, while a U = 20 V Pulse = 50 µs
40
uniform martensite distribution can be seen on the machined I = 30 A I = 30 A
surface by a longer pulse duration (100 µs) shown in Fig.
30
9(b). Moreover, a longer discharging duration results in a
larger volume fraction of martensite.
20
(a) (b)
10

0
50 75 100 200 20 30 40
I = 30
0A
Vol
Vol frac Pulse / Pause Discharge voltage
U=2 20
0V
(µs) (V)
1000 discharges

Fig. 11. Solid WL/HAZ thickness at different EDM conditions.

Fig. 9. Martensite distribution on the surface of heat affected zone (HAZ) at In addition, the HAZ is always thicker than the solid WL in
different pulse durations: (a) 50 µs; (b) 100 µs.
each EDM condition. This is attributed to the different
temperature gradients between solid WL and HAZ. As shown
4.3. Subsurface characteristics of solid WL and HAZ
in Fig. 6, solid WL in the top layer has a much steeper
temperature gradient than that in the underlying HAZ, and
Fig. 10 shows the predicted solid white layer (WL) and
therefore results in a thinner zone.
heat affected zone (HAZ) in the subsurface. Both the solid
WL and HAZ show non-uniform structures, which are built-
4.4. Martensite distribution in solid WL and HAZ
up from multiple random discharges. The characteristics of
irregular shapes are validated by previous experiments [3,4].
Based on Koistinen and Marburger’s model in Eq. 6, the
Fig. 11 shows the average thickness of solid WL and HAZ
martensite finish temperature (Mf) doesn’t exist, meaning the
at different EDM conditions. Since the solid WL and HAZ are
austenite-martensite transformation cannot be fully
not uniform, the average thickness in each EDM condition is
completed. The maximum martensite volume fraction after
702
cooling depends on the martensite start temperature (Ms). For
the material of ASP 2023 in this study, the martensite volume
fraction can reach up to 78.6%. Fig. 12 shows the contour of
martensite volume fraction in both solid white layer (WL) and
heat affected zone (HAZ) in the subsurface. The solid WL has
a uniform structure, consisting of martensite with volume
fraction of 78.6%. However, the HAZ has a non-uniform
structure. The upper portion of HAZ primarily consists of
martensite with volume fraction of 78.6%, while the bottom
of HAZ has much less transformed martensite. This is
because the first-stage austenization in HAZ is not completed
since the maximum temperature is less than austenite finish
temperature (Af). Therefore, the austenite fraction is not
sufficient to form a large amount of martensite in the second
stage of phase transformation. The existence of martensite in
HAZ was also confirmed by the previous TEM study of
EDMed steel [6].
x I = 30 A, U = 20 V
x Pulse = 100 µs
x 1000 discharges
Solid WL
HAZ
Fig. 12. Martensite zone in the solid WL and HAZ layers.
Fig. 13 shows the average thickness of martensite-
dominated zone (volume fraction > 50%) at different EDM
conditions. The same statistic method from Fig. 11 is used to
plot the average value and error bars. It indicates that a thicker
martensite-dominated zone is generated by either longer pulse
duration or higher discharge voltage. This is because the
higher discharge durations and voltage will contribute more
discharge energy to drive the phase transformation. In
addition, it seems the influence of pulse on martensite-
dominated zone is not linear, while the influence of discharge
voltage is linear.
80
Thickness of martensite-
dominated zone (µm)
U = 20 V
60 I = 30 A
40
20
0 Steels Based on High-Rate Experimental Data 120, Journal de Physique,
50 75 100 200
Pulse / Pause
(µs)
Fig. 13. Thickness of martensite-dominated zone (volume fraction > 50%) at
different EDM conditions.
J.F. Liu and Y.B. Guo / Procedia CIRP 42 (2016) 697 – 702
5. Conclusions
This study focuses on the development of a predictive
model incorporating massive random discharges to provide
insights into white layer (WL) formation mechanism in EDM.
Key findings are as follows:
x A new FEA model with massive random discharging
characteristics has been developed and implemented to
simulate solid white layer formation and heat affected
zone (HAZ) formation and the corresponding austenite-
martensite phase transformation.
x The predicted geometry and martensite distribution of
solid WL and HAZ in both surface and subsurface are
comparable to the experimental observations.
x The developed FEA model across from microscale
individual discharge to massive random discharges is
capable of predicting the macroscale accumulated
thermal damage in an EDM process.
Acknowledgements
The work has been supported by NSF #1234696.
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