HUMAN ANATOMY PRELIM TERM

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN
AND PHYSIOLOGY NURSING 1

WEEK 6 SPONGY BONE

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
 Support the body
- provide framework that support the body, the
skeletal bone that support the body are called the
weight bearing bone.
- the lower limbs/extremities act as pillar to support
the body
 Protect soft organs
 Allow movement due to attached skeletal muscles
- skeletal muscles that are attached in the bones of
our skeletal system makes it possible for us to
move. They are being used as lever to move the
body.
- presence of the joints which make it possible for our
body to move as well
 Store minerals and fats
- Bone also serves as major reservoir for minerals,
especially the calcium and the phosphate
- Bones also stores fat and minerals
 Blood cell formation
- it is in the bones that the blood cells are being
manufactured. It occurs primarily in the marrow
cavities which are located inside the bones
- spongy- where blood is being manufactured
 Small needle-like pieces of bone
 Many open spaces
- also called as cancellous bone
- it appears like honey comb and small middle like pieces
of flat bones called trabeculae - basic structural unit of
spongy bone
- contains many spaces, this is filled with red or yellow
marrow
Classification of Bones
LONG BONES
 Typically, longer than they are wide
 Have a shaft with heads at both ends
 Contain mostly compact bone
- named with their elongated shape
and not their overall size.
- present in our fingers/phalanges
- contains shack- their elongated
portion
- contains mostly of compact bone
- they are somewhat cylindrical in
shape

Example:
Femur
Humerus
The Skeletal System
 The adult skeleton has 206 bones
- Infant 270 bones
SHORT BONES
- The number of bones decreases as we grow older,
because some of the bone fuse together.  Generally, cube-shape
- Sa bones ng mga bata may spaces pa, those spaces  Contain mostly spongy bone
will fuse together
Example:
Carpals Tarsals
Two basic types of bone tissue:

COMPACT BONE
 Homogeneous
- homogenous because it composed primarily of dense
outer shell layer that looks smooth and solid to the FLAT BONES
naked eye.  Thin, flattened, and usually curved
- osteon/haversian system – structural unit of compact  Two thin layers of compact bone
bone surround a layer of spongy bone

Example:
Skull
Ribs
Sternum

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IRREGULAR BONES EPIPHYSEAL LINE
 Irregular shape  Remnant of the epiphyseal
 Do not fit into other bone plate
classification categories  Seen in adult bones
- cartilage found in epiphyseal plate
Example: is replaced by bone tissue
Vertebrae which form the epiphyseal line as we age.
Hip bones

METAPHYSIS
 The region where the diaphysis and the epiphysis meet,
weather it is in the epiphyseal plate or in the epiphyseal line.
Anatomy of a Long Bone
PERIOSTEUM
 Outside covering of the diaphysis
 Composed mainly of dense irregular connective tissue
 Inner osteo of this region contains bone forming cells which
we call the osteoblast
- bone forming cell- osteoblast
- bone destroying- osteoclast
 Periosteum is richly supplied with nerve fibers
 Contains lymphatic vessels and blood vessel which enter the
diaphysis via a nutrient foramen or opening. Nutrient can
pass through to the diaphysis with the help of periosteum.
 Periosteum also serves as attachment type for tendons and
ligaments
tendons – muscle to bone
ligaments – bone to bone
 Fibrous connective tissue
membrane
DIAPHYSIS SHARPEY’S FIBERS
 Shaft  It is called perforating fibers because it penetrates to the
 Composed of thick collar compact bone compact bone,
- elongated portion/long axis  Secure periosteum to underlying bone made up primarily of
- surrounds the medullary cavity collagen fibers that strengthen the attachment of tendons
and ligaments to the periosteum
EPIPHYSIS ENDOSTEUM
 Ends of the bone - head  Covers internal bone surfaces
 Composed mostly of spongy bone composed of a delicate tissue membrane
- interior is spongy bone covers the trabeculae of the spongy bone and lines the canal
- outer portion of epiphysis contains compact bone that pass through the compact bone
 proximal epiphysis - endo- inside
- proximal if the region of the bone is nearer to the point
of attachment, axial
ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
 distal epiphysis
- if the region of the bone is farther to the point of origin  Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
 Made of hyaline cartilage
EPIPHYSEAL PLATE
 Decreases friction at joint surfaces
 Flat plate of hyaline cartilage - formed by a smooth pack of the hyaline cartilage found
seen in young, where the bone joins with another bone
 Growing bone - located in epiphysis
- also known as growth plate - pag magkakaroon ng friction masakit, that is why yung mga
- made up of hyaline cartilage which increases in elderly nakakaexperience ng pananakit sa joints.
thickness by the division Nagkakaroon ng decrease ng articular cartilage in the
of chondrocyte epiphysis.
- present mostly in young children
- the chondrocyte that is present in the MEDULLARY CAVITY
- plate undergoes mitosis or cell division. This division  Cavity inside of the shaft
increase the thickness of the hyaline cartilage that s  Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
present I this plate. As the cartilage grows, the person is
 Contains red marrow (for blood cell formation) in infants
push upward by the increase in the cartilage.
- The division of the chondrocyte in the epiphysial plate
makes it possible for us to grow taller.

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Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone
LACUNAE
 Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
 Arranged in concentric rings
LAMELLAE
 Rings around the central canal
 Sites of lacunae
- thin sheet of matrix hat contains the lacuna
- layers of dense mineral salts that form concentric wings
bet the lacunae. They are likened to grow wings on the
three trunks
- the matrix is the lamellae, the dark spots is lacunae.
CANALICULI
 Tiny canals
 Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
 Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a
nutrient supply
- like canal that is why are called canaliculi
- tie all the osteocytes in the osteon together for making
nutrients and waste to be relayed on to the next
osteocytes. Although the bone matrix is hard and
permeable, the canaliculi allow bone cells to be well
nourished.
- canaliculus – singular form
Long Bone Formation and Growth
BONE GROWTH
Epiphyseal plates
- Allow for lengthwise growth of long bones during
childhood
- Epiphysial plate – allows as to be taller
- pagpapatulog sa hapon have sense - to permit the
chondrocyte in the epiphysial plate to undergo cell
divisio. Cell division allows thickness of the plate to
grow, and that allows us to become taller.
 New cartilage is continuously formed
- especially in young
 Older cartilage becomes ossified
ossified means hardened
cartilage is being broken or destroyed by osteoclast
 Cartilage is broken down
 Enclosed cartilage is digested away, opening up a
medullary cavity
when cartilage is being destroyed, the medullary cavity
is getting longer
 Bone replaces cartilage through the action of
osteoblasts
Epiphyseal Plate closure
- bones of the epiphysis and diaphysis fuses together
which now cause the end of longitudinal bone growth.
So, when the epiphyseal plate comes to a closure, nag-
i-stop din ang growth in terms of length/height.
- closure occurs as chondroblast of the epiphyseal plate
divide less often causing thinning of the epiphyseal plate
and then they are replaced with bone tissue. As we age
cartilage is being replaced by bones.
- Usually happens in 18 women and 21 men.
BONE REMODELLING
- involve removal of bone by osteoclast
- performed by both osteoclast and osteoblast, kasi pag
sinisira ng osteoclast and bone matrix nirerenew siya ng
osteoblast.
 Bone remodeling is performed by both osteoblasts and
osteoclasts
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 - Also responsible in bone growth, changes in bone
shape and adjustment of bones stress, bone repair and
calcium regulation in the body. Because we have said
that bone primarily is the reservoir of calcium ions n our
body.
 Bones are remodelled and lengthened until growth
stops
o Bones are remodelled in response to two factors: THE SKULL
 Two sets of bones
1. Blood calcium levels
o Cranium
- Bone remodelling that happens to hormonal
-encloses and protects the brain
mechanism is made possible by the action of - contains parietal bones, temporal bones, frontal,
the hormones, which is called parathyroid occipital, sphenoid bones
hormone. Aside from PTH (parathyroid o Facial bones
hormone), we also have the calcitonin -forms the framework of the face
hormone. -contains cavities for special senses, like sense of sight,
smell, etc
- PTH- when the PTH is being released in the - provide opening for airs and food passage
blood stream, stimulates the osteoclast to -secure the teeth in place
break down the bones and this will cause the -anchor facial muscles for expression
release of calcium storage in the blood. Low
blood calcium level, magrerelase ang  Bones are joined by sutures
parathyroid gland ng parathyroid hormone.  Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint
- all the bones I the skull are not movable, only the
mandible or the lower jaw is attached freely by a
- Calcitonin- release in reponse to high blood
movable joint.
calcium levels. Pag mataas and calcium,
irerelease and calcitonin na hormone para HUMAN SKULL, LATERAL VIEW
pababain ito. Pag narelease ang calcitonin, the
calcitonin will exhibit bone resorption or bone
breakdown.

2. Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton

- mechanical forces that keeps the bone strong.
The bone grows or remodelled in response to
the demand place on it. The wolf’s law- that a
bone grows or remodelled in response to the
demand that are place on it. The bone is
stressed whenever weight is being put down on
it or when muscles are pull in.

- examples: the comparison of bone density and

weight strength of a weight lifter with a bed
ridden person. Mas malalakas ang bones ng
lifter and the stressed that is being out upon
their skeletal system makes it stronger. Na-
eexercise ang bones.
 Most skull bones are flat bones except for mandible
which is connected to the rest of the skull with a freely
movable joint.
 All bones in the skull are firmly united or intact by
interlocking joints which is called sutures.

Suture. Joints that connects the bones of the skull.

o Coronal Suture- joins the frontal and parietal bone
o Sagittal Suture – joins the two parietal bones
The Axial Skeleton
o Squamous suture- temporal ad parietal bone
 Forms the longitudinal axis of the body o Lambdoid suture- parietal and occipital bone
 Divided into three parts
o Skull The headache that we feel at back portion of our head is related
o Vertebral column to eye straining. That is why it is called occipital bone. Not all the
o Bony thorax time.

External acoustic/auditory meatus. This is the canal that

enables sound waves to reach the eardrum. Makes us possible
to hear.
HUMAN SKULL, ANTERIOR VIEW

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 when the baby passes through it, the cranial bone is like
compressing by the virtue of the fontanel.
- Bunbunan ng babies
- may fontanel sa harap and sa likod
- overlap to permit the passage of the baby during birth at
the vaginal canal

Sphenoid bone. Is the key stone bone in the cranium. It holds

most of the skull bones together.
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Foramen Magnum (hole). It serves as the opening in the base
of the skull or occipital bone where the spinal cord passes.
- axial support of the head and the trunk
- protects the spinal cord
- extend to the skull to the pelvic where it transmits the
weight of the trunk to the lower limb
- Lower limb- weight bearing bones thus the one of the
functions of the vertebral is to transmit the weight of the
skull to the lower limb.
- Provide attachment point for the ribs the other muscles
of the back and neck

Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location

o There are 24 single vertebral bones separated by
intervertebral discs (not fuse together)
- Seven (7) cervical vertebrae are in the neck – neck
portion
- Twelve (12) thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region
– chest region
- Five (5) lumbar vertebrae are associated with the
lower back – associated with the lower back
o Nine vertebrae fuse to form two composite bones
- Sacrum (5 fuse vertebrae)
- Coccyx (4 fuse vertebrae) also known as tail bone

Zygomatic bone. Forms the cheek and part of the orbit.

Maxilla. Upper jaw, also a part of the hard pallet, orbit, and nasal
cavity walls.

Nasal bone. Bridge of the nose

Vomer. Part of the nasal septum

Nasal septum. Is the one that separates the right and left nostrils
of our nose. and the bone that make it possible is the vomer.

Orbit. Formed by parts of the facial bones, sense of sight

Nasal cavity. Sense of smell is being used

Cervical Vertebrae
- support head
Fun fact :
Atlas
- 1st Vertebra
- atlas makes is possible for us to nod (yes gesture)
Axis
- 2nd Vertebra
- makes it possible for us to say no in gesture ( left and
right movement)
- allow pivot due to dens/odontoid process

Thoracic Vertebrae
- vertebrae in mid and upper back
Fotanel. Permit the cranial bones to overlap during it passes to - hold the ribcage and protect heart and lungs
the vaginal canal canal. Since the vaginal canal is also small, so - limited range of motion

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Lumbar Vertebrae
- strongest
- largest to support the stress (bear the weight of the
upper body)
-
Sacral Vertebrae
- connect spine to the hip bones
- fuse together
- together with hip bone (and coccyx) they form the pelvic Primarily composed of the coastal cartilages that secure the ribs
girdle to the sternum. Above it we have the manubrium.
-
Intercoastal spaces between the ribs are occupied by intercoastal
Coccyx
muscles. These muscles make it possible for the ribs to lift and
- tail bone
press during breathing.
- provide attachment points for ligaments and mucles of
the pelvic floor

About Tail Bone

- Located at the end of vertebral column

- human being has undergone evolution, Nawala na yung
prominent appearance g tail, nagging bone nalang.

 The first 24 are not fuse together while the next nine
are fused together to form two composite bones that is
called the sacrum and coccyx.
 The first 24 are single, not fused together, separated.
 24 plus 2 composite bones makes the adult vertebra a
total of 26 bones.
In infants, vertebral bones are not fused together and the
composite bones are not present in infants.
24 bones in vertebra and nine bones- total of 33 bones
human adult – vertebra 26 bones only
in infants 33 bones for the vertebral column.
the vertebra become larger at the down part because of
the weight they need to carry, to support greater weight.
The Appendicular Skeleton
 Vertebral column from the side, you can see 4
curvatures. Attached only to the axial skeleton
- The cervical and lumbar curvatures are concave  Composed of 126 bones
posteriorly. (paloob ang curve) o Limbs (appendages)
o Pectoral girdle
- Thoracic and sacrum curvature – convex (palabas)
o Pelvic girdle
 Curves in our spinal column increases the resilient
and the strength and flexibility of the spine as is it also
a wight bearing role.

Intervertebral disk. Part of the vertebra that act as shock

absorbers during walking, running jumping. It allows the
spine and neck to extend and even to bend.
the disk account about 25% of the height of the vertebral
column. They flatten as day goes by. So we are taller at
morning than night

The Bony Thorax

THE PECTORAL (SHOULDER) GIRDLE

 Attached upper limb (appendages) to axial skeleton
 Provide attachment point for many of the muscles that
moves the upper limbs. The attachment points for the

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 muscles that help our upper limbs to move is the - Their proximal of the fore arm end articulates/joins with
pectoral girdle. the humerus
- Distal end of ulna and radius articulate with bones of
► Composed of two bones wrist
o Clavicle-collarbone
o Scapula-shoulder blade  Radius- along with your thumb
 Ulna- articulate with the humerus
- These two bones allow the upper limb to have o These two bones are joined together in place
exceptionally free movement with each other by flat flexible ligaments, it is
- Why did we say that it provides exceptionally free called Interosseous membrane
movement? Because it’s only the clavicle or the
collarbone that is attached to the axial skeleton while the
o Ulna
scapula moves freely across the thorax allowing the arm
to move it. o Medial (mas malapit) bone in anatomical position
- SO, if you may want to locate your scapula, yung o has olecron process – most prominent process or
nagmomove sa back natin that is the scapula the feature of the ulna
winglike.
o Radius
► These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free o Lateral (away) bone in anatomical position
movement o main responsibility of forming the wrist joints, so when
- The socket of the shoulder as we can see in the picture the radius moves the hand moves with it as well
is shallow, so it does not restrict the movement of the
humerus.

BONES OF THE UPPER LIMBS

► Humerus
o Forms the arm
o Single bone
o extends from shoulder ► The hand
o Carpals-wrist
up the elbow
o largest and longest bone of upper limb o Metacarpals-palm the heads of the
o joins with the scapula at the shoulder and with the metacarpal forms the knuckle in the clench.
o Phalanges- (fingers)(phalanx) (digits)
radius and ulna at the elbow

► The forearm
- has two bones

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BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE - Weight of the body- got to pelvis- go to femur- go to
- located at the right coaxial bone. tibia- to the foot
- Second largest and strongest bone of the human body.
 The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis.  Fibula
 It protects several organs o Thin and sticklike
o Reproductive organs o looks like stick. Does not bear weight but has several
o Urinary bladder muscles that originates from it or attached. Muscles
o Part of the large intestine are attached to the fibula.

Interosseous membrane. Connects together the tibia and fibula

as well as radius and the ulna of the upper limb

Ilium – yellow colored part

Ischium – purple ► The foot
Pubis- Orange - Primarily supports the body weight
- especially the calcaneus bones and the talus bones,
Acetabulum that may locate at the tarsals of the foot
- point of fusion of this 3 bone
- serves as the socket that receives the head of the femur  Tarsals
o Two largest tarsals
Iliac crest. Winglike portion of the pelvis. It is where you rest  Calcaneus (heelbone)
your hand on your hips  Talus
Ischial tuberosity. Bears the weight of the body when we are
- act as lever to propel the body forward when we
sitting
Synthesis pubis. A fibrocartilage that joins the pubic bone walk and run. Our movement is made possible as
anteriorly. It is where the urinary bladder rest. well by the talus and calcaneus.
 Metatarsals-sole
 Phalanges-toes
BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS
► The thigh
- has one bone
 Femur
o The heaviest, strongest bone in the human body,
largest and longest bone in the human body
o bears much of the weight of the body when standing
o subjected to a great weight of stress during jumping,
running…
o joins proximally with the acetabulum of the pelvis
and distally with the tibia of the lower limb

► The lower leg

- has two bones
 Tibia
o Shinbone
o Larger and medially oriented
- receives the weight of the body form the femur. Since
the femur bears the weight of the body it will transmit the
weight to tibia. Tibia is larger tan fibula. Receives the
weight from the femur and transmit it to the foot.

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Articulations - fibrous in nature
Where bones comes together, meet-up - connected by fibrous tissue
 Give mobility to the skeleton - periodontal ligaments – produces the fibrous connection
 Hold bones together of the teeth in the mandible
 Classified into
o Fibrous
o Cartilaginous
o Synovial

Joints- weakest part of the skeleton but provide some protection

by avoiding crashing and tearing down of the two bones that are
joined/connected together in the joint

FIBROUS JOINTS
 Bones are joined by fibrous connective tissue ( that is
why they are called fibrous joints) CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
 Exhibits little or no movement  Unite two bones by means of cartilage
 Types (that’s why it is called cartilaginous)
o Sutures  Slightly movable joints
o Syndesmoses  Types
o Gomphoses o Synchondroses
o Symphyses
Sutures
- occurs only with the bones of the skull when interlocked These two are made up of hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage
- Dense fibrous connective tissue fill in the gap/the
spaces making it immovable joined together by dense Synchondroses
fibrous tissue except for the infants where sutures are - type of joint where two bones are joined together by
wide which are called to fontanel (bunbunan) hyaline cartilage
- if adult- closed space in between the bones of the skull - little or no movement occurs
example: the joints present in epiphyseal plate and coastal
cartilages that are present in rib cage

Symphyses
- joints where bones are joined together by hyaline
cartilage which intern its fuse to an intervening path of
fibrocartilage
- cartilage that is present in symphyses is fuse together
with a fibrocartilage
- function as shock absorber, since it contains
fibrocartilage that is compressible and resilient and
strong. Therefore, the function of symphyses is a to
absorb shock or stress.
example: intervertebral disk and pubic symphyses

Syndesmoses
- are joints where bones are connected together but still
are farther apart than in a suture.
- joined together by ligaments
- not so much close with each other unlike the sutures so
movements may even occur due to the flexibility of the
ligaments, while suture it is impossible to move the
bones

SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Gomphoses
- peg in socket fibrous point  Five distinguishing features
- looks likes pegs that are located in the socket o Articular cartilage
in teeth o Joint (synovial) cavity

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 o Articular capsule
o Synovial fluid
o Reinforcing ligaments
Articular cartilage
- made up of glass like smooth hyaline cartilage and
covers the opposing bones surfaces as well as the
upper portion.
- absorbs compression that is placed on the joint and
reduces friction.
Joint Cavity
- contains the synovial fluid
Synovial fluid
- has a viscus and white consistency.
- form a thin lubricating film that covers the surfaces of
the joint. So the space in the joint is called synovial
cavity.
- function to lubricate and to reduce the friction as well of
the two cartilages that covers the bone
Articular capsule
- has external and internal layers
- external composed of fibrous capsule that strengthens
the joint so that the bones are not pulled apart. it keeps
the bones in the joints intact. Para hindi maghiwalay.
- Inner layers consists of synovial membrane it produces
the synovial fluid
Reinforcing ligaments
- portion of the fibrous capsule or part of the fibrous
capsule that is hardened to form the ligament or tendons
and provide additional strength to the joints
- In certain joint the synovial membrane may een extend
as a pocket or sack which is medically termed as bursa.
- Bursa functions to reduce friction where structures
would rub together.
CLASSIFICATION OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Plane joint
- are gliding joints/used for gliding movement
- the articular surfaces or the joint surfaces that are
present in the plane joint are flat.
- Allow only short gliding movement
- such as side to side and back and forth
- like joint in palm (side to side and back and forth)
Pivot joint
- allows rotation/circulation motion around a single axis
- example is joint between the atlas and the dense of the
axis which allows head movement side to side
- The atlas makes us move our head like nodding
- Axis- the no gesture movement
- joint that is present between the atlas and the axis make
sit possible to move our head side to side.
- another example joint between the radius, rotating
against the ulna (forearm)
- the rotatory movement in the ulna is made possible by
pivot joint
Hinge
- it allows movement in one plane only
- example: the flexion and extension of the knee and
elbow
- we flex the elbow and extend (made possible by the
hinge joint)
Ball and-socket
- allows a wide range of movement in almost any
direction
- most freely moving joints
- example: joints in our shoulder and hip joints
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Elipsoid
- termed as condyloid also
- appears like elongated ball and socket
- the shape of the joints limits it movements nearly to a
hinge motion but in two plane.
- example: wrist joint and the knuckle joints
- increases the angle of articulating joint
reverse of flexion along the sagittal plane still
like joints are being straightened
- Another example flexion and extension of the digits

Saddle
- resembles the condyloid joints but allow greater freedom
of movement
- example; base of the thumb

HYPEREXTENSION
 Movement of the joint beyond its normal range/ beyond
anatomical position

ABDUCTION AND ADDUCTION

Abduction
- moving away of the structure and the bone or body parts
from midline or medial form of the body along the frontal
plane
Adduction
- when the bones or body parts are moving toward the
midline of the body.

Types of Movement

GLIDING
 Simplest joint movement
 Conflicts or glind with one another such as when you
move your wrist back and forth and side to side

FLEXION AND EXTENSION

ROTATION

Flexion
Circular movement in which there is a turning of a bone around
- bending movement along the sagittal plane and its own axis - screw type motion wherein there is a movement to
decreases the angle of the joint and brings the the left and to the right
articulating bones together Internal or medial rotation
Extension - rotation toward the midline is called

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Lateral or external rotation
- rotation of body part is away from the midline
PROTRACTION AND RETRACTION
example: vertebral, upper and lower limbs, head
- allow by pivot joint Protraction
- moving of the boy part anteriorly along a horizontal
plane
- Mandible or jaw anteriorly

Retraction
- moving of body part posteriorly along a horizontal plane
- Mandible or jaw posteriorly

SUPINATION AND PRONATION

- Circular movement
Supination ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION
- palms front or up Elevation
- thumbs away - lifting of a body part
- radius and ulna are parallel - superior

Pronation Depression
- palm back or down - inferiorly
- thumbs pointing medially - another example is shrugging of the shoulders
- radius rotates over ulna - lift elevation
- baba depression

INVERSION AND EVERSION

CIRCUMDUCTION Inversion
- sole of the foot turns medially or towards the midline
 Describe as a cone in space wherein the distal end of
the limb moves in circular direction while the proximal Eversion
end of the limb is more or less stationary - sole faces laterally or moves away from the midline
 When you view this it makes somewhat cone shape in
space

DORSIFLEX AND PLANTARFLEX

Dorsiflex
- decreasing the angle
- move feet up
- toes pointing closer to the body

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Plantarflex
- extend feet or move down
- toes pointing away to the body

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