Week 2

Energy Management
Lecture
–
energy systems
Electrical Power Transmission and integration

Dr Joseph Amoako-Attah
(PhD, MSc, MBA, BSc, CEng, MCIBSE, MIBPSA, FHEA)
 Energy Systems
Electrical Power Transmission & Integration
Highlights of Presentation

Energy Systems
Electricity supply and Networks
Power Distribution System
Electrical Infrastructure issues
Energy Systems - terminology

 Energy is useful only if it is available in the necessary form, when and where
wanted.

 The ‘forms’ may be categorized as heat, fuel and electricity.

 The energy is delivered by interlinked processes from resource to end-use

 Distribution or Transmission - Taking energy to where it is wanted

 Storage – Keeping energy available until when it is wanted

Energy Systems Energy is delivered by interlinked processes from resource to end-use

A general energy system,

showing input, output,
the energy distribution
subsystem

(including energy carriers

and energy storage) and
the end-use sectors.
Source: Adapted from SRREN (2011).
Take a Quiz
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY AND NETWORKS
 Why Electricity is the ultimate form of energy?
 Relatively easy to convert other forms of energy
into electricity
 Cheap to distribute electricity over long distances

 Easily transported through power lines

 Easily converted into other forms of energy

 Electricity is thermodynamically a high-quality form of energy, since it can be
converted to mechanical work with little loss.

 It is considered essential’ (in practice) for motors,, communication,

computation, refrigeration and some cooking, but is not essential for electrical
resistive space heating, for which it is often used.
Electricity supply and Networks
 Electricity is a convenient and adaptable form of energy for both consumers and
suppliers
 Renewable energy supplies that are mechanical in origin (e.g. hydro, wave and
wind) are usually best distributed by electricity.
 In this way electricity is a carrier or vector of energy, and not necessarily the main
end-use requirement.

 Electrical power generation usually links to the load demand by a common

regional or national network, often called ‘the grid’.
 The generators may be centralized power stations or distributed smaller capacity
embedded generation, such as gas turbines, wind farms and household micro-
generation.
 The grid allows the sharing of generation and consumption, and so provides a
reliable and most cost-effective general means of supply.
Take a Quiz
ELECTRICAL GRID
 Electrical Grid
The electrical grid is the electrical
power system network comprised of the
generating plant, the transmission lines,
the substation, transformers, the distribution
lines and the consumer.

• Voltage
• Frequency
UK National Grid System
Representative Diagram of a power distribution system
 The UK National Grid
What is the National Grid?

 The National Grid is the system operator of Great Britain’s electricity and gas
supply. This includes England, Scotland and Wales.

 It is the company that manages the network and distribution of electricity and
gas that powers all our homes and businesses.

 It has been operating since 1933, when it first started carrying electricity across
the countries and into homes. By 1946, 80% of households were connected to
the grid by pre-wired electricity supplies in houses. In the 1950s, construction
began on a new "super grid", which included new 42-metre pylons and more
than 4,500 new transmission lines.
 The UK National Grid

How does the National Grid work?

 The National Grid network is made of high-voltage power lines, gas pipelines,
interconnectors and storage facilities that together enables the distribution of
electricity.
 The grid ensures that all areas of Great Britain always have enough power.
 Within the network, there are many electricity distribution companies called
Distribution Network Operators (DNO) who send electricity from the grid to your
home.
 The DNO who distributes your electricity depends on where you live in Great
Britain.
Classification by operating voltage
Classification Descriptions
Low voltage (LV) less than 1000 volts, used for connection between a
residential or small commercial customer and the utility

Medium voltage (MV) between 1 kV and 69 kV, used for distribution in urban and
rural areas

High voltage (HV) less than 100 kV, sub-transmission or transmission at

voltages such as 115 kV and 138 kV of bulk quantities of
electric power and connection to very large consumers
Extra high voltage (EHV) 230 kV-800 kV, used for long distance, very high power
transmission

Ultra high voltage (UHV) higher than 800 kV

Why High Voltage?
The primary reason that power is transmitted at high voltages are to increase efficiency
and for economic benefits:

To increase efficiency

 As electricity is transmitted over long distances, there are inherent energy losses
along the way.
 High voltage transmission minimises the amount of power lost as electricity flows
from one location to the next.
 How? The higher the voltage, the lower the current. The lower the current, the lower
the resistance losses in the conductors. And when resistance losses are low,
energy losses are low also.
 Engineers consider factors such as the power being transmitted and the distance
required for transmission when determining the optimal transmission voltage.
Why High Voltage?
 For economic benefit.

 The lower current that accompanies high voltage transmission reduces resistance in
the conductors as electricity flows along the cables.
 This means that thin, light-weight wires can be used in long-distance transmission.

 As a result, transmission towers do not need to be engineered to support the weight

of heavier wires that would be associated with a high current.
 These considerations make high voltage transmission over long distances an
economical solution.
Why High Voltage?
Why isn’t power transmitted at low voltages?
• An electric current passing through a wire converts electrical power
into thermal power
• Power transmitted, P = IV, where, I = current; v = voltage drop in wire

• Since the wire obeys Ohms law,

V = IR, R = resistance
the power that wire wastes is
Power wasted = I2R

• To minimise power loss we need to reduce current!

• Alternating Current and Transformers allow us to do this
AC OR DC
Alternating Current (AC)
 Alternating current is an electric current which periodically reverses direction,
in contrast to Direct current which flows only in one direction.
 The usual waveform of alternating current in most electric power
circuits is a sine wave.

 Alternating voltage frequency varies in countries:

• In the UK+EU, it oscillates 50 times a second
• In the US, it oscillates 60 times a second.
Alternating Current (AC)
Why is frequency50/60 HZ?

It is an optimum frequency which keeps the transmission losses to

tolerable limits.

The higher the frequency, the more will be the losses; and
lower frequencies would cause the size, weight & hence the cost to
increase.
Advantages of AC over DC
AC is more preferred than DC because:
 AC is easy to maintain and change
- the voltage of AC can be changed for transmission and distribution purpose

 Plant cost of AC transmission is much lower compared to DC

transmission.

 When fault occurs it is easy to interrupt AC supply.

Disadvantages of AC over DC
Disadvantages of AC over DC are:

 The shock of the AC is attractive but the shock of DC is repulsive.

 At high voltages, it is more dangerous to work with AC than DC.

 In the processes like electroplating one cannot use the AC.

In these processes, only DC could be used.
Advantages of DC over AC
 The voltage of a grid is limited by the breakdown from sparks and discharges
occurring at peak voltage, which is transitory within each AC cycle.
However, the peak voltage on a DC grid is constant, so allowing a cable to carry
more power as DC than AC.
 AC currents tend to pass along the outer region of a cable (the skin effect), this
increase the effective resistance, whereas DC currents pass throughout the cable
cross-section
 There are induction and capacitance losses with AC, which are absent for DC.
 Power transmission as DC is used for many large-power transmission lines that
are long or under water; often these integrate inter-state and international
generation and demand.
In particular, such long and large-power ‘electricity highways’ are used to transmit hydropower
(e.g. (a) 2000 MW for ~1000 km at 450 kV (DC) between Quebec (Canada) and Boston (USA), and (b) 1900 MW
for 1420 km at 500 kV (DC) from Cambora Bassa (Mozambique) to Johannesburg (South Africa)).
Similar schemes have been proposed for transmitting offshore wind power from UK waters to Mainland Europe, and
solar power from North Africa to Central Western Europe.
Take a Quiz
TRANSFORMERS
Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device which,
by the principles of electromagnetic
induction, transfers electrical energy from
one electric circuit to another, without
changing the frequency.

It either increases or decreases AC voltage.

 Alternating current in one circuit can

induce an alternating current in a
second circuit.
o A transformer consists of two coils of wire (with different  A transformer thus uses induction to
number of turns N) on the same ferromagnetic core.
transfer power between its circuits
o The magnetic flux confined to the core, for each loop is
the same, and thus the voltage V in each winding is
proportional to N.
 Step Up and Step Down Transformers
Step Up
• A step-up transformer is one whose
secondary voltage is greater than its
primary voltage.
This kind of transformer "steps up"
the voltage applied to it.
• A smaller current, at larger voltage
flows in the secondary circuit
Step Down
• A step-down transformer is just
opposite the step up one
• As a step-down unit, the transformer
converts high- voltage, low-current
power into low-voltage, high- current
power.
• A larger current at a smaller voltage
flows in the secondary circuit
Power Distribution System
 A step-up transformer increases the voltage for efficient long
distance transmission
 A step-down transformer decreases the voltage for safe delivery to
communities and homes
Direct Current (DC)

 Some sources of energy (renewable energy in particular) are not

created as AC, but as DC (Direct Current) (and Voltages).

 What do we need to step up/down the current/voltage as

Transformers would not be necessary in this instance?
Inverters
 A power inverter, or inverter, is
an electronic device or circuitry
that changes direct current to
alternating current.

 This is then filtered to smooth the

waveform

 This waveform will now work with

transformers

 These are available in both small

scale (domestic) and Industrial
scale for commercial generation
High-voltage Direct Current (HVDC)

 Also called a power super highway

 A high-voltage, direct current electric power

transmission system uses direct current for the
bulk transmission of electrical power, in
contrast with the more common alternating
current systems.

 For long-distance transmission, HVDC

systems may be less expensive and have
lower electrical losses.
HVDC – Key Attributes
 Typical utility-scale power plants generate alternating
current (AC) electricity, and most electrical loads run on
AC power. Thus, the majority of transmission lines
carrying power around the world are of the AC type.
However, there are instances when high- voltage direct
current (HVDC) transmission systems offer significant
benefits.
 One big advantage to HVDC is the efficiency of power
transmission over long distances
 If the transmission line route is longer than about 300
miles, DC is a better option because AC lines have more
line losses than DC for bulk power transfer.
HVDC – Key Attributes
 Economical and most efficient transmission of
electric power over long distance

 Connecting grids with different frequencies

 Controlled power supply in either direction

 Transmission of bulk power over long distances with

low losses

 Could be reliable in a particular situation

High-voltage Direct Current (HVDC)
Advantages:
1. For long-distance transmission, HVDC systems may be less expensive and suffer
lower electrical losses.

2. For underwater power cables, HVDC avoids the heavy currents required to charge
and discharge the cable capacitance each cycle.

3. For shorter distances, the higher cost of DC conversion equipment compared to

an AC system may still be justified, due to other benefits of direct current links.

4. HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC transmission

systems. Since the power flow through an HVDC link can be controlled
independently of the phase angle between source and load, it can stabilize a
network against disturbances due to rapid changes in power.
High-voltage Direct Current (HVDC)
The disadvantages of HVDC are in conversion, switching, control,
availability and maintenance.
1. HVDC is less reliable and has lower availability than alternating current (AC)
systems, mainly due to the extra conversion equipment.

2. The required converter stations are expensive and have limited overload capacity.

3. At smaller transmission distances, the losses in the converter stations may be

bigger than in an AC transmission line for the same distance.
4. The cost of the converters may not be offset by reductions in line construction cost
and lower line loss.
5. Operating a HVDC scheme requires many spare parts to be kept, often exclusively
for one system, as HVDC systems are less standardized than AC systems and
technology changes faster.
Challenges of using HVDC System

The challenge, is that to transmit via HVDC, two converter stations

are needed.

 First, the AC power must be converted to DC to begin the transmission

process, and

 Then when it gets to the desired tie-in destination, the DC power must be
converted back to AC to be utilized on the grid.
Electrical Infrastructure issues
 High voltage infrastructure is generally suspended above ground
Therefore it is susceptible to environmental issues

 In ground infrastructure can bedamaged via mechanical means

Problems with Transmission grid

 Any issues with the transmission grid affect all electricity users
as all power used is carried through the grid.

 The current carrying capacity of this ultra high voltage grid is limited
 We are not far from the limit at times
(current peak demand is >80% of capacity)
 Therefore the threat of outages is growing.

 Power wasted in the system accounts for approx 3% of supply

Take a Quiz
 Electricity generation
Review of Presentation Highlights

Energy Systems
Electricity supply and Networks
Power Distribution System
Electrical Infrastructure issues
 INDEPENDENT STUDY

Challenges faced by energy distribution systems

with the integration of renewable energies.
 STUDENTS’ OUTPUTS FROM
ASYNCHRONOUS DELIVERY AND
INDEPENDENT STUDY

1. Complete All Quizzes in the Asynchronous Lecture.

2. One (1) minute reflective writing assignment

(a) Challenges faced by energy distribution systems with the integration of renewable energies.

(b) Explain why HVDC is used in the transmission of electricity. You must include its advantages
and disadvantages.
PREPARATION FOR SYNCHRONOUS
DELIVERY
Discussion on Representative Diagram

Power Transmission Calculations

References and Bibliography
Barney et al, (2016) Guide to Energy Management, Eighth Edition

REN21 Renewables Global Status Report: Energy Transformation Continues Despite

Economic Slowdown

Twidell, J. and T. Weir (2006). Renewable Energy Resources. Oxford, United Kingdom and New
York, USA, Taylor & Francis.

Gerçek Budak, Xin Chen, Serdar Celik and Berk Ozturk (2019) A systematic approach for
assessment of renewable energy using analytic hierarchy process, Energy, Sustainability
and Society

Scott Grinnell (2006) Renewable Energy and Sustainable Design, Cengage Learning

Peter Gevorkian (2010) Alternative Energy Systems in Building Design, Green Sourcw

John Twidell and Tony Weir (2015) Renewable Energy Resources, Routledge

Duffy et al (2015) Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Assessment of Projects and Policies,
JohnWiley & Sons, Ltd