1

General Anatomy

MUSCULOSKELETAL
SYSTEM (Fig. 1.1)
Fig. 1.1: Human anatomy of skeleton
OSTEOLOGY
Q.1 What are the subdivisions of
skeleton?
The skeleton is divided into:
• Axial skeleton: It is central bony frame-
work, e.g. skull, vertebral column and
thoracic cage.
• Appendicular skeleton: Formed by peri-
pheral bones of the limbs.
Q.2 How the bones are classified It is the study of variation in dimensions
according to shape?
• Long bones: Characterized by elongated different races and with age and sex in a
tubular shaft, having a central medullary single race.
cavity and expanded articular ends Q.6 What are the parts of long bone?
(epiphyses), e.g. humerus, radius, femur, • Epiphysis: Ends of a long bone which
etc.
• Smaller long bones: They have only one • Diaphysis: Shaft of a long bone which
epiphyses, e.g. metacarpals, metatarsal.
• Short bones: They are cuboid, cuneiform,
scaphoid or trapezoid in shape, e.g. carpal
and tarsal bones.
• Flat bones: Like shallow plates, e.g. ribs,
scapula and bones of cranial vault.
• Irregular bones: Includes those bones
which cannot be assigned to any of above
groups, e.g. hip bone, vertebrae, etc.
• Pneumatic bones: They contain air spaces
and are lined by mucous membrane, e.g.
maxilla.
• Accessory bones: These are sometimes
present in relation to limbs and skull
bones.
Q.3 What are the functions of the bones?
• Provide shape and size to body
• Provide attachment to muscles, ligaments
and tendons
• Protect vital organs
• Resist compression and tension stresses
due to collagen tissue in bones
• Act as store house for calcium and
phosphorus
• Act as a system of levers for movements
by muscles
• Ear ossicles help in audition
• Bone marrow has blood forming function
• Reticuloendothelial cells of marrow are
phagocytic and have a role in immune
reactions
• Air sinuses in skull provide resonance to
the voice.
Q.4 What are sites where red bone
marrow is present in adults?
Proximal ends of femur and humerus, ribs,
sternum, skull, vertebrae and hip bone.
Q.5 What is Anthropometry?
and bodily proportions of various bones in
ossifies from secondary centers.
ossifies from a primary center. It consists
of an outer cortex of compact bone and
inner medullary cavity filled with bone
marrow.
• Metaphysis: The epiphysial ends of
diaphysis. It is the zone of active growth
of bone.
• Epiphysial plate of cartilage: It separates
metaphysis and epiphysis. Proliferation
of this cartilaginous plate leads to
lengthwise growth of bone.
Q.7 What are the different types of
epiphyses?
• Pressure epiphysis: Articular and takes part
in transmission of weight, e.g. head of
femur, lower end of radius, medial end
of clavicle.
• Traction epiphysis: Non-articular. One or
more tendon is attached to it which exerts
a traction on it, e.g. trochanters of femur.
• Atavistic epiphysis: Phylogenetically
represents a separate bone which in man
has become fused to another bone, e.g.
coracoid process of scapula.
• Aberrant epiphysis: These are not always
present, e.g. epiphysis at head of first
metacarpal.
Q.8 How the bones are classified accord-
ing to their structure?
• Compact bone: Dense and is developed in
cortex of long bones. It is able to resist
mechanical pressure.
• Cancellous bone (Spongy): Consists of
meshwork of trabeculae (lamellae) within
which are intercommunicating spaces,
e.g. vertebral bodies, ribs, sternum.
Q9. What are Sharpey’s fibers?
These are the transverse fibers which hold
the lamellae of the compact bone together
and periosteum to the underlying bone.
Q.10 What are the different types of
lamellae in a bone?
• Circumferential lamellae: Lie parallel to
bony surface
• Osteonic lamellae: Concentric lamellae
found around vascular canals of bone.
• Interstitial lamellae: Lie in space between
osteons, i.e. vascular canals.
4 Anatomy
Q.11 How the bones are classified
according to their developmental origin?
• Intramembranous (Dermal) bone: Develops
from direct transformation of condensed
mesenchyme, e.g. bones of skull.
• Intracartilaginous (Endochondral) bone:
Replaces a preformed cartilage model, e.g.
bones of limb and thoracic cage.
• Membranocartilaginous bone: Develops
partly in membrane and partly in
cartilage, e.g. clavicle, mandible.
Q.12 What is Woff’s law?
The mechanical stresses are directly
proportional to the bone formation.
Q.13 What are centers of ossification?
These are certain constant points in a bone
where the mineralization of connective
tissue begins and the process of trans-
formation spreads, until whole skeletal
element is ossified.
Q.14 What is ‘Law of ossification’ for a
long bone?
Where a bone has an epiphysis at either end,
the epiphysis which is first to appear is last
to join and the epiphysis which is last to
appear is the first to join except fibula.
Q.15 What is the arterial supply of a long
bone?
The arterial supply of a long bone is derived
from four sources:
• Nutrient artery: It enters the shaft through
nutrient foramen and runs obliquely in
cortex and divides into ascending and
descending branches in medullary cavity.
Each branch inturn divides and redivides
into parallel vessels, which run in
metaphysis.
– These terminate by anastomising with
epiphysial, metaphysial and periosteal
arteries.
– It supplies medullary cavity and inner
2/3 of cortex.
– The nutrient foramen is directed
opposite to the growing end of bone.
• Juxta-epiphysial (Metaphysial) arteries of
Lexer: These are derived from anasto-
mosis around the joint. They pierce the
metaphysis along line of attachment of
joint capsule.
• Epiphysial arteries: Derived from peri-
articular vascular arcades found on non-
articular bony surface.
• Periosteal arteries: These ramify beneath
periosteum and supply outer 1/3 of
cortex.
Q.16 What are ‘Sesamoid bones’? What are
their characteristic features?
• These are bone nodules found embedded
in tendons where they lie close to articular
surface or turn around a bony surface and
joint capsules.
• These have no periosteum.
• They are not always completely ossified
and consist of fibrous tissue, cartilage and
bone in varying proportion, e.g. in tendon
of adductor pollicis and flexor pollicis
brevis and in 70% cases in tendons ante-
rior to metacarpophalangeal joint; patella;
in tendon of flexor hallucis brevis,
peroneus longus and tibialis posterior.
• They ossify after birth.
• They have no Haversian system.
Q.17 What are the functions of sesamoid
bones?
• Alter the direction of pull of muscle or
improve the pull of the muscles.
• To minimize friction.
• To modify pressure.
• Aids in maintaining the local circulation.
• Provide additional articular surface to a
joint.
CARTILAGE
Q.18 What is cartilage and what are its
characteristic features?
• It is a type of connective tissue, which has
gel like ground substance known as
matrix, in which are embedded cartilage
cells (chondrocytes).
• The matrix is made up of mucopoly-
saccharide and contains elastic or collagen
fibers.
• The cartilage is firm in consistency and
has elasticity.
• It has no lymphatics or blood supply.
• It may become calcified.
Q.19 What are the different types of
cartilage and their distribution?
• Hyaline cartilage: No fibers seen in matrix.
Does not regenerate because chondro-
cytes cannot redivide. Present at articular
surface of synovial joint bones, costal
cartilage, bronchial cartilage.
• Fibrocartilage: Collagen fibers present in
matrix. Present in intervertebral disk,
disks in joints and on the articular surfaces
of clavicle and mandible.
• Elastic cartilage: Elastic fibers present in
cartilage, e.g. auditory tube, pinna and
epiglottis.
Q.20 Name the cartilages which calcify.
• Hyaline cartilage
• Fibrocartilage
Q.21 How the different cartilages obtain
their nourishment?
Fibrocartilage is supplied by blood vessels
but hyaline and elastic cartilage have no
capillaries and their cells are being nourished
by diffusion of lymph.
ARTHROLOGY
Q.22 How the joints are classified
according to their structure?
• Fibrous joint: Bones are joined together
by fibrous tissue. These joints are immo-
bile or permit only slight movement.
• Cartilagenous joint: Bones are joined
together by cartilage.
• Synovial joint: Articular surfaces of bone
are covered by articular (hyaline) cartilage
and between articular surface is joint
cavity, containing synovial fluid. These
joints permit maximum degree of
movement.
Q.23 What are the different types of
fibrous joints?
• Sutures: Found in skull and are immobile.
Sutural ligament is present between two
bones, which is attached on outside to
pericranium and endocranium (outer
layer of dura mater) on inside.
• Syndesmosis: Bones are connected by
interosseous ligament, e.g. inferior
tibiofibular joint.
• Gomphosis: Peg and socket type of joint,
e.g. tooth in its socket.
Q.24 What are the characteristic features
of synovial joint?
• Bony articular surfaces are covered with
hyaline cartilage. It is insensitive to pain.
• Articular bones are connected by a
fibrous capsule. The capsule has poor
blood supply and heals very slowly. It is
sensitive pain and stretch.
• Inner surface of capsule and all intra-
articular structures which are not covered
with cartilage are covered by synovial
membrane, which secretes synovial fluid.
It is highly vascular.
Q.25 What is the characteristic feature of
synovial fluid?
It is presence of large amounts of
mucopolysaccharide (hyaluronic acid)
which gives it characteristic viscosity and it
does not clot.
 General Anatomy 5

Q.26 What are the functions of synovial Q.31 What are fatty pads? What is their • They make the articulation between bony
fluid? importance? surfaces smooth and harmonious.
1. Lubrication of joint These are found in some synovial joints,
2. Nourishes the articular cartilage. occupying spaces where bony surfaces are Q.36 What Hilton’s law?
• A joint is supplied by the same nerves
Q.27 What are the different types of incongruous and are covered by synovial
synovial joint? membrane, e.g. which supply the muscles crossing the
• Arthrodial (plane): Flat surfaces are in • Hip joint (Haversian fat pad) joint and skin over the joint.
• Therefore, in joint diseases, irritation of
contact. Only gliding movement is • Talocalcaneonavicular joint
nerves cause reflex spasm of muscles and
possible, e.g. intercarpal joints, intertarsal • Infrapatellar fold and
• Alar folds of knee joints. referred pain to the overlying skin.
joints.
• Hinge: Movements take place around a
Q.32 What are different types of cartila-
transverse axis, e.g. elbow joint between MYOLOGY (Figs 1.2 to 1.4)
ginous joints?
humerus and ulna.
• Primary (synchondroses): The related bones
• Pivot: A bony pivot like process moves Q.37 What are the distinguishing features
within a ring. So movements are possible are united by hyaline cartilage. They are
of different types of muscle?
only around longitudinal axis through immovable and the cartilage is replaced
center of pivot, e.g. upper radioulnar joint by bone with age, e.g. costochondral Features Smooth Skeletal Cardiac
muscle muscle muscle
and median atlantoaxial joint. joints, joint between epiphysis and dia-
• Condylar: Two convex condyles (articular physis of a growing long bone, between Location Found Found Found in
surface) moves within two concavities on spenoid and temporal bones. in viscera attached myocardium
opposite side. Movements occur mainly and blood to skeleton of heart
• Secondary (symphysis): These joints occur vessels
in transverse axis but partly in vertical
axis (rotation), e.g. knee joint, temporo- in median plane. The bone ends are Nerve Autonomic Somatic Autonomic
mandibular joint, interphalangeal joints. covered by hyaline cartilage and are supply nerves, so nerves, so nerves, so
connected by a disc of fibrocartilage, e.g. they are they are they are
• Ellipsoid: Formed by a oval convex surface
involuntary involuntary involuntary
and an elliptical concavity, e.g. radiocarpal manubrosternal joints, symphysis pubis,
joint (wrist joint), metacarpophalangeal intervertebral joint between vertebral Muscle Has no Has cross Has cross
fiber cross striations striations
joint. Movements possible are flexion, bodies. These do not disappear with age. striations
extension, abduction, adduction and cir-
Slight movement is possible. Each fiber Cylindrical Muscle fiber
cumduction. No rotation occurs around is elongated, cell show
central axis. spindle branches
Q.33 Why symphysis menti, joining two shaped and
• Saddle: Articular surfaces are both
halves of mandible is not a true symphysis? anastomoses
concavoconvex. Movements permitted with neigh-
are same as in condylar type with some Because it disappears with age.
bouring fibers
rotational movements, e.g. carpometa- Single Multiple Single
carpal joint of thumb, ankle joint. Q.34 What are the different intra-articular central peripheral central
• Ball and socket: Articular surfaces are structures present in joints? nucleus nuclei nucleus

globular head which fit into a cup like
cavity. Movements are possible in every
direction around a common center, e.g.
hip joint, shoulder joint.
Q.28 What is a compound joint?
When more than two bone ends are
enclosed with in a single capsule, the joint is
known as compound, e.g. elbow joint has
humeroulnar, humeroradial and superior
radioulnar joint.
Q.29 What is a complex joint?
The joint cavity is divided completely or
incompletely into two parts by intra-articular
disk or fibrocartilage, e.g. temporo-
mandibular joint, sternoclavicular joint and
knee joint.
Q.30 How the joints are divided according
to axis of movements?
• Multiaxial : Ball and socket joints
• Biaxial : Ellipsoid and saddle joints
• Uniaxial : Hinge and pivot joints
Cartilaginous structures:
• Articular disk
– Complete: Mandibular joint and streno-
clavicular joint
– Incomplete: Acromioclavicular joint.
• Articular menisci: Semilunar cartilages of
knee joint.
• Labrum glenoidale: Glenoid cavity of
scapula and acetabulum.
• Ligaments traversing joints: Bind articular
surfaces, e.g. ligamentum teres of hip
joint, cruciate ligaments of knee joint.
Muscle tendons: These arise inside capsule
of joint, e.g.
• At shoulder joint, long head of biceps
• At knee joint, tendon of popliteus.
Q.35 What are the functions of intra-
articular disks?
• They act as a buffer and absorb shock.
• They strengthen the joint
Rhythmicity Present Absent Present
Automaticity Present Absent Present
Q.38 How the skeletal muscles are
classified according to direction of muscle
fibers?
1. When the fasciculi (groups of muscle
fibers) are parallel to line of pull, e.g.
• Strap like: Sternohyoid, sartorius.
• Fusiform: Biceps
• Quadrilateral: Thyrohyoid.
2. When the fasciculi are oblique to line of
pull ,e.g.
• Triangular: Temporalis, adductor
longus.
• Pennate (Feather like):
– Unipennate: Extensor digitorum
longus, flexor policis longus.
– Bipennate: Rectus femoris
– Multipennate: Deltoid, subscapularis
– Circumpennate: Tibialis anterior.
6 Anatomy
Fig. 1.2: Human anatomy—front view of muscle
Fig. 1.4: The muscle side view
Fig. 1.3: The muscle front view
3. When muscle fibers are arranged in a
twisted manner, e.g. trapezius, pectoralis
major.
Q.39 What is the nerve supply of skeletal
muscle?
Supplied by somatic nerves.
1. Motor fibers: Has
• Alpha efferents: Myelinated anterior
horn motor neurons, supply muscle
fibers.
• Gamma efferents: Myelinated fibers,
supply muscle spindle (sensory end
organ of skeletal muscle).
• Autonomic efferents: Non-myelinated,
supply smooth muscle fibers of blood
vessels.
2. Sensory fibers:
• Myelinated fibers: Distributed to muscle
spindle, tendon and fascia of the
muscle.
• Non-myelinated fibers: Distribution not
known.
Q.40 What is a ‘motor unit’?
It is a functional subdivision of muscle. It
includes a single alpha motor neuron
together with muscle fibers which it
innervates.
Q.41 What is myotome?
A myotome is amount of muscle supplied
by one segment of the spinal cord and
 General Anatomy 7

muscles sharing a common primary action • Fixators: Stabilize the position of a joint to Q.50 What is the nerve supply of an artery?
on a joint irrespective of their anatomical provide a fixed base on which other The arteries are supplied by sympathetic
situation are supplied by the same muscles can act. nerves via nervi vasorum. These are
segments. • Synergists: These help the prime movers vasoconstrictor. Few myelinated sympa-
in bringing the movement. They eliminate thetic fibers are also present, which carry
Q.42 What are the features of muscles
the undesired actions when prime pain sensation.
which receive ‘double innervation’?
movers cross more than one joint.
Generally they are flexor muscles that
Q.51 Name the sites where sinusoids are
receive nerve supply from the extensor
present.
compartment. These muscles develop in the
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM • Suprarenal gland
extensor compartment of foetal limb but
• Carotid body
for functional reasons, come to lie in the Q.46 What is the difference between
• Liver
flexor compartment of the adult limb, arteries and veins?
• Spleen.
bringing its nerve supply with, e.g.
Features Arteries Veins
• Lateral portion of brachialis (supplied by
radial nerve). Q.52 What are ‘anastomosis’?
Thickness Thick walled Thin walled
• Short head of biceps femoris (by personal Arteries do not end always in capillaries,
Valves Absent Present they unite with one another forming
part of sciatic nerve).
• Brachioradialis (by radial nerve). Lumen Narrow Larger anastomosis.

Q.43 What are bursae and where they are Fibromuscular tissue More Less Q.53 What are the different types of
found? Elasticity More Less anastomosis?
Bursae are sacs of synovial membrane • Actual: Arteries meet end to end, e.g.
supported by dense irregular connective Arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmo- labial branches of facial arteries, inter-
tissue. nary artery and veins carry deoxygenated blood costal arteries, uterine and ovarian
They are found at the places where except pulmonary veins. arteries, arterial arcades in mesentery,
structures which move relative to each other arteries of greater and lesser curvatures
are in tight apposition, e.g. of stomach.
Q.47 What are the differences between
• Between skin and bone (Subcutaneous • Potential: Anastomosis is by terminal
capillaries and sinusoids?
bursae) arterioles and given sufficient time the
• Between muscle and bone, tendon or Features Capillary Sinusoid
arterioles can dilate to take sufficient
ligament (Submuscular). 1. Lumen Smaller, regular Larger (up to 30 m) blood, e.g. coronary arteries, cortical
• Between fascia and bone (Subfascial) irregular arteries of cerebral hemispheres, anasto-
• Between ligaments (Interligamentous) 2. Structure Endothelial lining: moses around joints of extremities.
• Adventitious bursae: Normally not present Continuous May be
but develop over bony situations which incomplete;
Q.54 What are the functions of anasto-
are subject to much friction or pressure, some phagocytic mosis?
e.g. cells are present. • Equalization of pressure over territories
1. Tailor’s ankle: Above lateral malleolus a
Basal lamina: which they connect.
Thicker and Thinner
bursa appears in tailors, who sit in cross • Provide collateral circulation when a vessel
surround
legged position, thus bringing this area endothelial cells is interrupted.
in contact with table. Adventitial support:
Q.55 What are ‘End arteries’? What is their
Present Absent
2. Porter’s shoulder: In porters, between importance?
upper surface of clavicle and skin. 3. Location Connect Connect arteriole
These are arteries which have no
metaarterioles with venule or
3. Weaver’s bottom: Between gluteus anastomoses with their neighbours, e.g.
and venules venule with
maximus and ischial tuberosity. venule Central artery of retina, arteries of spleen,
liver, kidneys, metaphyses of long bones,
Q.44 What is ‘aponeuroses’? medullary branches of the central nervous
These are flat sheets of densely arranged Q.48 Name the structures where fenes-
system, coronary arteries.
collagen fibers associated with the trated capillaries are present.
Importance: If an end artery is occluded,
attachment of muscle. Pancreas
necrosis (death) of tissue takes place in area
• Intestine
supplied by the vessel.
• Renal glomeruli
Q.45 What are the different types of
• Endocrine glands Q.56 What are ‘Arteriovenous shunts’?
muscles according to their action?
• Prime movers: These are active in initiation Q.49 Name the structures where conti- These are vessels of communication
and maintenance of a particular move- nuous capillaries are present. between arteries and veins and when open,
ment. • Skin they bypass the capillaries, e.g. in skin of
• Antagonists: Muscles which oppose prime • Muscles nose, lips and external ear, mucous mem-
movers or initiate and maintain its • Fascia brane of alimentary canal, thyroid gland,
converse. • Brain palmar skin.
8 Anatomy
Q.57 What are the functions of arterio-
venous shunts?
• Regulate the regional blood flow
• Regulate blood pressure
• Pressor reception
• Regulation of the temperature.
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Q.58 What are the components of lympha-
tic system?
• Lymph vessels: Formed by lymph
capillaries.
• Peripheral lymphoid tissue: Spleen,
epitheliolymphoid system, lymph nodes
and lymph nodules.
• Central lymphoid tissue: Bone marrow and
thymus.
• Lymphocytes: Circulating in vessels.
Q.59 How the lymph capillaries differ
from blood capillaries?
• Lymph capillaries have
• Bigger lumen
• Lumen is less regular
• Permeable to bigger molecules
• Form pathways for absorption of colloid
from tissue spaces
Q.60 Name the sites were lymph capil-
laries are absent.
• Epidermis
• Hair
• Nails
• Cornea
• Articular cartilage
• Splenic pulp
• Spinal cord
• Brain and
• Bone marrow
Q.61 What is the structure of lymph trunk?
It consists of three coats:
• Tunica adventitia: Composed mainly of
fibrous tissue and some smooth muscle
fibers
• Tunica media: Consists of smooth muscles
cells, fibers of which are arranged
circularly and separated from one another
by fibrous tissue.
• Tunica intima: Consist of endothelial cells
and fibrous tissue.
They possess more number of valves than
small veins. The valve consists of
reduplicated endothelium and lumen of
lymph vessel immediately proximal to
valve is expanded into a sinus, which gives
the vessel a beaded appearance.
Q.62 What are the factors which favour Q.66 What are the different type of cells
the propulsion of lymph from tissue spaces in reticuloendothelial system?
towards lymph nodes and venous blood These cells are concerned with phagocytosis.
stream? • Pericytes (Rouget cells) in capillaries
• In tissue spaces, filtration pressure • Dust cells in lungs
generated by filtration of fluid from blood • Macrophages in connective tissue, bone
capillaries. marrow and suprarenal gland
• Concentration of surrounding muscles • Reticular cells in spleen and lymphoid
compressing lymph vessels tissue
• Pulsation of artery near lymph vessels • Monocytes in blood
• Respiratory movements • Kupffer cells in liver
• Negative pressure in brachiocephalic • Microglia in nervous system.
veins Q.67 What are the functions of a lymph
• Contraction of smooth muscle of vessel. node?
Q.63 What is the function of lymph • Act as a filter for lymph. Thus, foreign
capillaries? particles are prevented from entering the
bloodstream.
Lymph capillaries are concerned with the
• Macrophages in sinuses engulf foreign
absorption of fluid from tissue spaces.
particles.
Q.64 What is structure of lymph node? • Trapping of antigens by phagocytes
Grossly: These are oval bodies situated in • Mature B and T lymphocytes are pro-
the course of lymph vessels. The blood duced in the lymph node.
vessels enter and leave node at the hilus. A • Provides interaction between antigen
lymph node has a cortex into which afferent laden phagocytes and lymphoid tissue
vessels drain and a medulla from which with mounting of both cellular and
efferent vessels arise. humoral immune response.
Microscopic: • Provides portal of entry for blood borne
• Capsule and trabeculae: Composed of lymphocytes back into lymphatic
collagen fibers, fibroblasts and elastic channels.
fibers.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Reticulum: Fibrocellular and forms a
meshwork within spaces outlined by Q.68 What are the subdivisions of nervous
capsule and trabeculae. In medulla, fewer system?
cells in loose reticulum are present. Such • Central nervous system: Includes brain and
parts allow rapid passage of lymph and spinal cord.
are termed lymph sinuses. Reticular fibers • Peripheral nervous system: Divides into:
are thin collagen fibers, ensheathed by 1. Cerebrospinal nervous system: Includes
fixed macrophages in an amorphous 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs
matrix. Reticular cells lining lymph sinuses of spinal nerves.
are termed as littoral cells. 2. Peripheral autonomic nervous system:
Majority of cells are lymphocytes with Includes sympathetic and para-
some macrophages. In cortex, cells are sympathetic nervous system.
densely packed to form lymphatic follicles. Q.69 What are the cell types forming
The central part of follicle has a germinal nervous tissue?
center, which consists of large cells. In • Neurons (Nerve cells): Excitable cells.
medulla, cells are loosely packed. • Neuroglia: Non excitable cells, forming
The outer part of cortex has B-lympho- connective tissue of the nervous system.
cytes and inner part has T-lymphocytes. Q.70 What is the function of neurons?
The medulla has mature B-lymphocytes, Reception, transmission, integration and
plasma cells and macrophages. transformation of impulses.
Q.65 What is epitheliolymphoid system Q.71 What is the histological structure of
and where it is found? a neuron?
• These are collections of lymphoid tissue Each neuron consists of:
found under the epithelium. • Cell body (Perikaryon): Mass of cytoplasm
• These are found in Peyer’s patches in with a diploid nucleus and bound by a
intestine, appendix, pharyngeal tonsil, membrane. The cytoplasm contains
palatine and lingual tonsil. basophilic Nissl bodies. Nissl body is made

of ribonucleic acid and is concerned with
the protein synthesis.
• Neurites: Extensions from periphery of
cell body.
They are of two types:
1. Dendrites: Conduct impulses towards
cell body. May branch to form a
dendritic tree.
2. Axon: Conduct impulses away from cell
body. Begins at axon hillock and
terminate by dividing into axon
terminals (telodendria).
Q.72 What are the different types of
neurons?
• Unipolar: Single extension from cell body,
e.g. mesencephalic nucleus of fifth cranial
nerve.
• Bipolar: Extension at each end of the cell
body, e.g. retinal bipolar cells, olfactory
neuroepithelium and ganglion of 8th
cranial nerve.
• Multipolar: Several extensions from cell
body, e.g. most cells of brain and spinal
cord.
• Pseudounipolar: Usually have one process
arising are pole of cell body but actually
two extensions emerge at same pole, e.g.
dorsal root ganglion of spinal cord.
Q.73 What are Amacrine cells?
These are small neurons present in retina,
olfactory bulb which lack an obvious axon
and permit conduction in either direction.
Q.74 What are the different types of
neurons in brain?
• Stellate cells: Dendrites extend in all
directions from cell body.
• Pyramidal cells: Cell body is conical in shape
and dendrites extend from angles of cone • Microglia: Smallest glial cells. They have
or pyramid.
• Fusiform cells: Spindle shaped dendrites
emerge at both ends.
• Glomerular cells: Dendrites at their tip are
highly coiled.
Q.75 What is a ‘Synapse’?
Sites of junction between two neurons which
permit interneuronal transmission of
impulses. The presynaptic and postsynaptic
process are separated by a small gap, synaptic
cleft.
Q.76 What are the different types of
synapse?
Depending on the type of neuronal process
involved and direction of transmission
synapses are classified into:
• Axodendritic: Commonest
• Axosomatic
• Dendrosomatic
• Dendroaxonic
• Dendrodendritic and
• Axoaxonic.
Q.77 How transmission occurs across the
synapse?
Due to the release of transmitters (Neuro-
chemicals) released into the synaptic cleft
by presynaptic process, which cause the
stimulation or inhibition of postsynaptic
process.
Q.78 What are the different types of three types:
synapse?
1. Excitatory synapse: Neurotransmitters
released causes stimulation of post-
synaptic neuron.
2. Inhibitory synapse: Neurotransmitter • Type C: Nonmyelinated, postganglionic
released causes inhibition of postsynaptic
neuron.
3. Reciprocal synapses: Transmission between Q.82 What are the factors on which
two processes occurs in either direction conduction in myelinated fibers depend?
by staggered synaptic zones on each side • Diameter of axon
of synaptic cleft.
Q.79 What are different types of neuro-
glial cells in brain and spinal cord?
• Macroglia: Larger cells, develop from
neural plate. They are of following types:
– Astrocytes: Have a small cell body with
dendrite like extensions.
– Oligodendrocytes: They have fewer cell
processes.
– Pituicytes: In posterior pituitary
– Muller cells: In retina.
– Ependymal cells: Line the ventricles of
brain and central canal of spinal cord
– Bergman cells: In cerebellum.
fine dendritic processes and flattened
outlines. Develop from mesodermal
tissue surrounding nervous system.
Q.80 What are the functions of glial cells?
• Act as mechanical support for nervous
system.
•. Act as insulators, separating neurons and
their processes from each other. They
prevent impulses from spreading in
unwanted directions due to their non
conducting nature.
• Act defensively by phagocytosing foreign
material and cell debris.
• Help in regulating biochemical environ-
ment of neurons.
• Oligodendrocytes form myelin sheath in
central nervous system.
General Anatomy 9
• Ependymal cells take part in secretion,
transport and uptake of cerebrospinal
fluid.
• By proliferation, glial cells repair, by filling
the gaps left by dead or degenerating
neurons.
• They take up, store and metabolise the
neurotransmitters.
Q.81 What are the different types of fibers
in peripheral nerve?
Depending on diameter and rate of impulse
conduction fibers in peripheral nerve are of
• Type A: Subdivided into:
1. Sensory (Afferent) fibers
2. Motor (Efferent) fibers
• Type B: Preganglionic autonomic fibers
autonomic fibers
• Thickness of myelin sheath
• Internodal distance between nodes of
Ranvier
• Area and character of axonal membrane.
Q.83 What are the non-nervous cells
present in peripheral nervous system?
• Capsular cells: Present around cell body
of sensory and autonomic ganglia.
• Schwann cells: Present around axons of
peripheral nerves and form myelin
sheath.
Q.84 What is the composition of myelin?
Myelin contains lipid and basic proteins but
has less proteins than cell membrane.
Q.85 What are ‘Incisures of Schmidt-
Lanterman’?
Ans. These are oblique clefts in the myelin
and provide conduction channels for
metabolities into depths of myelin sheath
and axon.
Q.86 What is the characteristic feature of
distribution of sympathetic and para-
sympathetic nervous system?
All parts of body, whether somatic or
visceral, receive a sympathetic supply.
But the parasympathetic supply has no
somatic distribution but is wholly visceral,
but does not innervate all viscera (e.g.
suprarenal glands and gonads, which have
only a sympathetic supply).
10 Anatomy
Q.87 What is the origin of autonomic
nervous system outflow?
Sympathetic outflow emerges at T1 to L2
segments of spinal cord.
Parasympathetic outflow emerges from
brain via 3rd, 7th, 9th and 10th cranial
nerves and from S2-4 segments of spinal
cord.
Q.88 To which gland the secretomotor
nerves are sympathetic?
Sweat glands.
Q.89 Which cranial nerves contribute to
the cranial parasympathetic outflow?
Preganglionic fibers from third, seventh,
ninth and tenth cranial nerves.
Q.90 What is the neurotransmitter of
autonomic nervous system?
• Noradrenaline is neurotransmitter of
sympathetic system except at nerves
ending for sweat gland and blood vessels
of muscles, where neurotransmitter is
acetylcholine.
• Acetylcholine is neurotransmitter of
parasympathetic system.