Pile Foundations (Chapters 12 and 13)

Purpose:

- To transmit load of the structure to firmer soil at greater depth.

Common Pile Materials: (Pre-fabricated/precast)

Different shapes of steel piles are there.

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Construction Methods:

Driven Pile
- Most piles are driven into the ground by means of hammers or vibratory
drivers.
- In hammer driving, a drop hammer is raised by a winch and allowed to drop
from a certain height.
- Vibratory driver consists essentially of two counterrotating weights

- During driving, pile pushes the soil laterally. Therefore, the driven piles are
called displacement pile.
- Displacement is higher for concrete/timber piles and lower for steel piles.
- Sometime assisted with augering or water jetting from the tip of the pile.
- Quick to construct but make noise and may damage to nearby facility.

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Cast-In-Situ Pile:
- Constructed by drilling a hole in the ground and casting concrete in place.
- No displacement of soil, less construction noise. My need longer time.

- Engineers and contractors use different term to describe this type of pile
including:

 Pier: Typically for shallow depth. It is also used to define component

used to raise superstructure.
 Caisson: It is also used define a type of underwater foundation
 Cast-in-place pile
 Bored pile

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Auger Cast in Place (ACIP) Piles

(a) drill to the required depth using a hollow stem auger; (b) withdraw the
auger while injecting cement grout; and (c) install steel rebars.

- Smaller diameter

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Drilled shaft

(a) drilling the shaft; (b) starting to place the concrete; (c) placing the
reinforcing steel cage; and (d) finishing the concrete placement.
- Usually for diameter of 750 mm or more

Belled

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Determination of Pile Capacity
- Use analytical method during design (Discussed in 5723)
- Pile load test after construction (Discussed in 5723)
- Pile driving analysis during construction

Analytical method:
- Apply analytical reasoning to estimate the capacity

Resistance offered by the soil when the load pushes a pile downward:

Skin friction

End Bearing

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Cohesionless soil (frictional resistance only): Sand, gravel, non-plastic silt
c = 0,   0

Ultimate skin Friction: Friction = normal force × coefficient of friction

Unit skin friction: frictional force per unit area

f =  tan
h

h = kv  = 0.5 to 0.8

 = h -  h
v w w

Total frictional force, Qs = f × As (As is the surface area of pile)

Ultimate End bearing (toe resistance): sand, gravel

Unit end bearing (toe resistance): bearing resistance per unit area at the
bottom. Similar to the bearing capacity of shallow foundation

Smaller B and account for

the weight of the pile
Unit end bearing of pile tip:

fb = v’N*q

Nq is bearing Capacity factor.

Total end bearing force, Qb = fb × Ab (Ab is the area of pile base)

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Cohesive soil: Clay and plastic silt

Skin Friction:
- Due to stickiness (cohesion) of the soil
- Can also have friction like cohesionless soil

Undrained condition, c = cu,  = 0

Drained condition, c = 0,   0 for normally consolidated soil
c  0,   0 for overconsolidated soil

Drained condition is very similar to sand.

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For undrained condition: Cohesion governs. No friction

Cohesion of the soil to the pipe is less than the ‘c’, which is called
adhesion, ca.

ca = c (  1)

Thus, unit skin friction for undrained condition is:

fs = cu

End Bearing:
For undrained condition.
Account for the weight of
the pile
The unit end bearing for undrained condition is:

q = cNc

Nc = 9

Limitations: The ultimate resistances are activated (mobilized) only if the

points on the pile move with respect to the soil. Pile deformation is
not uniform along the length of the pile, which may affect these.

Common methods of pile analysis:

 - Method  For undrained condition of clay

 - Method  For drained condition of clay and for sand

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6-11
Unit tip resistance of pile in san using SPT N-values: Meyerhof (1976)
L
qp  0.4pa N60   4paN60
D
N60: the average of N60 near the pile tip (10D above and 4D below tip)

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Pipe cross-section and perimeter for different piles:

Allowable Capacity: is obtained from the ultimate capacity using a factor of safety
of 2.5 to 3

Factored resistance: To the ultimate limit states, a geotechnical resistance factor

of 0.4 for compression and 0.3 for upload is applied.

Example 12.7: Note that a method different from the book will be used.
Refer to the driven pipe pile in saturated clay shown in the figure. For the pile,
a. Calculate the skin resistance Qs by using  and  methods.
The top 10 m of clay is normally consolidated. The bottom clay layer has an
OCR = 2. (Note: diameter of pile = 457 mm)
b. Also, calculate the allowable capacity of the pile.

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 Method

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Allowable capacity = Qu/3 = 388 kN

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Negative Skin Friction (Art. 12.23)

Negative skin friction is a downward drag force exerted on a pile by the soil
surrounding it. Such a force can exist under the various conditions:

1. If a fill of clay soil is placed over a granular soil layer into which a pile is driven,
the fill will gradually consolidate. The consolidation process will exert a downward
drag force on the pile during the period of consolidation.

2. If a fill of granular soil is placed over a layer of soft clay it will induce the
process of consolidation in the clay layer and thus exert a downward drag on the
pile.

3. Lowering of the water table will increase the vertical effective stress on the soil
at any depth, which will induce consolidation settlement in clay.

- Add am additional load to the pile.

Negative skin friction can be calculated using the similar way of skin friction.
-  - methods is more suitable since settlement (drained condition) is
involved.

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Fill over granular soil:

Example 12:20:

L = Hf = 2 m
Effective stress at the middle of the layer, v’ = 16 1 = 16 kPa

Negative skin friction force, Qn = fnPL = 0.47  16tan19.2 0.9582 = 5.02 kN

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Granular fill over clay:

- Soil has to move a sufficient amount relative to the pile to cause negative
skin friction
- Beyond a certain depth the soil does not move relative to the pile
sufficiently to cause negative skin friction.
- depends on the thickness of the clay layer and the load from the fill (, Hf)

Example 12:21

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Within the clay layer:

Hf = 2 m

Effective stress at the middle of L1, v’ = 16.5 2 + (17.2 - 9.81)(11.75/2)

= 76.41 kPa

Qn = fnPL = 0.44  76.41tan(0.6*34) 0.95811.75 = 140.75 kN

Overlying sand layer: should be considered in the same way as in previous

example.

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Adfreezing (CFEM 2006)

Soil in contact with the pile within the depth of frost penetration can freeze and
develop a substantial adfreeze bond. A frost susceptible soil can heave and
transmit uplift forces to the foundation.

Average adfreeze bond stresses, determined from field experiments, typically

range from 65 kPa for fine-grained soils frozen to wood or concrete to 100 kPa
for fine-grained soils frozen to steel (Penner, 1974). Design adfreeze bonds for
saturated gravel frozen to steel piles can be estimated at 150 kPa (Penner and
Goodrich, 1983). Most sever uplift conditions can occur where frost penetrates
through frost stable gravel fill into highly forst susceptible soils surrounding a
foundation. These conditions result in a heaving situation with maximum
adfreeze bond stress and have been know to jack H-piles driven to depths in order
of 13 m (Hayley, 1988).

It is good practice to backfill against foundations with non-frost susceptible soil.

Provision should be made for drainage around the foundation parameter, below
the maximum depth of frost penetration. The granular backfill should be capped
with less permeable soil and a surface grade provided to shed runoff before it
enters the backfill.

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Capacity of driven pile through installation monitoring (Art. 12.20 -12.22)

Pile-Driving Formula:

- When pile is driven using a hammer (ram) falling from a known height, the
amount of pile penetration per blow can be used to estimate the pile
capacity.
- The amount of pile penetration per blow is known as “set”.

It the weight of the ram is WR, and falling height is ‘h’,

Work done per blow of the ram = WRh

Assume that an equivalent load/resistance of “Qu” is applied to the pile. Now, if

the pile set is ‘S’,
Work done by the equivalent load = QuS

Apply, QuS = WRh

Actual set ‘S’ measure during pile driving is usually less than the actual pile
head movement due to elastic rebound. To account for the difference, a constant
‘C’ is added, i.e., theoretical set is S+C,

Thus, Qu(S+C) = WRh

𝑄 =

This equation is known as Engineering News Formula (published in 1888) used for
estimating pile capacity using and appropriate factor of safety. This formula has
been modified
- to incorporate hammer efficiency, E

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 - to account for the energy is lost in the driving process as not all the energy
of the hammer is not transferred to the pile. A significant amount of energy
is lost during impact of the hammer with the pile (collision), which can be
accounted using co-efficient of restitution, ‘n’. The co-efficient of
restitution is defined as:
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑛=
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡
=
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡

Value ranges from 0 to 1

The modified EN Formula:

𝐸𝑊 ℎ 𝑊 + 𝑛 𝑊
𝑄 =
𝑆+𝐶 𝑊 +𝑊

Where, E = efficiency of hammer

C = 2.54 mm if the units of S and h are in mm
WP = weight of the pile
n = coefficient of restitution between the ram and the pile cap

Typical values of E
Single and double acting hammers 0.7 to 0.85
Diesel hammers 0.8-0.9
Drop hammers 0.7-0.9

Typical values for n

Cast-iron hammer and concrete 0.4-0.5
pile without cap
Wood cushion on steel piles 0.3-0.4
Wooden piles 0.25-0.3

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Hiley Formula:

The above modified engineering new formula is used with the following
recommendations on the parameters.

C = (C1+C2+C3)/2
C1 = Temporary elastic compression of the pile cushion, head and cap (1-5 mm)
C2 = Temporary elastic compression of the pile length (0.2 to 1×10-3L)
C3 = Temporary elastic compression in the soil surrounding the pile that lies
beneath the tip, known as quake (1-6 mm)

S is taken as the average penetration per hammer blow, calculated counting

number of hammer blows, N per 12.5 mm of penetration:

.
𝑆 =

The Hiley Formula is:

𝐸𝑊 ℎ 𝑊 +𝑛 𝑊
𝑄 =
25.4/𝑁 + 2.54 𝑊 + 𝑊

Monitoring during Pile Installation:

- Mark to know the burial depth, usually at 6 in. and 1 ft intervals.

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- Record number of blows required for penetration between the marks.
- Near the final penetration depth (number of blows per inch of penetration
is high), mark at 1-inch (25.4 mm) interval. Count number of blows required
for each inch of penetration to determine final pile capacity.

- Check pipe stress (Qu/AP) to avoid damage during driving. Driving stresses
are limited to
o 0.7fu, 0.6f’c and o.85fy for wooden, concrete and steel piles,
respectively.

- Usual values of driving resistance are:

o 4 to 5 blows per inch of penetration for wooden piles,
o 6 to 8 blows per inch of penetration for concrete piles and
o 12 to 14 blows per inch of penetration for steel piles.

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Example 12.18

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Pile-Driving Analyzer (PDA): popularly used these days.
- A pair of strain transducer mounted near the top of the pile
- A pair of accelerometers mounted near the top of the pile
- The PDA system with software record the measured responses due to pile
hammer load (or drop weight for bored pile). The results are simulated
using a signal matching software (CAPWAP: Case Pile Wave Analysis
Program) with varying soil parameters, based on which the pile capacity is
estimated.

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 Pile Settlement (Art. 12.18):

Vesic’s Method (1977) using elastic theory

- Load right on the pile might cause pile

deformation (shortening).

Load on the on the soil at the tip of the pile

can cause soil settlement at the bottom.

- Load on the soil from the side of the pile

(skin friction) can cause soil settlement.

se(1)
se(3)

se(2)
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 Three components of elastic settlement:

Se(1) = elastic settlement of pile

Se(2) = settlement of pile caused by the load at the pile tip

Se(3) = settlement of pile caused by the load transmitted along the pile shaft

se(1)

Equilibrium equation (Fy =0)

Qz = A = E A (Axial force = stress  area)

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Plugging into above equation:

Solution of the equation:

 = A constant accounting for the distribution of skin friction (0.5 t0 0.67)

0.67 0.67
0.5 0.5

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se(2)
Similar to embedded shallow foundation

= 0.85

Another semi-empirical equation:

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 The settlement of a pile caused by the load carried by the pile shaft

L
I ws 20.35
D

Another semi-empirical equation:

Example 12.14

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6-33