1_

Real Utopias and Dystopias from the Colombian

Amazon:
Collective Future Scenarios under Government & FARC-EP
post-agreement period

Danna Villada Orozco

MasterThesisSeriesinEnvironmentalStudiesandSustainabilityScience,
No2017:002

AthesissubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsofLundUniversity
InternationalMaster’sProgrammeinEnvironmentalStudiesandSustainabilityScience
(30hp/credits)

LUCSUS 
Lund University Centre for
Sustainability Studies










RealUtopiasandDystopiasfromtheColombianAmazon:
CollectiveFutureScenariosunderGovernment&FARCͲEPpostͲagreement
period




DannaVillada




AthesissubmittedinpartialfulfilmentoftherequirementsofLundUniversityInternationalMaster’s
ProgrammeinEnvironmentalStudiesandSustainabilityScience
SubmittedFebruary15,2017
Supervisor:TorstenKrause,LUCSUS,LundUniversity


Emptypage


 Abstract


Aftermorethan50yearsofinternalarmedconflict,thepeaceagreementbetweentheColombian
GovernmentandtheRevolutionaryArmedForcesofColombiaͲPeople’sArmy(FARCͲEP)raisesboth
hope and concern. There are several opportunities for people, derived from wealth and land
redistribution. However, the environmental sustainability of the mechanisms to implement the
agreementsrepresentthebiggestchallengesfacingthefuture.Threatstotheenvironment,suchas
increased deforestation in areas previously isolated during the conflict, can compromise the
ecosystembalanceshumansandnonͲhumansdependon.TheAmazonForestReserveisamongthe
areasthatwilllikelyundergothebiggestpressuresduringthepostͲagreementperiod.Certainly,there
arenoblueprintstoachieveastableandlastingpeace.However,anyrealpeaceproposalsneedto
includeallconcernedparties.ConstructingfuturescenarioswithindigenouspeopleslivinginForest
ReservesandexternalagentsworkinginLaPedrera,AmazonasDepartment,isagoodcaseexample
todefinewhatkindoffuturestheycanenvision.

Forthisresearchproject,Idesignedandservedasfacilitatorduringsixscenarioconstructionexercises,
with40ForestReservedwellers.Additionally,IconductedsixsemiͲstructuredformalinterviewswith
relevantactors.Theprocessofsynthesisingparticipants’views,thecurrentstateoftheterritory,and
perceivedfutureopportunitiesandthreats,leadmetoabaselineandthreefuturescenarios:Utopian,
BusinessasUsual,andDystopian.Furthermore,Iusedthecapabilitiesapproach,andPoliticalEcology,
tounderstandthekindsofconflictspresentinthearea,toexplorerealpossibilitiesofpeaceforthe
territory, and to expand the roles participants described as more conducive to achieve desirable
futures.

Throughthebaselineandthefuturescenarios,Iwasabletoidentifytwokindsofconflicts.Thefirst
conflict,intheexistentialterritory,istheclashbetweentheWesternandtheIndigenousworld.The
secondtypeofconflict,inthephysicalterritory,ishowthearmedconflictispresentinthestudyarea,
throughtheconnexionbetweengoldminingandarmedgroups.Realproposalsfortheresolutionof
conflictsintheexistentialterritorywouldrequirecollectiveaction,frombothindigenousandnonͲ
indigenous peoples, to construct a common world. Enhancing the role of youth and ecological
movementsiskeytoresolvingtheconflictinthephysicalterritory,todemandaccountabilityfromthe
stateandnonͲofficialarmedactors,tomakemoredesirablefuturespossible.

Keywords: Amazon Forest Reserve, Capabilities, indigenous peoples, PeaceͲagreement, Political

Ecology,scenarioconstruction

Wordcount(thesis):13964


 Acknowledgements
IdedicatethisworktomyfamilyinColombia,madreselva,padremonte,mybrother,andmysisterͲinͲ
law;andtomyfamilyinSweden,mypartnerandhislovedones.Youaremyinspirationduringbright
times,andmysupportindarkerones.Yougivemereasonstocontinuedreamingofabettercommon
world. Special thanks also go to my former bosses, and my godfather, who believed in me and
supportedmycandidatureforLUMES.

Severalotherpeoplehelpedmecompletingthisprogram.Justtonamesomeofthem,Iwanttothank
Amanda Elgh, from LUCSUS, for her unconditional support and help during these two years of
strugglingagainstadversities.ThankstoMatildaEspmarker,fromFountainHouse,whowasalways
theretohelpmeseethatthechallengesIwasfacingwerenotinsurmountable.Thankstothefriends
Imadethroughtheprogram,ChristianeandGunn.IwouldnothavesurvivedthistimeinSwedenifit
wasnotforallofyou.

Iwanttothankallthosewhodirectlycontributedtomakingthisthesisreportwhatithasbecome.I
takefullresponsibilityforthereflections,andfortheinaccuraciesregardingformorcontent,butif
thereissomethingcoherentandwellwritten,itisinnodoubttheworkingofawholerangeofskilled
commentators and passionate professors. Thanks to my advisor, Torsten Krause for his valuable
commentsandquestions,thatalways pushed me torefinemy work.Specialthanksalso gotomy
writingadvisors,CharlotteHanssonandJ.DavidGómez,whosecommentsandquestionshelpedme
toclarifymy ideasandallowedmeto closethischapterin my academiccareer,motivatingme to
continuewithotherwritingendeavours.

Finally,IwanttoclosebythankingallmycoͲresearchers,thosepeoplewhoengagedwithmeinthe
construction of future scenarios in the Amazon. Without you, this project would not have been
possible. I think of you almost every day, and I hope that soon I will be able to join you again, to
continuethiscollectiveexperimentweengagedatthebeginningof2016.



TableofContents

1Introduction.....................................................................................................1
1.1 Problemstatement.........................................................................................................1
1.2.RelevanceandResearchQuestions......................................................................................2
1.3AimandContributionstosustainability................................................................................4

2Settingthescene..............................................................................................4
2.1TheroleoftheAmazonintheColombianconflict.................................................................4
2.2AbriefintroductiontothearmedconflictandthepeacenegotiationsinColombia..............6
2.3PostͲagreementperiod.........................................................................................................7
2.4EcologicalchallengesfromthepostͲagreementperiodinColombia......................................8

3TheoreticalFoundations..................................................................................8
3.1PoliticalEcology(Latour)andCapabilitiesApproach(Sen)....................................................8
3.1.1Agencyandequality...............................................................................................................9
3.1.2Peaceandwar...................................................................................................................... 10
3.2Theoreticalfoundationsofresearchquestions...................................................................11
3.2.1Whatdocollectivelydesirableandundesirablefutureslooklike?(RQ1)...........................11
3.2.2Howcanwemakemoredesirablefuturespossible?(RQ2)................................................12
3.2.3Whatroleshouldactorsplayinordertoachievemoredesirablefutures?(RQ3)..............12

4TravelGuide(Methodology/Methods)..........................................................13

4.1Studysitedescription..................................................................................13
4.1.1TheAmazonianForestReserveinColombia.......................................................................13
4.1.2LaPedrera............................................................................................................................ 14
4.2Mytravelbook(Methodology)...........................................................................................15
4.2.2ResearchStrategyandDesign..............................................................................................16
4.3Travellingtoolkit(DataConstructionmethods)..................................................................17
4.3.1ParticipantObservationsandInformalinterviews..............................................................18
4.3.2ScenarioConstructionandtheexpandedDPSIRscheme....................................................18
4.3.2.1Scenarios......................................................................................................................................18
4.3.2.2C+DPSIRscheme........................................................................................................................20
4.3.3SemiͲstructuredinterviews............................................................................................................20
4.4Hometoolkit(DataAnalysismethods)................................................................................20


 4.4.1Transcription,CodingandTranslation.................................................................................21
4.4.2BasicandInterpretativecontentanalysis............................................................................21
4.5Fieldworkchallenges.........................................................................................................21
4.6ResearchEthics...................................................................................................................22
4.6Reflectionsontheresearchprocess....................................................................................22

5 PresentationandAnalysisofFindings........................................................23
5.1Scenarios............................................................................................................................24
5.1.1BaselinescenarioͲ(C)+(D)(P)(S)(I)(R)................................................................................24
5.1.2Threefuturescenarios(RQ1)...............................................................................................26
5.1.2.1DystopianFuture(DF)..................................................................................................................27
5.1.2.2“BusinessͲasͲusual”(BAU)...........................................................................................................29
5.1.2.3UtopianFuture(UF).....................................................................................................................31
5.2Whatdoesittaketomakemoredesirablefuturespossible?(RQ2).....................................33
5.3Whatroleshouldactorsplaytoachievemoredesirablefutures?(RQ3).............................34

6Discussion......................................................................................................35
6.1CollectivefuturescenariosintheColombianAmazonunderpostͲagreementperiod
(ResearchObjective1).............................................................................................................35
6.1.1Conflictintheexistentialterritory.......................................................................................36
6.1.2Conflictinthephysicalterritory..........................................................................................37
6.2Actionsintomoredesirablefutures(ResearchObjective2)................................................38
6.2.1Realpeaceproposalsintheexistentialterritory.................................................................39
6.2.2Realpeaceproposalsinthephysicalterritory.....................................................................40
6.3Rolestomakemoredesirablefuturespossible(ResearchObjective3)...............................41
6.4Limitations.........................................................................................................................42
6.5Suggestionsforfurtherresearch.........................................................................................43

7Conclusion......................................................................................................43
References...............................................................................................................................45

Annexes.............................................................................................................52
Annexe1:Glossary...................................................................................................................52
Annexe2:AreaofTerritorialEntitiesintheAmazon................................................................58
Annexe3:Participantcharacterization.....................................................................................58
3.1CoͲresearchers........................................................................................................................ 58


 Annexe4:Consentform...........................................................................................................64
Annexe5:SemiͲstructuredinterviews......................................................................................67
Annexe6:ProtocolforScenarioexercises................................................................................71
Annexe7:Codesforinterpretativecontentanalysis.................................................................76
Annexe8:Samplesfrominterpretativecontentanalysis..........................................................80
Annexe9:CoͲrelationbetweenparticipants’perceptionsandthepostͲagreementperiod.......81

ListofFigures
Figure1:PeaceagreementprocessinColombiaandtheroleofthenaturalenvironment..................2
Figure2:MapoftheLegalStateoftheTerritoryintheColombianAmazon.........................................6
Figure3:TheCentralHumanCapabilities.............................................................................................10
Figure4:TerritorialEntitiesintheColombianAmazon........................................................................14
Figure5:Mapofthestudyarea............................................................................................................15
Figure6:LayersofMethodology..........................................................................................................16
Figure7:ResearchprocessStagesofInquiry.......................................................................................23
Figure8:BaselinescenarioapplyingtheexpandedDPSIRscheme......................................................25
Figure9:Scenarios............................................................................................................................... .27
Figure10:DegreesofawarenessaboutthepostͲagreementperiod...................................................81


ListofTables

Table1:ResearchsubͲquestionsandassociatedobjectives..................................................................3
Table2:DataConstruction&analysisstrategies,andrelatedresearchsubͲquestions......................17
Table3:FocusGroupparticipantcharacterizationbysexandage......................................................19
Table4:TerritorialEntitiesintheColombianAmazonbyarea............................................................58
Table5:CoͲresearchers’characterisation............................................................................................59
Table6:ExpandedDPSIRTemporalCategories....................................................................................76
Table7:Atemporalcategories(Naturalandbuiltenvironment,capabilities,andactors)..................78
Table8:HumanCentralCapabilities.....................................................................................................79


ListofAbbreviations
DANE NationalAdministrativeStatisticsDepartment(ͲDepartamentoAdministrativo
NacionaldeEstadística)


 ELN TheNationalLiberationArmy(ͲEjércitodeLiberaciónNacional)

ETI IndigenousTerritorialEntity(ͲEntidadTerritorialIndígena)

FARCͲEP RevolutionaryArmedForcesofColombiaͲPeople’sArmy(ͲFuerzasArmadas
RevolucionariasdeColombiaͲEjectiondelPueblo)

GO GovernmentalOrganisation

NGO NonͲGovernmentalOrganization

ONIC Colombian National Indigenous Organisation (ͲOrganización Nacional

IndígenadeColombia)

OPIAC National Indigenous Organisation from the Indigenous Nations of the
Colombian Amazon (ͲOrganización Nacional de los Pueblos Indígenas de la
AmazoníaColombiana)

PNN NaturalNationalParks(ͲParquesNacionalesNaturales)

 


1Introduction

1.1 Problemstatement

The peace agreement between the Colombian Government and the FARCͲEP (see figure 1 –Peace
accord Process in Colombia) raises both hope and concern. Ending more than 50 years of armed
confrontationsisanecessaryconditiontobuilddesirablefuturesforthosewhohavemoreclosely
lived the rigours of the internal war, yet the implementation of the agreements presents critical
challenges,notablyregardingenvironmentalsustainability(Fajardoetal.,2014).Lackofparticipation
andengagementofrelevantparties,beforeandafterapeaceagreement,candriftintoconflictrelapse
(Seefigure1–Conflictcycle).Thevictimsoftheconflict,smallfarmers,ethnicminoritygroups,and
exͲcombatantsfromtheguerrillagroupareexpectedtobenefitmoredirectlyfromtheagreement.
Wealth and land redistribution, infrastructural improvements, and Human Rights enforcement are
supposedtoimprovetheconditionsofunderservedgroups(Carmona,2015;Fajardoetal.,2014;The
GovernmentofColombiaandtheRevolutionaryArmedForcesofColombia–People'sArmy(FARC–
EP),2016).Nevertheless,benefitsforpeople,derivedfromtheimplementationsoftheagreement,
canbereversedbypressuressuchaslandͲusechange,andexploitationofnaturalresources,atscales
thatwerepreviouslyforbiddenbytheconflict(Álvarez,2001;Dávalosetal.,2011;Fajardoetal.,2014).

EcologicalissuesrelatedtoForestReservesdeservespecialattention.Theseareareasinprincipleset
asidefortheprotectionofecosystemfunctioning,productiveactivitiesdifferentfromforestryarenot
allowedintheseTerritorialEntities(MinisteriodeAmbienteyDesarrolloSostenible,2014).Sincethe
ColombianGovernmentreliesonthesubtractionoflandfromForestReservestocomplywiththeland
redistribution reforms, their protective role can be jeopardised during the implementation of the
peaceagreement(Fajardoetal.,2014).Additionally,thebenefitsthatthepeaceaccordpromiseswill
notbedeliveredtopeopleintheshortterm,notevenhumansecurity,asotherexperiencesshow
thatviolenceagainstciviliansmayincreaseduringpostͲconflictperiods(Camelo,2015;International
CrisisGroup,2014;KathmanandWood,2014).Consequently,marginalisedgroupsmaybenefitfrom
discussingthekindofthreatsandopportunitiesthatthepostͲagreementcanbringtothem,toidentify
actions that they and other actors should take to make use of the possibilities and withstand the
threats.

1

Therefore,withthisstudy,Iseektoengageintheconstruction*1offuturescenarioswithIndigenous
CommunitieslivinginForestReserves,andwithexternalagentsworkingintheareaofLaPedrera,
AmazonasColombia.Workingwiththispopulationisimportantbecause,ontheonehand,thearmed
conflict has impacted ethnic groups in a disproportionate manner (Amnesty International, 2015;
SánchezG.,2013).Ontheotherhand,bothindigenousandnonͲindigenouspeoplefromtheareaare
also agents of change that can make significant contributions to the construction of a stable and
durablepeace.


Figure1:PeaceagreementprocessinColombia andtheroleofthenaturalenvironment.
ThisgraphrepresentsthepeaceaccordprocessinColombia,betweentheGovernmentofJuanManuelSantos
andtheFARCͲEP,abouttheinternationalcycleofconflictsdefinedbytheUNEP.InadditiontotheNational
stagesandinternationalphasesofthearmedconflict,thisgraphincludestheconnectionbetweenintraͲstate
armed conflict and the natural environment. In particular, the graph contains the role of the Colombian
Amazonabouttheinternalarmedconflict,anditspotentialtoplayaroleinpeacekeepingandpeacebuilding
(Sources:AdaptedfromRodríguez(2015);(RAISG,2015;UNEP,2009).

1.2.RelevanceandResearchQuestions



1
Pleasefindallthetermsinitalicswhichhavethe*symbolintheGlossaryattheendofthisdocument(Annexe1).
2

Fromadevelopmentalapproachtopeace,naturalresourcesneedtobeaccountedfortoenhance
peacebuilding and peacekeeping; otherwise, progress and economic growth will be threatened
(PeacebuildingSupportOffice,2010;UNEP,2009),seefigure1–Theroleofnaturalresourcesandthe
environment. From a nonͲdevelopmental approach, both humans and nonͲhumans need to
participate in the definition of the kind of advancement that we need to adopt, to construct a
collectivefutureintheonlyplanetwehave(Latour,2006,2004a,Morin,2006,1995).Whetherwe
takethehumancentredorthepostͲhumanistapproachtoanalysethearmedconflictinColombia,we
will arrive at the conclusion that the Colombian Amazon rainforest has played a significant role in
fuelling the conflict. Although their roles are still uncertain, humans and nonͲhumans from Forest
ReservesintheAmazoncanalsoplayimportantrolesforpeacebuilding(Seefigure1–Theroleofthe
AmazonintheColombianconflict).Moredesirablefuturesarenotpossibleifthosewhotakedecisions
that affect the composition of the landscape are further apart from those who will bear the
consequencesofthosedecisions(Hägerstrand,2001).Therefore,withthisresearchproject,Iattempt
toanswerthefollowingresearchquestion:

WhatimaginedfuturescenariosareenvisionedbyForestReservedwellersand
externalagents2inLaPedrera,Amazonas,duringthepostͲagreementperiodin
Colombia?

General Objective: Describing, from participants’ perspectives, what are the challenges and
possibilitiesthatapeaceagreementcanbringtothem.

ThefollowingresearchsubͲquestionsandtherelatedobjectiveswillhelpmeanswertheoverarching
researchquestion(Table1).

Table1:ResearchsubͲquestionsandassociatedobjectives


2
Internalagents(A)inandExternalagents(A)exarecategoriesIintroducedduringdataanalysistodifferentiateparticipants
whowerebornandcurrentlyliveinthearea,fromparticipantswhoworkintheareabutcomefromotherDepartments.
Due to the difficulty of defining participants only as indigenous or nonͲindigenous, I decided to introduce this ‘mobility
qualifier’, where internal agents are more bounded to the territory than external agents. For a full description of these
categoriesseetheGlossary(Annexe1).
3

 Research subͲquestions
(RQ1) What would collectively desirable and
undesirable futures look like from the
perspective of internal and external agents
living and working in La Pedrera, Amazonas
Department?
(RQ2) How can we make more desirable
futures possible?
(RQ3) What role should agents play in order
to achieve more desirable futures?
Specific Objectives
To describe how indigenous peoples and
external agents imagine future scenarios, within
the frame of the peace agreement between the
Colombian Government and the FARCͲEP.
To identify courses of action that could be
performed by internal agents, and other
relevant parties, in order to bring about better
futures.
To understand how participants see themselves,
and the role of other relevant parties, in the
construction of better common futures.


1.3AimandContributionstosustainability


The overall aim of this research is to engage in the simple but powerful act of discussion about
prospects,threatsandopportunities,forindigenouspeopleslivinginForestReservesinLaPedrera,
Amazonas,duringthepostͲagreementperiodinColombia.Beyondthis,Iinquireaboutthepossible
courses of action that participants can take to make more desirable futures possible. Finally, this
researchhelpstoidentifyresearchneedsthatshouldbeaddressedtominimisethefuturenegative
consequencesofthepostͲagreementperiodforhumansandnonͲhumansintheterritoryofForest
ReservesintheColombianAmazon.


2Settingthescene

2.1TheroleoftheAmazonintheColombianconflict

RomanticviewsoftheAmazon,portrayingtheforestsas“thelungsoftheworld”,orabiodiversity
reservoir,havehelpedtocarvedouroutsidermentalpicturesofit(Kawa,2014).Theseviewsconceal
themanywaysinwhichtheAmazonregioninColombiaisaterritoryinconflict.Itisboththescenario
wherethearmedconflicttakesplaceandaregionwhoseresourceshavebeenusedtofinancethe
internalwar(Dávalosetal.,2011;Fjeldsåetal.,2005;Franco,2012;MolinaGuerrero,2007;RAISG,
2015;Zárate,2015).SeeFigure1–TheroleoftheAmazonintheColombianconflict.Thedynamicsof
theinternalarmedconflictinColombiahaveshapedtheterritoriesoftheAmazoninmanydirectand
indirectways.Thedirectinfluencesofthearmedconflictaremainlythroughtheexpansionofthe
agricultural frontier and illegal mining. Both activities produce 50% of the deforestation in the
ColombianAmazon(RAISG,2015).Otherfactorscontributingtodeforestationhavebeen:processes

4

of colonisation due to the internal armed conflict, the various economic booms3, development of
infrastructure, crops of illicit use, monocultures, firewood, forest fires, and wood extraction for
industrial and commercial purposes. Some indirect influences have been deforestation, induced
through human displacement (RAISG, 2015; SánchezͲCuervo and Aide, 2013); and forest recovery,
favouredbytheconsequentiallandabandonment(SánchezͲCuervoandAide,2013).

Likewise, the geophysical characteristics of the region have shaped the dynamics of the conflict,
favouringFARCͲEP´sestablishmentofrearͲguardsandcontroloverilliciteconomiesthatflourishedin
remoteareas(Frédéricetal.,2009;Sánchez,2013).OneprimarysourcefortheFARCtofinanceits
insurgentcampaignhasbeenthroughcropsofillicituse4anddrugtrafficking(ArévaloBencardino,
2014;InternationalCrisisGroup,2014;Sánchez,2013).AlthoughdispersedaroundtheAndes,Chocó
andAmazonasregions,mostoftheplantationsarelocatedintheAmazonfoothillsoftheEastAndes
(Álvarez,2007).ThemostimpacteddepartmentshavebeenCaquetá,Guaviare(DeJongetal.,2007),
andMeta(SánchezG.,2013),(SeeFigure2).Inrecentyearsgoldminingandothertypesofmineral
extractionhavealsogainedimportanceasasourceoffinancingfortheFARCandotherillegalgroups
(Idroboetal.,2014;InternationalCrisisGroup,2014).


3
Someexamplesaretherubber,fur,cinchonabark,goldandoilextractionbooms.
4
These crops are marijuana, coca and opium poppy. Until the midͲ1970s, the nonͲethnic majority of the Colombian
population barely knew about marijuana and coca plants (Molano, 2000). In contrast, for indigenous peoples, the coca,
together with tobacco, are sacred plants and are essential parts of their traditions (Andoque Macuna et al., 2011; von
Hildebrand and Brackelaire, 2012). Classifying these crops as illicit or illegal has been a politically contested process in
Colombia(Molano,2000),wherethemorepoliticallycorrectphrase"cropsofillicituse"hasbeenadoptedforofficialreports.
The final peace agreement acknowledges the medicinal and ritual use of these corps by indigenous communities (The
GovernmentofColombiaandtheRevolutionaryArmedForcesofColombia–People'sArmy(FARC–EP),2016).
5

 

Figure2:MapoftheLegalStateoftheTerritoryintheColombianAmazon
This map displays the Territorial Entities in the Colombian Amazon by colour. Thin black lines represent
departmentlimits.Adaptedfrom(MurciaͲGarcíaetal.,2014).Source:SinchiInstitute:
http://geosemantica.siatac.co/collections/map_explorer.aspx?map=813fec86Ͳ9cf7Ͳ4a95Ͳ90f2Ͳ505637858a75

2.2AbriefintroductiontothearmedconflictandthepeacenegotiationsinColombia


There are two main visions of the root causes of the longͲlasting insurgency and the widespread
violenceinthecountry.Whereasoneviewassignstherootcausestoorganiseddelinquency,andthe
inabilityofthestatetokeepcontroloverthenationalterritory(ArévaloBencardino,2014;Beittel,
2014;Sánchez,2013).Theotherviewattributestheconflicttomorefundamentalsocialandpolitical
disparities,intensifiedbydisputesoverlandbetweenactorswithunequalbargainingpower,andthe
weaklegitimacyofthestate(Flores,2014;LeGrand,2003;Sánchez,2013).Proponentsofthesecond
explanation reject the Colombian ´weak state´ theory, arguing that the formulation of a new
Constitution in 1991, several military attacks against guerrillas, and a steady economic growth are
rathercharacteristicsofastrongs(Flores,2014;Vásquez,2008).ColombianStatelackslegitimacyfor
differentreasons.Inthefirstplace,therehavebeennumeroushumanrightviolationsperpetratedor
overlookedbygovernmentauthorities.Theseissueshaveerodedpublicconfidenceintheabilityof
thestatetoprotectitscitizens(Cortés,2013;LeGrand,2003;Sánchez,2013).Inthesecondplace,
6

usingforceastheprimarymechanismtoendconflictshascreatedacultureoftoleranceforviolence
toresolvedisputes,thusreducingthecredibilityofthestatetomediateinlocalconflicts(Camelo,
2015).

Againstthisbackground, theColombianpresidencyofJuan ManuelSantosengagedinexploratory
talkswiththeFARCbackin2010andusedthepeaceagreementashismainpoliticalproject,which
won him the reͲelection in 2014 (López de la Roche, 2015). Peace negotiations culminated in
November 2016 (See Figure 1ͲColombian Peace Agreement Process). There are different
interpretationsaboutthecurrentGovernment'sapproachtopeace.Oneisthatthenegotiationswere
aradicalshiftawayfromtheDefenceandDemocraticSecurityapproachtoconflictfromtheformer
president.ThepreviousplanfocusedonantiͲterrorismandfollowedtheU.S.declaredwarondrugs.
Thismethodmanagedtoincreasethesenseofsecurityamongthegeneralpublicbutprovedtoocostly
andineffectivetodefeattheFARC(Castañeda,2014;RodríguezPico,2015).Anotherinterpretationis
thatthegovernment'sapproachtopeaceaimstocleanColombia'sinternationalbadimage,tomake
themininglocomotive*5amoreviableproject(Cortés,2013).FramingtheColombianconflictonlyas
the result of the drug trafficking problem is insufficient (Flores, 2014; LeGrand, 2003). A
comprehensive analysis of the armed conflict requires acknowledging the role that private actors,
seekingtogainpoliticalandeconomicpowerinthecountry,alongsidetheincreasingweakeningof
thestate,haveplayedinexacerbatingandfinancingtheconflict(Flores,2014;LeGrand,2003).

2.3PostͲagreementperiod

Several authors refer to the period after the signature of the peace agreement between the
ColombianGovernmentandtheFARCas‘postͲconflict'period(MolanoͲRojas,2015;Nussio,2013;
Santamaría, 2015; Ugarriza, 2013). This expression is nonetheless misleading because it gives the
impressionthattheactofsigningapeaceagreementtranslatesdirectlyintoaperiodwithoutconflict
wheninpracticetheseperiodsareoftencharacterisedbyincreasedviolenceagainstcivilians(Camelo,
2015; International Crisis Group, 2014; Kathman and Wood, 2014). Both for practical reasons and
becauseitavoidsthedistortedideaofthisperiodasanunproblematictransitionintopeace,Idecided
tousethetermpostͲagreementperiodinstead,whichhasbeenusedasasynonymousfortheformer
(Fajardoetal.,2014;Hernández,2015;RodríguezPico,2015).Increasedviolenceisneverthelessnot


5
ThisisthenamewidelyusedinterchangeablytorefertobothTheGeneralPolicyforMiningDevelopment(2010Ͳ2014)and
theDevelopmentPlansproposedbytheSantosGovernmentinColombia.FordetaildefinitionandsourcesseetheGlossary
(Annexe1).
7

theprimarychallengethatthepostͲagreementinColombiaposes,ecologicalchallengesareatthe
forefront.

2.4EcologicalchallengesfromthepostͲagreementperiodinColombia

Environmentalimpactsderivedfromthemechanismstoimplementthepeaceagreementbetween
theGovernmentandtheFARCͲEPareportrayedasthebiggestchallengefacingthepostͲagreement
periodinColombia(Fajardoetal.,2014;GutiérrezRoa,2015;Hochschild,2015).Thefirstpointinthe
agreement,the"IntegralAgriculturalDevelopmentPlan"(seeFigure1–Colombianpeaceagreement
process), contains the central mechanisms devised for economic integration. These financial
strategiesmainlyrelyonlandͲredistributionandproductivealternativestoreplacecropsofillicituse,
together with technical improvements for agricultural development (Beittel, 2014; Fajardo et al.,
2014;Flores,2014).Landredistributionistheaspectoftheagreementthatmoredirectlyrelatesto
possiblefutureenvironmentalnegativeimpacts,giventhatnewtitlingoflandwillinevitablycollide
with protective figures, such as National Natural Parks, Indigenous Reserves, and Forest Reserves
(Fajardoetal.,2014).Internalconflictexperiencesworldwidedemonstratethatdisregardingtherole
ofnaturalresourcesinfuellingandsustainingarmedconflict,anddismissingtheirpotentialtohelpin
conflict resolution, peacebuilding and peacekeeping, often results in a relapse into conflict (UNEP,
2009),seefigure1–TheRoleofnaturalresourcesandtheenvironmentͲ.


3TheoreticalFoundations

3.1PoliticalEcology(Latour)andCapabilitiesApproach(Sen)

Political Ecology is a research tradition applied by sustainability scientists to explore humanͲ
environmentdynamics,withafocusoninformingdevelopment(TurnerandRobbins,2008).Among
themanypracticeswithinthisbroadresearchtradition,IaminterestedinthePoliticalEcologyinspired
byBrunoLatour,whichurgesustogobeyondthedividebetweenhumansandnature,toarticulate
humansandnonͲhumansintheprocessofbecomingacollective*(Latour,2004a).Capabilitiesisan
approachtodevelopment,formulatedfromaprimarilyeconomicperspective.Thisconceptaimsat
shifting the focus from measuring progress in terms of utilities, income, or wealth, and instead
measureitregardingthecapabilitiesthatenableindividualsto‘leadthekindoflivestheyhavereasons
to value' (Sen, 1999). Sen (1999) proposed five instrumental freedoms, political, economic, social
opportunities, transparency guarantees, and protective security. There are notable differences

8

betweenthesetwoapproaches.Iwasneverthelessabletofindpointsofreconciliationbetweenthem
bydeͲemphasisingtheirmetaphysicaldiscrepancies(SilandKatzenstein,2010).

Othersbeforemehaveattemptedtobringthesetwoauthorsandtheirseeminglyincommensurable
approachesintodialogue,usingLatour’sworktogroundtheideasofdevelopmentandhumanvalue
inSen(KullmanandLee,2015).Wewilltakeonasimilarpath,usingsomeofLatour’s‘sociologyof
associations’6 and politics, to ground Sen’s ideas on how to achieve Human Freedom through the
developmentofcapabilities.Specifically,LatourandSen’sideasonagency*andequality*,peaceand
war,areparticularlyusefultoanalysethescenariosfromthiscasestudy.Conversely,wewillusethe
capabilities approach, which focuses on individuals, to see the applicability of the concept to
communal capabilities, which has previously been suggested as a suitable framework to analyse
indigenousstrugglesandEnvironmentalJustice(SchlosbergandCarruthers,2010).Finally,tomake
thecapabilitiesapproachoperational,IdecidedtousethelistoftencapabilitiessuggestedbyMartha
Nussbaum (2003). From Sen’s approach to human development, Nussbaum (2003), proposed ten
centralHumanFreedoms(Figure3).Accordingtoher,thesearebasicentitlements,guidingprinciples
forallstatestoguaranteetotheircitizens,yettheauthorproposesthemasadraft,submittedfor
publicdiscussionandimprovement.

3.1.1Agencyandequality
LatourandSenhavedifferentapproachestoagency*andequality*.Sen(1995,1993,1999)ismostly
concerned with guaranteeing agency and equality to humans. Latour (2004, 2005, 2013) on the
contrary, cannot conceive agency and equality if we do not take nonͲhumans into account. In an
attempttocapturerelevantelementsfrombothauthors,IconsiderbothhumansandnonͲhumans
and use the capabilities concept. Agency throughout this research is “the capacity to make other
being(s) do something” (Callon and Latour, 1992; Latour, 2013, 2004). Equality means to provide
humansandnonͲhumanswiththenecessaryconditionstoassembleinwaysthatallowthemtofulfil
theircapabilities.


6
 In brief, the differences between ‘sociology of associations’, coined by Latour and his colleagues, is different from the
‘sociologyofthesocial’inthatthefirstonedoesnotusesocial,orsocietyasanalreadyorganizedstructure.Theirmain
thesis is that the social is something that is in constant transformation through the links that humans and nonͲhumans
constantlyform.ForadetailedaccountofthedifferencebetweenthetwoapproachesseeLatour(2013).
9

 
Figure3:TheCentralHumanCapabilities.
ThisfiguredisplaysthelistoftenHumanCentralcapabilitiesproposedbyMartaNussbaum.AmartyaSen's
CapabilitiesApproachisthebasisforthesetenentitlements.Iusedthesecategoriestoanalysethedifferent
scenariosthatmycoͲresearchersandIcreated(Baseline,andthethreefuturescenarios).Adaptedfrom
(Nussbaum,2003).PleasefindthedefinitionofeachCapabilityattheendofthisdocument(Annexe7,Table
8)

3.1.2Peaceandwar
TwointerestingmeetingpointsbetweenSenandLatouraretheirpreoccupationswithpeaceandwar,
andtheirdefenceofdemocracyasanecessarymechanismtoresolveconflicts.Thesemeetingpoints
also present clashes, not only their assessments are different, but the very meaning of the words
‘peace',‘war'and‘democracy'contrast,asweshallsee.Despitethesedivergences,theirinsightswere
usefulformetoapproachthearmedconflictandtheongoingpeaceprocessinColombia.

Sen (2011), focusing on human conflicts and wars linked to violence, sees conflicts and wars with
disapproval, accordingly, policies should target conflict prevention. To him, violent conflicts result
fromacombinationoffactors,notably,whenextremistsfindthewaytosingularizedivisiveidentities,
andgrievancesexist,peoplewhohavebeendeniedsocial,politicalandmaterialfreedoms,canrestore
toviolentmeanstoobtainwhatwouldbeguaranteedtotheminagenuinelydemocraticsociety.Civic
paths to peace demand political empowerment of individuals, social dignity and the spread of
economicequality,regardingopportunityandoutcomes(Sen,2011).Sen(1999)acknowledgesthe
necessity of finding alternative institutions to resolve fundamental inequalities. He explores the

10

contradictionswithinthecapitalisteconomicsystem,notablythecoexistenceofpovertyinaneraof
unabatedmaterialwealth(Sen,1999);yet,hisideaofdemocracy,andbyextension,hismechanisms
forpeace,arelinkedtothecurrentsocialandpoliticalinstitutions.

Incontrast,Latour(2002,2004,2013a)doesnotdisapprovewar.Inhisview,waristhemechanism
through which the process of reassembling the collective is put in motion anew. Through this
mechanismenemies,thosehumansandnonͲhumansweleaveoutsidethelistofcivilised7entities,
puttheunifiedcommonworldintoquestion(Latour,2004).Latouroftenreferstohumanconflicts
concerningthe‘warfrontofmodernization'(Latour,2013).Throughtheimpositionoftheirvalues
(Science, Technology, the Market, Democracy, Human Rights), Moderns have caused countless
conflicts(Latour,2002).Despitethis,westernshaveneveracknowledgedtheseconflictsaswars,given
thattheirauthorityasthe‘unifier'and‘pacifiers'oftheworldhasneverbeenunderquestion(Latour,
2011, 2002). From ‘his sociology of associations' to compose a collective, we need to rebuild the
institutionsthatwillhelpusassemblehumansandnonͲhumans,wehavetounderstandpoliticsasthe
"progressivecompositionofthecommonworld"(Latour,2014a,p.3,2011,p.16,2004).Civilpaths
to peace require diplomacy and negotiation, to progressively answer the question of what the
commonworldiscomposedof.Tothisend,thefragileinstitutionofdemocracyneedstobecarefully
constructed(Latour,2002).

3.2Theoreticalfoundationsofresearchquestions

3.2.1Whatdocollectivelydesirableandundesirablefutureslooklike?(RQ1)

Characterisingthedifferentscenariosregardinghowdesirableorundesirabletheyaretoparticipants
is an alternative for classifying the different narratives. Using war and conflict as possibilities for
reform,asLatour(2004b)andBarnett(2001)suggest,isappealing.Nevertheless,asIshowedinthe
previoussection,theseconceptshaveothernuances.InsteadofthediscipliningpeacethatModernity
offers(Latour,2002),wecanthinkofconflictsascriticalsituationsthatcaninducenecessarychanges.
However, this approach is not appropriate for this case study, where allusions to conflict and war
provokefearandrejectionratherthanengagement8.Hence,itismoreappropriatetoframethose


7
Civilised in this context contrasts with the ostensive definition of barbarian. Borrowing LéviͲStrauss's definition of
barbarians:thoseunabletorecognisethecivilityofothers,Latour(2004)defines‘civilised'asthosehumansandnonͲhumans
who belong to the collective. Those who are not barbarians are the ones who recognise that they are surrounded by
‘enemies',orotherentitiesthatmighteventuallyneedtobecivilised,thatis,guaranteedagencywithinthecollective.
8
 Rejection and discomfort were the reactions I got when I initially used the term ‘postͲconflict’ and this was a general
reactioninthestudyarea.Aboutreactionsto‘conflict’seesection4.5.1Fieldworkchallenges.

11

collectivefuturesintermsofakindofpeace.Wecanseepeaceintwoways:Negativepeaceisthe
absenceofphysicalviolenceandpositivepeaceisonethatallowsfortheredistributionofpowerand
provides human security (Barnett, 2001). From this framing, a positive peace is a precondition for
peopletobeabletodeveloptheircapabilities.

3.2.2Howcanwemakemoredesirablefuturespossible?(RQ2)

Toanswerthisquestion,Iwillneedtodefinethreeelements:(1)Whoare"we"?(2)WhatdoImean
by more desirable futures? And (3) What are those mechanisms to achieve the drafted desirable
futures?Inthefirstplace,"we"arethosewhoparticipatedinthisproject,butisnotlimitedtous.We
allareengagedinsocialexperimentationandareagentsshapingthosefutures(Latour,2011,2004).
Inthesecondplace,forthisproject,moredesirablefuturescanbecharacterisedasrealutopias,ideals
ofbetterworlds,groundedonpathwaysthatacknowledgechallengesandlimitations(Wright,2009).
From a Human Development perspective, desirable futures are those where humans have the
capabilitiestochoosethekindoflivestheyhavereasonstovalue(NussbaumandSen,1993;Sen,
1999). From a postͲhumanist perspective, desirable futures are those where there is an adequate
representationofhumansandnonͲhumans,andtogetherweengageincollectiveexperimentation,
tofindthemethodsofprogression(Latour,2010,2004).Finally,themechanisms,thespecific"how"
iswhatparticipantssuggestedasactionsthatweremoreconducivetoattainthosedesirablefutures.

3.2.3Whatroleshouldactorsplayinordertoachievemoredesirablefutures?(RQ3)

Peopleareagents,notpassiverecipientsofrulesofconductteleͲdirectedfromupperlevels(Latour,
2013;Sen,1999).Wetakedecisionsinourpresent,andthusshapeourfuturesinmanyways,playing
theroleofthosewhowritethescriptwewillfollowonadailybasis,andatthesametime,wearethe
actorsthatperformthosescripts(Latour,2013).Thisisnottosaythatwehaveaboundlesscapacity
towriteandperformwhatevernarrativewecreate;ourscriptsareconnected,andoftencollidewith
othermultiplescripts,orrolesthatothersexpectustotake(Latour,2013).Inthisresearch,weare
interestedintherolesthatparticipantsexpectfromthemselvesandfromothers,ifwearetoengage
intheconstruction*ofrealutopias.ofrealutopias.Beyondindividualaction,certaingroupsperform
crucial roles in the prevention and resolution of violent conflicts. Sen (2011) highlights the role of
youthandwomen,ascrucialtargetgroups,andtheroleofDemocraticStates,andmassmedia,to
fostertheconditionsforpeopletodeveloptheircapabilities.Humansareneverthelessnottheonly
agents, without nonͲhumans our societies would be unthinkable (Callon and Latour, 1992; Latour,


12

2005, 2004; Strum and Latour, 1987). Consequently, we also have to take nonͲhuman roles into
account.


4TravelGuide(Methodology/Methods)
4.1Studysitedescription

4.1.1TheAmazonianForestReserveinColombia

AForestReserveisalegalstatusassignedbythestatetocertainterritoriestosecurethenational
resourcebase.InColombia,theAmazonianForestReserveisthesecondlargestTerritorialEntityin
theAmazon,afterIndigenousReserves(SeeFigure4),andithasatotalareaof99.695,81km2(MurciaͲ
Garcíaetal.,2014).TheprimaryobjectiveofForestReservesinColombiawasthedevelopmentof
forestryandtheprotectionofsoil,waterandwildlife(ElCongresodeColombia,1959).Developing
activitiesofPublicUtilityandSocialInterest*inForestReservesrequiresrequestingthesubtraction
oftheseareastotheMinistryofEnvironmentandSustainableDevelopment(MinisteriodeAmbiente
yDesarrolloSostenible,2014).SubtractionofterritoriesfromForestReservesforproductiveactivities,
notably,mining,wasfacilitatedbythedeclarationoftheminingindustryasanactivityof"Publicutility
and Social Interest" (Congreso de Colombia, 2001, p. 2). Indigenous and AfroͲdescendant
organisations, together with their allies, have filed lawsuits against this Congressional Law, for it
compromises the environmental security in their territories (Corte Constitucional, 2016a, 2016b;
CorteSupremadeJusticia,2012).




13

Figure4:TerritorialEntitiesintheColombianAmazon.
This graph shows the proportions of land in hectares of the different Territorial Entities in the Colombian
Amazon(seeFigure2),fromatotalareaof483.163,73km2.Initially,theAmazonForestReserveestablished
bythe2ndLawof1959includedagoodportionofHuilaDepartment,andpartofthewestsideoftheMeta
Department,theseareasdonotappearinthisgraph.TerritorialEntitieswithareasinferiorto1%werealso
excludedfromthischart(SeethecompleteinformationinAnnex2)Datasource:(MurciaͲGarcíaetal.,2014).

4.1.2LaPedrera
The corregimiento9 of La Pedrera is a nonͲmunicipalised area located in SouthͲeastern part of the
DepartmentofAmazonas,Colombia,alongsidetheCaquetáRiverintheborderwithBrazil(SeeFigure
5). According to the National Statistics Institute, population by 2016 is estimated to have reached
5.125inhabitants(DANE,2010).InhabitantsfromtheLowCaquetáriverwere,andcontinuetobe
mainlyindigenouspeoples(Franco,2012).ThesemiͲurbanareaismostlyinhabitedbysettlers,coming
fromurbancentresinColombiaandsomeothersfromBrazil,whoestablishedtheirsellingbusinesses
there.StateinstitutionsintownareaFirstAidCentre,aPolicestation,theMilitaryBase,aPrimary
School, and crossing the river there is the Boarding School, where students from the area, the
IndigenousReservesincluded,attendSecondaryandHighSchoollevels.


9
ThisisisthenamethatwasgiventothenonͲmunicipalisedareas,anditisstillinuse.

14

 

Figure5:Mapofthestudyarea.
TheStudysite(redcircle)islocatedinLaPedrera,andborderingareawiththeCamaritaguaindigenousreserve
(LegendNo.1).Darkgreencolourindicatestreecover,andreddotsindicateareaswithforestloss.Legend
colours correspond to the Territorial entities Indigenous Reserve (yellow), other areas (pink), and Forest
Reserves(green).Thickblacklinesindicatewaterbodies.ThinblacklinesaroundpolygonsrepresentTerritorial
entitylimits.Adaptedfrom:(RamirezͲGomezetal.,2014).

4.2Mytravelbook(Methodology)
Tohelpmyreadernavigatemyexpedition,belowIamsharingmytravelguide(Figure6).Forthiscase
studyIuseddeontology*,andconstructivism*formyepistemologicalunderpinnings10.


10
Thefocusofthisthesisisnottheoretical,therefore,IplacedthefocusofthemethodologysectiononthetoolsIused
insteadoffullyaddressingtheepistemologicalunderpinningsItook.Nevertheless,acknowledgingtheimportanceofmaking
explicitwhatImeanbydeontologyandconstructivism,Iprovideadefinitionofthetwoterms,inconnexiontothisresearch
projectintheGlossaryattheendofthedocument(seeAnnexe1).

15

 
Figure6:LayersofMethodology
This graph represents methodology layers in my research, and where they accommodate according to a
methodology pyramid. The upper levels of the pyramid are devoted to metaphysical aspects (conceptions
aboutthenatureofreality,approachestoknowledge,theories,etc.)andthebaseofthepyramidisdedicated
tothetoolsIapplied.Thischartrepresentsmytravelguide,whichisabettermetaphorfortheadoptedGreek
termsmethodandmethodology.Atripguidehelpsustodeterminewheretogo,andwhatisworthseeing
there,butitisnothingthatshouldbeimposedonus(Latour,2005).


4.2.2ResearchStrategyandDesign

Thisprojectisaqualitativeresearch,intheformofacasestudy,guided by ScenarioConstruction
methodology. A case study is a wellͲestablished approach in qualitative research, widely used by
sustainability scientists engaged with Political Ecology (Turner and Robbins, 2008), convenient for
developing a nuanced view of reality (Flyvbjerg, 2004). By contrast, until very recently, Scenario
Construction methodology was almost exclusively used in landͲuse planning (Shearer, 2009) and
management(SchwenkerandWulf,2013).Currently,researchersapplyscenariostoaddressdiverse
research endeavours, in International Relations, where it is proposed as a lively methodology to
produce interesting research (Han, 2011; Ramirez et al., 2015), and also adequate to account for
complexity in socialͲecological systems (Hanspach et al., 2014). A case study complemented with
ScenarioConstructionisanappropriatecombinationtocreatescenariosfrom thepostͲagreement
period in Colombia, because they both allow for incorporating complexity and depth into poorly
understoodcases(Han,2011;Ramirezetal.,2015;Silverman,2013;TurnerandRobbins,2008).This


16

strategy responds to the objective of understanding what the problems and courses of action
proposedbyagentsare,thusdeployingawiderrangeofrealitiesandpossiblesolutions.

4.3Travellingtoolkit(DataConstructionmethods)

IlivedinLaPedrerafortwoandahalfmonths,fromJanuarytoMarch2016.Inthefollowingsections,
IdescribethetoolsfordataconstructionanddataanalysisIusedtoanswertheresearchsubͲquestions
(SeeTable2).56people,includingme,contributedtothisproject.Specifically,withthecontributions
ofmycoͲresearchers11,Iwasabletoassemblethreefuturescenarios,throughscenarioconstruction
exercises with local agents, in the form of focus groups; and semiͲstructured individual interviews
with external agents. I used DPSIR scheme12, interpretative content analysis, alongside academic
literatureandofficialdocumentsreview,toplacetheconstructedscenariosintoabroadercontext.

Table2:DataConstruction&analysisstrategies,andrelatedresearchsubͲquestions


11
CallingparticipantscoͲresearchershereisinnowayintendedastokenism,thisismywaytobothacknowledgethecrucial
roleofmycolleaguesandalltheparticipantsfromtheresearch,andtohowweallare,willyͲnilly,involvedinconstantsocial
experimentation (Latour, 2013, 2011, 2004). We all get involved in these experimentations within our different roles in
society;exceptfornowtheroleofexpertsvs.thosewhomustfollowwhattheexpertsaysnolongerholdstrue(Latour,
2014c,2011).
12
 This acronym stands for Drivers Pressures State Impacts Response. This scheme is associated with the work of the
EuropeanEnvironmentalAgency,anditisusedasatoolforanalysingthecauseͲeffectrelationshipsinenvironmentaland
resource management (Ness et al., 2010). DPSIR has been primarily applied to find policy alternatives for identified
challenges,andassessresponses(Nessetal.,2010).Seesection4.4.2foracomprehensivedescriptionofhowIusedthe
scheme.

17

 Data Construction and Analysis Strategies 2016

Period Method used Research subͲquestions

x Participant observations (74 entries on fieldͲwork (RQ1) What do
journal) collectively desirable
x Informal interviews with Governmental officials (5), and undesirable futures
and NonͲGovernment Organisation consultants (4) look like from the
x Informal interview with Park Ranger local perspective of internal
January – representative (1) and external agents
March 2016 x Scenario construction through focus groups (6 / living and working in La
Total number of participants: 40) Pedrera, Amazonas
x SemiͲstructured interviews with external agents Department?
working in the area (6)
x Collection of official documents from the peace
process.
x Expanded DPSIR scheme (RQ2) How can we
MarchͲApril
x Interpretative Content Analysis make more desirable
2016
x Review of official documents futures possible?
x Review of academic literature on postͲagreement (RQ3) What role should
MayͲOctober period agents play in order to
2016 x Review of relevant theory in connection with actor achieve more desirable
roles futures?


4.3.1ParticipantObservationsandInformalinterviews

DuringmystayIhadthechancetoparticipateindifferentactivitiesorganisedbythelocalindigenous
communities; public entities, notably Corpoamazonía, National Natural Parks, the Departmental
Governor'sOffice,andtheMilitaryBase.Additionally,Ihadthechancetojoinsomeactivitiesleadby
NonͲGovernmentalOrganisationsworkinginthearea,namelyInternationalConservationandGaia
International.Thepossibilitytointeractwithsomanyorganisationsandpeopleworkinginthearea
allowedmetobetterframemyresearchproject,andtohaveagraspofthedynamicsintheterritory.
Informalinterviewswereofgreathelptodefinethefocusofthisstudy–ForestReserves.Ikeptrecord
oftheseinteractionsthroughmyfieldworkjournal.

4.3.2ScenarioConstructionandtheexpandedDPSIRscheme


4.3.2.1Scenarios
ScenarioconstructionhasbeenusedinSustainabilityScience,incombinationwithothermethods,to
translate science into policy and planning and to assess sustainability (Jerneck et al., 2011). The
challengeistomovebeyondtheseestablishedapproaches,tostudythedynamicsofsocialandnatural
processes (Jerneck et al., 2011). As a research methodology, scenario construction provides the


18

flexibility to take an eclectic approach, simultaneously using diverse theoretical approaches (Han,
2011),andithasbeenpreviouslyusedtostudysocialandecologicaldynamics(Hanspachetal.,2014).
My decision to use scenario methodology to work with indigenous peoples was influenced by the
“FieldGuidetothefuture:Fourwaysforcommunitiestothinkahead”(Evansetal.,2006).Iusedthis
guidetoplantheworkshopprotocol(seeAnnexes5and6).

Wesuccessfullycompletedsixfocusgroups,fourinBarrioNuevo13onthe5thMarch2016,andtwoat
theBoardingSchool,onthe15thMarch2016.Iappliedtwocriteriaforparticipation:willingnessto
participate,andlivinginthetargetarea–ForestReserves,ortheurbanareaofLaPedrera,excluding
IndigenousReserves.ThroughmyfirstencounterswiththecommunityinBarrioNuevo,duringthe
communityassemblywhereIformallyinvitedthemtoparticipateintheresearch,Irealisedthatsome
subgroups,notablywomenandyoungpeoplewouldnottalkinpublicdiscussions.Therefore,Ichose
tousefocusgroups,togiveparticipantsbettercontrolovertheissuestobediscussed(Marroneetal.,
2015;Stewartetal.,2007),dividedbygenderandage(SeeTable3),tofacilitateparticipationofthese
subgroups.Participantsengagedintheactivitiesvoluntarily;nomonetarycompensationwasgivento
peopleinexchangeforparticipation14.

Table3:FocusGroupparticipantcharacterizationbysexandage


13
ThisisaneighbourhoodlocatedintheperiͲurbanareaaroundLaPedrera.PleasefindthefulldescriptioninsectionAnnexe
3ParticipantCharacterization.“CoͲresearchers”.
14
Nevertheless,giventhatactivitiesinBarrioNuevowouldtakeupprecioustimeforthemtoprovideforfood,thecostsof
twomealsandonesnackforeachdayrespectivelywasincludedintotheworkshopbudget.Thisisanimportantissuetotake
intoaccountwhenworkingwithsubsistentagriculturecommunities(Evansetal.,2006)


19

4.3.2.2C+DPSIRscheme
DPSIR scheme is useful to structure economic, social and natural system information, to identify
causeͲeffect relationships and develop a better understanding of a problem (Ness et al., 2010).
AlthoughIwasfamiliarwiththescheme,whathelpedmetograspthemeaningofeachelementwas
theiradequacytoclassifyparticipants'narrationsofpresentandimaginedfutureconditions,andthe
terms we used to frame those discussions15. Critiques to the scheme address, among others, the
oversimplificationofthemodel,andthedifficultytoaccountforcomplexdynamicsofspaceandtime
(Nessetal.,2010).Iaddressedthesechallengesbyexpandingthescheme,addingpassedchangesin
the territory as a new category, the resulting (C)hanges + (D)rivers (P)ressures (S)tate (I)mpacts
(R)esponseschemewasusefultodescribetheBaselinescenario.Additionally,Iusedsomeofthese
categoriesasbasisfornewonesadaptedtowhatparticipantsoutlinedintheirimaginedfutures.I
provideafulldescriptionanddefinitionofthecategoriesandcodesattheendofthisreport(Annexe
7).Finally,Ialsousedemergingcategories(DriskoandMaschi,2015),whichmainlyaddressedthemes
applicabletopast,presentandfuture.Therefore,Iclassifiedtheseastemporalcategories(Annex7.1).
Initially,Ihadtenatemporalcategories,butthroughconsolidationofthecodes,Iwasabletogroup
theminto>naturalenvironment,buildenvironment,capabilitiesandactors(Annex7.2).


4.3.3SemiͲstructuredinterviews

Toaddtheperceptionsofexternalagentslivingandworkinginthearea,Iinterviewed6participants,
onewomanandfivemen(Ip41toIp46,seeAnnex3),usingasemiͲstructuredinterviewguide(Annexe
5). The intention was to explore the same key points addressed during the scenario exercises: (I)
Participants'understandingofkeyconcepts16,(II)Changesintheterritoryand(III)Futurescenarios.I
usedconveniencesamplingtoinviteparticipants,onlyapplyingtwocriteria,thefirstonewastheir
longexperienceworkingorlivingintheterritory,andsecond,theirwillingnesstoparticipateinthe
study.Iusedtherollinginterviewguide(Stewart,Shamdasani&Rook,2007),meaningthatIadapted
andimprovedmyinterviewguidingquestionsaccordingtotheneedsIcouldidentifythroughprevious
interactionswithotherparticipants.

4.4Hometoolkit(DataAnalysismethods)



15
Thetermsweusedtodiscussaboutthesituationswereforinstance,´pressures´,todescribeissuesthatweremosturgent
forparticipants,and‘impacts’,torefertotheeffectsofthepostͲconflict,orthoseofpollution,onhumansandnonͲhumans.
16
Initially,IneededtoseewhatsharedunderstandingparticipantsandIhadabout‘PostͲagreementperiod'(inthecontext
ofGovernment–FARCpeacenegotiations),andofbiodiversity.SeemyStagesofInquiryinFigure7below.

20

4.4.1Transcription,CodingandTranslation

The first phase of analysis started from the transcription (Stewart et al., 2007). Transcription is
intrinsicallyrelatedtoacademicgoals(Riessman,2003),therefore,asmyprimarygoalwastodescribe
thesituationsfromtheperspectiveofinternalagents,itwasimportantformetokeepsubtlefeature
oftheinteraction,includingparalinguisticelements(Riessman,2003).Thewholedatasetincludes
transcriptions from focus groups, semiͲstructured interviews, and some of my observations that
helpedcomplementtheinformationparticipantsandIproducedthroughourinteraction(SchwartzͲ
SheaandYanow,2012).OnceItranscribedtherecordingsfromtheworkshops,Iusedtheexpanded
DIPSRschemeandemergingcodingtocategoriseandmanagethedata.Inordertoincorporatethe
mostrelevantinterventionsintothisreportItranslatedfromSpanishtoEnglish,andonceagainItried
tokeeptranslationsascloseaspossibletoparticipants'languageuse.

4.4.2BasicandInterpretativecontentanalysis

Iusedbothbasicandinterpretivecontentanalysistomakesenseofthedataset.Iusedbasiccontent
analysis when I applied coding categories belonging to an already established framework (DPSIR
scheme).However,fromtheepistemologicalperspectiveItook,meaningisnotcontainedinthetext,
itisrathertheresultofmyreadingofthetextsputincontext(DriskoandMaschi,2015).Therefore,I
usedinterpretativecontentanalysiswhenImadeinferencesfromtextandfromparticipants´body
languagethatIhadincludedinthetranscriptions.Additionally,combiningandconsolidatingcoding
involvedmoreinterpretation(DriskoandMaschi,2015).Thisdataanalysismethodisinlinewithmy
acknowledgementofmultiplerealities,andvariousvalidclaimstotruth(Latour,2013;SchwartzͲShea
and Yanow, 2012). As recommended in the interpretative content analysis literature, I provide
samplesofthedatasetapplyinginterpretativecontentanalysis(seeAnnexe8).

4.5Fieldworkchallenges

IhadinitiallyplannedtoworkincoordinationwithConservationInternational(CI),tosupporttheir
ongoingprocessofdatacollectionandassemblingofthe‘LifePlan'fromtheIndigenousAssociation
oflaPedreraAmazonas(AIPEA).Theindigenousauthoritiesrejectedmyproposalduringthepublic
assembly.Likelymotivationsfortherejectionofmyproposalwererelatedtohowsomeoftheleaders
sawmyresearchroleasthatof‘theexpert'whowenttheretotellthecommunitieswhattheirfutures
shouldlooklike.InmyfirstencounterwithindigenouscommunitiesintheAmazon,Ididnotanticipate
thatmyresearcherrolecouldbeperceivedasacolonialistintrusion.Therejectionofmyfirstproposal

21

forcedmetobeawareoftheseissues.Iwasabletodrawonthisexperience,andmadesurethatmy
rolewasnotseenasthatofthe"expert"whowenttheretotellpeoplewhattheirfutureshouldbe,
butasafacilitatorofdiscussions.Otherchallengeswererelatedtothesensitivitythataddressingthe
armedconflictinColombiaraises.Forinstance,duringfieldwork,Iwaspainfullyremindedofhow
difficult it is to address issues dealing with the armed conflict, and also about the importance of
languagechoice.Irealisedaboutthiswhenthereactionsofmycolleaguesandsomepeoplefromthe
areawereofrejectionanddiscomfortwhenItalkedabout"PostͲconflictscenarios",whereastalking
about "Scenarios under postͲagreement period" allowed me to get in contact with participants
(ObservationJournal.January2016).

4.6ResearchEthics

Confidentiality of information was particularly important for this research project. Addressing the
armed conflict in Colombia raises security concerns for individuals. The long history of violence
exercisedbydifferentactorsagainstdissentersmakespeoplehesitantaboutsharingtheirviewson
the topic, even in the context of imagined future effects of the peace agreement. Many authors
addressingthearmedconflictinColombiahaveusedanonymityasawayofprotectingparticipant
frompotentialreprisals(Rueda,2014).Forthisresearch,itwasimportanttomanageinformationina
waythatwouldnotcompromiseparticipant'ssecurityinanyforeseeableway.Forthosepeoplewho
sawnoinconveniencewiththeirnamesappearinginthisreport,insteadofanonymity,IamusingcoͲ
researchers'ethnicorfirstnames.Namingparticipantsisawaytoopposetheanonymityofthewar
(Sánchez,2013),thusaffirmingourrighttotalkaboutrealpossibilitiesofpeace.Forotherpeople,I
amusingcodesinsteadofnames.Ihavenotkeptanyotherpersonaldatafromparticipantthatcould
compromisetheirsecurity.Additionally,throughtheConsentForm(Annexe4),Iprovidedparticipants
withalltheinformationabouthowIwasgoingtousetheircontributions.

4.6Reflectionsontheresearchprocess

Myresearchpathsarealwayssinuous,andmystartingpointhardlyeverconducesmetothefirstaim
Isetouttoachieve.WheneverIreadspotlessresearchreports,wheretheauthorspresenthowthey
setouttodosomethinganddescribetheclearͲcutwayinwhichtheyachievedit,Ialwaysgetthe
feelingthatmyworkislessvalidthantheirs.IwenttotheAmazontostudybiodiversitylossandthe
futurepressuresonpeopleandecosystemsunderͲpostagreementconditions,andIcamebackwith
ascenarioconstructionpuzzle,wheremyinitialframingoftheproblemwaspoorlysuitedtoframe
therealitiesIencountered.Therefore,itisveryliberatingtoberemindedthatourexperimentsare


22

fallible(Latour,2010;SilandKatzenstein,2010).Thatthelearningcurveisevaluatednotfromhow
straighttothegoalourjourneyis,butfromhowablewearetolearnfromourmistakes(Latour,2013,
2004).Reportlimitsdonotallowspacefordescribingourtrialsanderrors,yetleavingsomeroomfor
thosestagesofourinquiryisimportant,toremindyoungresearcherslikemethatstudiesmightcome
to closure, but research is never closed process (Latour, 2005). To this end, I am sharing here my
detoursinFigure7.


Figure7:ResearchprocessStagesofInquiry.
ThisgraphrepresentsthedifferentstagesIwentthroughduringmyresearch,connectingthetheoriesand
conceptsIintendedtouseduringtheinitialstagesofmyinquiry,andthoseIcametouseinthefinalreport.
Source: Richardson, R., Kramer, E.H., 2006. Abduction as the type of inference that characterizes the
developmentofagroundedtheory.Qual.Res.Doi:10.1177/1468794106068019


5 PresentationandAnalysisofFindings

Inthefirstpartofthissection,Ipresenttheresultsfromthescenarioconstruction,composedbya
summaryofthebaselinescenario17andthefuturescenariosobtainedthroughthefocusgroupsand


17
BaselinescenarioshavebeenusedinfundamentalreportsforsustainabilitysciencesuchastheIPCC.Inthelatestreports,
themeaningofbaselinescenarioisnotthesameastheoneIuseinthisreport.Incontrasttothedefinitionadoptedbythe
IPCC,whichisbaselineas“thestateagainstwhichchangeismeasured”(PachauriandMeyer,2014.p.118)inotherwords,
a scenario that represents the state of CO2 emissions without any policy intervention. By contrast, in this research, the
baselinescenariorepresentsthecurrentconditions(Shearer,2009),regardingthenaturalandbuiltenvironments,actors
andcapabilities,fromtheperspectiveofparticipants.

23

theinterviews.Fromthere,toanswerthesecondresearchsubͲquestionIexplorethedrivingforces
andactsthatparticipantssuggestedaspossiblewaystobringaboutdesirablefutures.Towardsthe
end,Ipresentparticipant´sperceptionsoftherolesthatotheractors,institutions,andthemselves
shouldplaytomakedesirablefuturespossible.


5.1Scenarios
Applying the expanded DPSIR scheme for past and present trends allowed me to obtain general
themes(Figure9),andfromthereIwasabletoidentifythreemainrecurrentissuesunderlyingmost
oftheChanges,Drivers,Pressures,State,ImpactsandResponsesmentionedduringtheFocusGroups
andinterviews.Thesemainunderlyingissueswere(1)Cultureloss,(2)Increasedcommercialisation,
and(3)Mercurycontaminationduetogoldmining.InthefollowingsectionsIwillbrieflydescribethe
baselinescenario,andthenmoveontoadetaileddescriptionofthefuturescenarios.

5.1.1BaselinescenarioͲ(C)+(D)(P)(S)(I)(R)

Changesintheterritoryhavemainlyentailedthereductionofanimalsandforests;infrastructure,in
termsofnewhousesandasphaltedstreetsintheurbancentre.Regardingcapabilities,indigenous
peoples’culturalpractices,thewaytheydressandeat,havebeenmodifiedthroughtheinfluenceof
whites’culture*.Familieshavemigratedclosertotheurbanarea,insearchofbetterlivingconditions,
mainlytobeclosertoformalschoolingfacilities(SeeFigure9).Andrea’scommenthelpstoexplain
howsheperceivestheinfluenceofwesternculture,andalsothemotivationofthefamiliestomigrate
tothisarea:“Weareindigenous,butwearelivinginanoccidentalworld*,andintheoccidentalworld
thosewhodonotstudydonothaveoptions”.Sheaddedthatyoungpeoplenolongergivepriorityto
traditionalculturebecause“iftheydonotstudy,theywillnothaveagoodlifeinthefuture”(pͲ30
BoardingSchool15.03.16).Valuesarealsochanging,participantsattheBoardingSchoollinkedthe
lossoftraditionalculturalpracticestoincreasedcommercialisation,whichinturnhadaneffecton
environmentaldegradation.Indigenouspeopleusedtohaveasubsistenteconomy,theyhuntedfor
their own consumption, and used to follow the recommendations of the traditionals*. Now, as a
youngmanexplained“therearenoanimalsleftbecausethey[peoplefromthecommunities]keepon
huntingthemtosellthemintown”(Gilberto,p37).


24

 

Figure8:BaselinescenarioapplyingtheexpandedDPSIR scheme
Itisbasedonthemostsalientissuesdescribedbyinternalagents(SeeAnnexe8“AppliedexpandedDPSIRto
analyse the past and present trends”). The diagram includes the relations between the four atemporal
categories (Natural environment, built environment, capabilities, and actors), and the Changes, Pressures,
StateandImpactsidentifiedbyparticipants.Thethreeunderlyingissuesinthisbaselinescenarioare1)Culture
loss,2)Increasedcommercialisation,and3)miningandtheconsequentialmercurypollution.

Mercurycontaminationofwaterstreams,fish,andhumans,wasarecurrenttopicaddressedbythe
youngwomenandmenattheBoardingSchool(FG5andFG6);oungwomenandadultmeninBarrio
Nuevo(FG3andFG4)alsomanifestedconcernaboutmercurycontaminationsfromgoldmining.All
oftheinterviewees,andsomeoftheparticipantsinfocusgroups,relatedgoldminingtothearmed
conflict, linking this activity with guerrilla and other armed groups, as illustrated by the following
quotes:

Itwas…theguerrillawhobroughttheminers,andwhattheydidwasthatmonthlytheycollected
avaccine18.Afteraperiod,they[miners]wentaway,butnowafewofthemcameback,and
thosewhoworkinthebalsas*,mostofthemhavebeenindigenouspeople.
(NGOconsultantp44ͲManBiologist04.03.16)



18
LiterallytranslatedfromtheSpanish‘vacuna’,whichisthemoneyfromextortionthattheFARCandothergroupscollect
eitherfromlegalorillegalactivities(Franco,2012;Wagner,2016)

25

Armedactors’presencehampersthepossibilitiesofthecommunitiestodeniedminersaccesstotheir
territory,andinthiswaypreventmercurycontamination:

The problem is that sometimes people from the community say “No, we do not give you
permission”,andtheydoitinanabusivemanner,theycomewiththosepeople…illegal,with
theguerrilla,let’ssay,andthatisalreadylikeanobligation[…].Evenifthecommunitydoesnot
wantto,thosepeoplewhoareinterestedinthosethings[goldandotherresources],theyare
notselfͲconscious,theycomeforwhattheyneed,andtheydon’tcarewhethertheycauseharm
ornot.
(Andreap30ͲYoungWomanBoardingSchoolStudent15.03.16)

These links between the territory and the armed conflict in Colombia contrasts with participants’
perceptionsofthepeacefulnesstheyexperienceinthisplace.Bothinternalandexternalagentstalked
aboutthesecurityandpeacetheyfeelclosetotherainforest,whichtheydescribedasashelterfrom
theconflicts,andsourceofhealthyfoodandcleanair.Severalofthemcontrastedthispeacefulregion
withthechaotic,pollutedandviolenceͲriddencitiesofColombia19.TheMilitaryCommanderagreed
withthisview,addingthatinLaPedreraguerrillagroupshavenotbeenpresentinthesamewaythey
havebeenpresentinotherareasofthenationalterritory.Armedconfrontationsbetweenguerrilla
groupsandtheArmedForceshavenevertakenplaceinLaPedreraorthesurroundings,“butregarding
drugtraffickingandmining,theyhavebeenpresent.Theyhavetheirsupportingnetworks,peoplewho
collaboratewiththem;butanactionagainsttheArmedForcesassuchhasneverhappened”(Np43Ͳ
ManMilitaryBaseCommander).Carlosp45ͲProfessorworkingwiththeregionalgovernment,talked
aboutLaPedreraasapeacefulbubble,wheregovernmentofficialscouldcometodiscusswiththe
citizenswithoutneedingextremesecuritymeasures.

5.1.2Threefuturescenarios(RQ1)
InthefollowingsectionsIdescribeindetailthemostrelevantissuesmentionedbyparticipantswhen
sharingtheirperceptionsaboutconsideredfuturesduringtheperiodafteraneventualsignatureof
the peace agreement20 between the Colombian Government and the FARCͲEP. To evaluate the
correlation between participants´ perception and the peace agreement I was able to identify four
degreesofawareness(seeAnnexe9,Figure10).Giventhatthemajorityofparticipantshadbetween
afairandaverygoodlevelofawareness,thecorrelationbetweentheirperceptionsandthepeace


19
InLaPedreratheprimarycauseofdeath,otherthannaturalcauses,isthroughboataccidents,mainlybydrivingunder
theinfluenceofalcohol(ObservationJournal.14thJanuary2016).
20
 AtthetimeofmyfieldworkItwasstilluncertainwhetherornotthepartieswouldgettoanagreement.Therefore,our
referencestothepeaceaccordsinthissectionreflectthisuncertainty.

26

agreementishigh.BelowIpresentagraphicrepresentationofthethreefuturescenarios,including
theBaselinescenario(Figure9).


CollectivescenariosfromtheAmazon
Baseline DystopianFuture BAU UtopianFuture

C1Life
60
T3RelapseintoConflict C2BodilyHealth
50
40
T2MercuryPollution C3Bodilyintegrity
30
20
10 C4Senses,Imaginationand
T1CultureLoss
Thought
0

C9Play C5Emotions

C10ControloverEnvironment C6PracticalReason

C8OtherSpecies C7Affiliation

Figure9:Scenarios
ThisimagedisplaystheBaselineandthethreefuturescenariosthatIassembledfromthedataset.C1ͲC10
RepresenttheCentralHumanCapabilitiesproposedbyMarthaNussbaum(2003).T1ͲT3Representthe
mainthreatsidentifiedbyparticipants.TheSectionsthatarenotcoveredinthescenariosarethosetopics
thatwereeithernotdirectlymentionedbyparticipants,orgiventhedefinitionprovidedbytheauthor,it
wasdifficulttoseetheapplicationinthecontext(e.g.C6ͲPracticalReasonandC9ͲPlay).

Afterexploringthechangesandcurrentstate,Iinvitedparticipantstosharewhattheythoughtcould
happenintheterritory,withinatimespanof15years,iftheColombiangovernmentandtheFARC
signthepeaceagreement.Iassembledthosescenariosundertherubrics:(i)DystopianFuture(DF),
(ii)BusinessͲasͲusual(BAU)21,and(iii)UtopianFuture(UF).BelowIpresentadetaileddescriptionof
each narrative.Theinformationisorganisedbywhatparticipantsmentioned about thecategories
naturalenvironment,buildenvironment,capabilities,andactors,inthatorder.


5.1.2.1DystopianFuture(DF)

(DF)Thenaturalandthebuiltenvironmentinternalagentsfearfor



21
 BussinessͲasͲusual is a term adopted in the Climate Change literature, often used interchangeably with the Baseline
scenario.Thetermisnowlessused,astheideacomingfrombusinessislesssuitabletodescribecenturyͲlongprojections
(PachauriandMeyer,2014).BAUisusefulforthisprojectasweareonlydescribingpossibilitiesinthenext5to15years.

27

Forinternalagents,increasedcommercialisation,arapidlychangingbuiltenvironment,andminingas
themainsourcesofenvironmentaldegradationcharacterisedthedystopianfuture.Inthisscenario,
participants described an increasingly degraded natural environment, where there will be fewer
animalsandtrees.Arecurrentconcerninallfocusgroupswasairandwaterpollution.Somegroups
identifiedthepollutionsource:theexpansionofthebuildenvironment,mainlyduetomorepeople
migratingtothearea,andmorecommercialisation22.WhenIaskedparticipantsinFG5ͲYoungWomen
atBoardingSchoolwhywouldtherebemorecontaminationinsuchconditions,oneofthestudents
explaintomethat“thereisgoingtobetreereduction,waterisgoingtobemorecontaminated,there
isgoingtobemorelike…,asLuciana(p25)said,thereisgoingtobemorecommercialisation,butthey
are going to build more things that pollute the air” (Helena p26Ͳ Young Woman Boarding School
Student15.03.16).Onethreatforthefuturetheadultmensawwas“contaminationofwater,dueto
factories,ortomachinerybroughtbythecolonos*,orduetotheworkstoextractgold,aswaterwould
bepollutedwithmercury”(FG4ͲNotesfromSecondWorkshop,05.03.16).

Internal agents brought up issues of culture and identity loss as a big menace that indigenous
communitiesarefacing,andwill continuetofaceinthefuture.Bothyoung andadultparticipants
sharedthisperception,forthem,thehugeinfluenceofwesterncultureandmachineryfromwhite
settlers could have devastating consequences for indigenous communities’ wellͲbeing, Indigenous
peoples’ wellͲbeing will be compromised through processes of cultural domination and forced
displacement.DiscussingtheprospectsforthefuturewithFG1,thediscussionrevolvedaroundideas
aboutafuturewhere“Noonewillknowhowtosing23{p3:Thatisexactlywhatisgoingtohappen.
Whatisgoingtohappentoculture?Itisgoingtobelost!}”(Tobíasp5andJuanp3ͲYoungMenBarrio
Nuevo).Anotherparticipantreinforcedthisidea,explainingthemainreasonforcultureloss:“Inmy
opinionculturewillbelostbecausethewhites’cultureiseverywhere”(Jimetp1ͲYoungManBarrio
Nuevo).

ParticipantsfromFG2ͲAdultWomeninBarrioNuevosharedtheperspectiveofwhites’dominance,as
oneoftheadultwomensaid“Lateron,asyousay,inthefuture,whatisgoingtobeleftis…allthe
youngsters,ourchildren,theyaregoingtoturnintowhites”(MariLuzp10).MariLuzexplainedtome
thattherewouldnotbeanymoreshamanicpractices,andindigenouspeoplewillceasetoexistunder
theinfluenceofthewhitesettlers,eitherduetoculturalassimilation,aswasevidentintheprevious


22
TheSpanishtermusedbystudentsattheBoardingSchoolwas‘comercialización’,andwiththistheymeantmoregoods,
infrastructureandperhapscarsandindustriesthatwillpolluteaireandwaterstreams.
23
Singingisacrucialactivityforthemen,because,besidestheimportantsocialroleitplaysduringsocialgatherings,itis
alsooneofthewaysinwhichtheknowledgeandpracticesarepasseddownfromonegenerationtothenext.

28

quote,orduetoforceddisplacement.asayoungwomaninthegroupsaid:“whenthewhitescome,
theycomeandstarttaking[us]out”(Yuberp11),thenanotherinterventionreinforcedtheideaof
eviction,“Theystartbuying(NICOCOp7){Theyaregoingtosay:‘Getoutfromhere!’andwearegoing
toheadout(MariLuzp10)}”.

(DF)Thenaturalandthebuiltenvironmentexternalagentsdonotwanttohave

Externalagentsalsomentionedmorecommercialisation,mining,andculturelossasfeaturesofthe
dystopianfuture.Juanp42ͲAdultManLawyer,sharedthatanundesirablefutureforhimwasgoing
to rely on commercialisation and exchange, instead of focusing on nature conservation; the
impoverishmentofindigenouspeople,whoseknowledgesaregoingtodisappearwouldensueinthis
future.Accordingtohim,thisscenariowasworrying,andtodayithasalotofstrength.

“Itistheoneofhowtheeconomyofthemarketisgettinghere,theprojectsofextract…the
extractive initiatives that I was telling you about: mining, oil, together with the
commodification24oftheRainforest.Andthisalsofindsintheindigenousnationsyoungpeople,
theyarethosewhoseethereferentofthenonͲindigenousastheideal,andthentheywantto
advancetowardsthere,andthenthosetwo…let’ssay,essencesmeet,andthenwewillhavea
highlycommodifiedsociety”
(JuanpͲ42Lawyer03.03.16)

Otherparticipantsalsotalkedaboutcommercialisation,linkedtoextractiveprojects,notablyoil,gold
andcoltanextraction.Germánp44ͲBiologistNGOConsultant,linkedminingwithreducedcapabilities
fortheindigenouscommunities,asminingcouldbring“easymoney”whichinturnfosterprostitution,
drugs and alcoholism, as has happened with other groups in the Pirá Paraná. Another participant
sharedthisopinion,Carlosp45ͲProfessorworkingwiththeregionalgovernment,miningandother
economicboomswereproblematic,astheseitineranteconomiesdeeplyaffectedthesocialfabricof
thecommunities,bygivingpeoplerapidprofitsthattheyneverhavethechancetocapitalize.People
getusedto“easymoney”andlooseinterestineducationanddevelopingentrepreneurialabilities.


5.1.2.2“BusinessͲasͲusual”(BAU)
(BAU)forinternalagents


24
TheoriginalterminSpanishthatheusedwas‘mercantilización´,butfromthecontextIwouldarguethattheadequate
terminEnglishiscommodification,whichisthemeaningthatwordmercantilizarcurrentlyhas.Theterm‘commodification’
hasnotbeenadoptedbytheRealSpanishAcademyofLanguage.

29

Inthisscenariotherewerelessdetaileddescriptionsaboutwhatparticipantsexpecttohappenwith
naturalandbuiltenvironments.Theyexpecttoseelessanimalsandforest,andwaterstreamswill
continuetobepolluted.Therewillbemorepeoplemigratingtothearea,andtherewillbemoreroads
andhouses.Inthisscenariothereareseriousdoubtsfrombothinternalandexternalactorsaboutthe
enduranceandeffectivenessofthepeaceagreement.Inascenariowherethearmedconfrontations
would continue, people’s capabilities, such as their wellͲbeing and their ability to adapt to the
changingeconomicconditions,willbehamperedbytheinterventionofdifferentarmedactors.As
illustrated by the following quote, there is concern about groups that might be against the peace
agreementandwouldpreventthefamiliesfromtakingnewopportunities:

Thosepeoplewhoareawayfromthought,thenitwouldbe,let´ssay,thereisafamily,theyare
livingwell,right?Theyhaveafarm,andhavechicken,everything,right?Imean,theylivewell.
But,asthosepeoplewhodonotagree,let´ssaytheparamilitaries,ortheFARC,orguerrilla,all
thesame”.Thentheycomeand…invadethatplace,Imean,theycomeandkickoutthosepeople
whoarelivingintranquillity.
(Andreap30ͲBoardingSchoolStudent15.03.16)

The young men from the Boarding School shared the perception of the continued influence of
unofficialarmedactors.Theydiscussedtheroleofthemilitaryinsuchscenario.Intheperspectiveof
oneofthestudents,thepeaceagreement couldalsobe“a lie, becausetherecanalsobe conflict.
Becausemanytimestherearecomplications,right?”(Nicolásp40ͲYoungmanHighSchoolStudent
15.03.16),inthesameline,reflectingontheroleofthestateArmedForcesinsuchunstablesecurity
situation, the group concluded that the Military forces would still be needed, even if there were
reducedconfrontationswiththeFARCͲEP.

(BAU)forexternalagents
Theonlyexplicitreferencestothechangesinthenaturalandbuiltenvironmentsfromexternalagents
in this scenario were shared by Germán (p44Ͳ Man Biologist NGO Consultant). He expressed his
concernaboutcurrentinfrastructuredevelopmentprojectsintheAmazonBasin,tobuildterrestrial
and fluvial routes to connect remote areas with the urban centres. He mentioned IIRSA25 as the
initiativeleadingtheprojects.Inhisopinion,theseinfrastructureprojectswereproblematicwithor
withoutthepeaceagreementbecausetheycouldinterruptthebiologicalcorridors,thatexistthanks
totherelativeisolationoftheAmazonregion.



25
IIRSAstandsforInitiativefortheInfrastructuralIntegrationoftheSurAmericanRegion,seehttp://www.iirsa.org/

30

Discussions external agents revolved around the mechanisms to reintegrate the demobilised exͲ
combatantsintocivillife,anddevelopmentprojectsthatmaytransformthelandscapeinthefuture.
Participantsmentionedtwomechanismsofreintegration,notably,theexpansionofPeasantReserve
ZonesandtheincorporationofexͲFARCmembersintotheworkingforce.Intervieweesandinformal
participants see Zones set aside for the demobilised population, and their integration into public
institutions,aschallengingissues.Intheirview,thesemechanismscouldcompromisethesecurityof
civilians.Themilitarybasecommanderalsopointedoutatthepossibilityofrelapseintoconflict,on
accountsofcurrentandemergingcriminalgroups,andothergroupsthatcurrentlyhaveinfluencein
thecountry,“inColombiathereisnotonlytheFARC,thereistheELN,andthecriminalgroups:the
Urabeños,theÁguilasNegras,etc.[…],theFARCsignsanagreement,butthosewhodonotacquiesce
inthetreatisearegoingtoevolveintoothergroups”(Np43ͲManMilitaryBaseCommander).


5.1.2.3UtopianFuture(UF)

(UF)Thenaturalandthebuiltenvironmentinternalagentslongfor

Onthecategoryofnaturalenvironment,youngwomengavemeaverydetailedaccountofwhatthey
want.Oneyoungwomansaidthatshewouldlike“thatpeoplestoppedkillingsomanyanimals”(Ana
p15ͲYoungWomanBarrioNuevo05.03.16).Twootherparticipantsmentionedthattheywouldlike
“toimprovetheconditioninwhichanimalscurrentlylive,justlikeustheyalsosufferbecauseofthe
pollutionwehave.Toimprovetheconditionofthetrees,thewater,soitisnotpolluted”(Yolimap28Ͳ
YoungwomanHighSchoolStudent15.03.16).Theywouldliketohave‘thesameRainforest,oreven
better, with everyone’s help’ (Andrea p30Ͳ Young woman High School Student 15.03.16). An ideal
futureforthemalsoinvolveshavingmoreopportunitiesforstudyingandworking.Inthisrespect,the
aspirationofyoungmenfromBarrioNuevowastoimprovetheircommunity’sorganisation.

Inparticular,onegroupexpressedtheidealfutureasthepossibilityforthemtohavea‘goodlife’,this
beingtheresultofprogress.ProgresswasmentionedinFG1(YoungMenBarrioNuevo)acoupleof
times,andwhenIinquiredaboutwhattheymeantbythis,theanswerwasthat“Progressmeansto
organisepeople,withharmony,withhealthcare.Weshouldhaveallofthatin15years.ThatiswhatI
hope”(Tobíasp5Ͳ05.03.16).

Progress, regarding what we are doing here is, that in today’s world, we, the youth, we can
changeinmanyaspects,Imean,jobs,study,andwehaveopportunitiestogoabroad.Inother


31

 words,in15yearsfromnow,[ourhopeis]thatthecommunitycanhaveaprofessional.Imean,
someonefromthesamecommunity,butdoing…havingstudies,andthosethings.
(Henryp2Ͳ05.03.16)

Inallfocusgroups,therewasagreementabouttheimportanceofmaintainingculturalpractices,and
thiswasequallycrucialforadultsandyoungpeople,asoneoftheelders’expressedit,inthatperiod
“thosewhoarekidsnow…[…]theyaregoingtobeyouthbythen…andasweweretalkingabout
before.Hopefully,theywillnotforget…theculture”(GUSMAp21ͲAdultmanBarrioNuevo05.03.16).
Inthissameregard,studentsattheboardingschoolsaidthatthedesirablefutureentailed“abetter
future.Somethinggood,suchasmaintainingtheculture,whichiswhatwearelosing”(Wilmerp39Ͳ
YoungmanHighSchoolStudent),towhatanotherstudentfromthesamegroupaddedthatthiskind
offutureshouldimply‘Tohavemoreanimals,morefish!andtocontinuewiththetraditionalculture!”
(Leandrop34ͲYoungmanHighSchoolStudent15.03.16).

(UF)Thefutureexternalagentswouldlikefortheterritory

Externalagents´pictureofanidealfuturefortheterritoryoftheForestReservesaroundLaPedrera,
and in general for the Colombian Amazon, was characterised by ecosystems conservation and
maintenanceofindigenousculturaltraditionsandknowledgesystems.Inhiswords,anidealscenario
wouldbewhere,

From outsidea ‘knowledgesociety’tries to have an interlocution witha ‘knowledgesociety’
here.Therewewouldhavemaximalpossibilitiesbecausepeopleisnotcomingheretotellothers
howtheyhavetolive,whattheworldlookslike.Instead,thereisanexperienceͲbasedandvital
constructionofknowledge,aconstructionofreality,andofthewaywecomprehendrealityto
beabletolive.
(JuanpͲ42Lawyer03.03.16)

Allintervieweesmentionedthesetwoaspects.Threeoutofsixrespondentsreferredtotheneedfor
findingequilibriumbetweenthenaturalenvironmentandthebuiltenvironment,astoguaranteethat
thosepeoplelivingtherecanbenefitfrommaterialwealth,thiswithoutdegradingtheecosystems.
Theotherthreeemphasisedtheneedtomaintainboththenaturalenvironmentandthecommunities
ratheruntouched.Asoneoftheintervieweesputit,inhisworkhehadlearnedthat¨sometimeswhen
youtrytohelportryingto…helpthosecommunities,whatyouaredoingisrather…doingharm.Then
you learn those… situations, of the traditions that they must have¨ (John p43Ͳ Man Military Base
Commander). Additionally, facing out mining was a prerequisite for attaining ideal conditions, the


32

followingremarkillustrateshowimportantthisissueisforoneoftheparticipants.WhenIaskedher
whatshewouldlikeforthefutureifshecouldinfluenceitshesaid:
Ah!(sight)…thattherewasnoillegalmining…althoughitdoesnotaffectusdirectlyhere,butit
does…inthenearbyareas.Andthatissomethingthat…yes,theharmisnotnotoriousnow,in
thelandscapes,andthesurroundings,butalsotheharmtopeople,thatkindofminingbringsa
lotofconsequences.AtleastIwouldliketobeabletohaveaninfluencethere.

(Adriana46ͲSchoolTeacherandleaderofthelocalwomen’sorganisation).

5.2Whatdoesittaketomakemoredesirablefuturespossible?(RQ2)

Participants of both internal and external agent groups referred to increased consciousness to
counterbalancethepressuresfromWesternculture,andtoreducethenegativeecologicalimpactsof
changingvalues.Internal agents couldnotseeawaytostopthecontaminationofwaterstreams,
other than preventive measures to avoid that community members get involve in gold mining.
Increasedconsciousness,strengtheningtraditionalthough*andformaleducationwerethemeansfor
familiesandthecommunitiestopersuadeyoungpeoplenottogetinvolvedinmining,drugs,alcohol,
ortoengageineconomicactivitiesthatgivethemindividualsgains,buterodeboththelandandtheir
cultural values. They see formal education as a means to open different opportunities to them,
preventingthatyoungpeoplebeforcedtotakehumanornaturedegradingworkingoptionstomake
aliving.Externalagentsseetheneedforstateinterventiontostopminingoperations,andtooffer
peoplealternativestoillegaleconomies(e.g.wildlifetraffickingandgoldmining).

Formaleducationandtheacquisitionofwhite´sknowledgeweremaindrivingforcestobringabout
more desirable futures. To improve their individual and communal conditions, internal agents
mentioned projects proposed by the community as a way to bring about those improvements. In
Tobías’words,intheidealscenario,theyneededtohave“controlovertheenvironment.[Since]the
onlyplacewherewehave[drinkable]wateristheonethatcomesfromhere.Ifwedonotcontrolthe
environment, if [someone] pollutes it, where from are we going to drink water? There is none!
Therefore,weneedaproject”(p5Ͳ YoungmanBarrioNuevo05.03.16).WhenIinquiredaboutwhat
kindofprojectstheycouldthinkof,theymentionedhousingimprovements,pavingthesoccercourt
andtheaccessroadstotheneighbourhood.Adultwomenalsosuggestedimprovementsinhousing
andaccessroutesasachangetheywouldliketoseeinthefuture,andidentifiedprojectsasamean
toimprovetheirlivingconditions.



33

Bothgroupsagreedontheneedtogetsupportfromexternalactors,theaimofthissupportshould
bedirectedtoprovidingthemwithworkingopportunities,astogetthemeansfortheirchildrentobe
abletofinishtheirstudies.Theirhopewasthattheirchildrencouldhelpthemaftercompletingtheir
education,yettheywouldneedsupportfromothers,“Togiveusajob.Andinthisway,wecanbuy…
orthegovernment,thattheyhelpusinthat.Becauseherenoonehasstudiedforthat”(Deicyp8Ͳ
AdultwomanBarrioNuevo)“todoa…aproject,todo…towritewell.Thisisavisionthatgoeswith
thatproject”(NICOCOp7ͲAdultwomanBarrioNuevo).Theywereexplainingtomehowtheiraccess
tobenefitswaslimitedgiventhattheycouldhardlyunderstandwhatthewhite*peoplesaid,luckily
theirchildrenarestudyingandtheycouldhelptheminthefuture.

5.3Whatroleshouldactorsplaytoachievemoredesirablefutures?(RQ3)

Adults from internal and external agent groups stressed the role of youth to bring about more
desirablefutures.Specifically,theserolesforyoungpeoplefromthecommunitiesweretofinishtheir
formalstudies,guidetheirfamiliesandcommunitiesintothedecisionstheyshouldtake,andcontinue
thetraditionalculture.However,oncetheyfulfilthisrole,youngpeopleneedsupportiveinstitutions
toprovidethemwithpossibilitiestorealisetheiragency.AsayoungmanfromBarrioNuevoshared
with me, not belonging to a recognised Indigenous Community deprives them from the necessary
support.Theconsequenceisthat,oncetheyfinishtheirstudies,youngpeopledonothaveoptions.In
hiswords:

“that is the problem. If we were [a recognised] community, the community would support
students that finish High School […]. They would give them jobs. Here we don’t have that
becausewebelongtotheUrbanCentre.Wearefromthetown,thecorregimiento,therefore
theydonotgivejobs.SomeonewhofinishedHighSchool,thereisnoonetohelphim”

(Tobíasp5ͲBarrioNuevo05.03.16)

Bothinternalandexternalagents'emphasisedtheambiguousroleofthestate,internationalactors,
andmembersoftheFARCwhowoulddemobilise.Theirinterventions,ratherthangivingaclearidea
oftherolestheseactorsneedtoperformtoconstructmoredesirablefutures,underscoretheduality
oftheiractions.Thesethreegroupshavethematerialcapacitytohelpintheconstructionofrealpeace
intheterritory,dependingonthekindofdynamicsthatstateplanningforlandredistribution,interests
frominternationalactors,andtheeffectivedemobilisation,disarmament,andreintegrationofcurrent
FARCͲEPcombatantstocivillifewilldetermine.Atthesametime,actionsfromthesegroupsalsohave


34

thepotentialtoreinforceinequalitiesthatwillcompromisetheenvironmentalsecurityinthestudy
area.


6Discussion
The general objective of this case study was to describe the future scenarios that Forest Reserve
dwellersandexternalagentsenvisioned,inthecontextoffutureeffectsofthepeaceagreementinLa
Pedrera, Colombian Amazon. The specific objectives were to (1) describe different scenarios that
participantscouldimagine,(2)identifyactionsthatparticipantssuggestedasmoreconducivetomake
moredesirablefuturespossible,and(3)understandwhatrolesparticipantsidentifiedforthemselves
and others for the construction of more desirable futures. In this closing chapter, I will revisit the
objectives mentioned above, and summarise the findings, connecting the results to theory.
Importantly,Iwillpresentmyconclusions,basedonevidencefromthecasestudy.Additionally,atthe
endofthisdiscussionoffersomesuggestionsforfurtherresearch.

6.1 Collective future scenarios in the Colombian Amazon under postͲagreement period
(ResearchObjective1)

Throughbothpresentandfuturetimeframes,participantswereconcernedwithtwomainkindsof
conflicts:oneinrelationtotheexistentialterritoryandtheotheronelinkedtothephysicalterritory.
Thefirstoneisaconflictbetweentheindigenousworldandthewesternworld,andthelatteristhe
presenceofthearmedconflictintheareathroughgoldmining.

Beforedescribingin detaileachoneofthesekindofconflictsin thefollowingsections,itisworth
addressing the relation between the scenarios and the peace agreement. From the perspective of
participants,thepeaceaccordinColombiahasacontradictorynature,giventheopportunitiesand
threatsforhumansandnonͲhumansthatthepostͲagreementperiodcanbring.Thisviewisinline
with the literature, where authors see the mechanisms to implement the peace agreement as
paradoxical.Peoplecouldbenefitfromthesedevicesthroughwealthandlandredistribution(Fajardo
et al., 2014; Flores, 2014), and from stronger political and social institutions (Arévalo Bencardino,
2014;Hernández,2015).Thesemechanismsalsorepresentecologicalchallengesfornewsettlements
and infrastructure, alongside national and international investments for resource exploitation, can
produceenvironmentaldegradationonascalepreviouslypreventedbythearmedconflict(Álvarez,
2001;Fajardoetal.,2014).


35

6.1.1Conflictintheexistentialterritory

Thedisputeintheexistentialterritorybecameevidentinparticipants'preoccupationwithtraditional
culture loss. According to both internal and external agents, culture loss is the result of the
domineeringinfluenceofwhiteculture*stronginfluence.InLaPedrera,valuesarerapidlychanging.
Indigenous people are increasingly absorbed by the market economy, changing their traditional
relationstotheecosystem(RamirezͲGomezetal.,2014).Thisisespeciallyproblematicforyouth,as
theydonotseeotheroptionthantakingwesterns'modeltoguidewhattheyhavetostrivefor.Local
researchersfromtheColombianAmazonagreewithparticipants'interpretation.Intheirview,young
peopleundervaluetraditionalcultureasaresultofpressuresfrom‘foreignacculturation'(Andoque
Macunaetal.,2011).Theconflictintheexistentialterritorythatparticipantsandotherlocalexperts
described coincide with the view of other scholars, who assert that the lifestyles, practices, and
culture, alongside the knowledge of indigenous peoples, are disappearing under the pressures of
modernizationandculturalhomogenization(Agrawal,1995).Amoreoptimisticviewisthat,although
certainaspectsoftraditionalcultures wouldbeunavoidablylostwithdevelopment,itshouldbe a
decisionofthecommunitiestochoosewhichofthosetraitsaretheywillingtorelinquish(Sen,1999).

Deciding which cultural traits indigenous communities should maintain seems unlikely for
communitieslivinginForestReserves.Forinternalagents*,whites’culture*ispervadingtosuchan
extentthatyoungparticipantsperceivetheworldtheyliveinasan“OccidentalWorld”.Theideathat
“theWest26”issuperiorincomparisontoothercultureshasbeencarefullycraftedthroughscientific
and economic discourses (Escobar, 1995; Latour, 2014a). According to Latour (2013, 2004, 2002),
westerns present themselves as nonͲcultural individuals, not the products of ethnicity, but the
productsofscientificreasoning,armedwith“NaturalLaws”,purportedlytheonlyauthentictoolsto
accesstheonereality.TheseconflictsbearuponhowModernsdonotgrantfullcivilrights27toothers.
Participants never mentioned ‘Modernity’ or ‘Moderns’, yet there are notable connexions with
Latour’s arguments. Latour also referrers to Moderns or Westerns, as whites*, and the way he
characterisesthemisinmanywaysconnectedtowhatparticipantsfearforthefuture:“Inthemarch
ofcivilisation,theWhiteshaveonlymetthespectreoftheirrationalandthearchaic.Theywerenever
facedwithenemies,sohowcouldtheyeverthinkaboutpeace?”(Latour,2002,p.28).



26
TheWestnolongerrepresentsEuropeandNorthAmerica,itisbetterunderstoodasamentality.
27
Inthiscontext,civicrightsforLatour(2004)wouldmeantohavetherighttodefinewhatcomposesthe‘social’.

36

Through the conflicts in the existential territory, there are at least three hindered Human Central
Capabilities4.)Thought.7.)Affiliation.And10.)ControlOverOne'sEnvironment.Briefly,theinfluence
of Modern values thwarts indigenous communities´ entitlements to Thought and Affiliation in
differentways,particularly,when modernvaluesarepresentedastheonlypossiblealternativeto
havingaworthwhilelife,traditionalthought*andcommunalwaysofassociationareforcedtofitthe
unifyingmodelsallowedbythemodernizationproject.Inthismodel,scholarsportraypeopleasprofitͲ
seekingindividuals,‘homoeconomicus'(Cramer,2002;Medows,2009).Thismodelisatoddswith
traditional culture, where values derived from social interactions used to be more important than
economicprofits(AndoqueMacunaetal.,2011).Lessevident,thisconflictalsohinders‘controlover
one'senvironment'.Thiscapabilityhastwodimensions,oneisimmaterialandtheothermaterial,the
firstoneisrelatedtotheexistentialterritoryandthesecondoneismoreconnectedtothephysical
territory.AccordingtoNussbaum(2003),thefirstcategoryinhertenthcapabilityreferstohowpeople
canparticipateeffectivelyinpoliticalchoicesthatgoverntheirlives.

6.1.2Conflictinthephysicalterritory

IntheareaofBajoCaquetáRiver,theconflictinthephysicalterritoryispresentthroughmechanisms
otherthanphysicalviolence.Participantsperceivetheareaaspeaceful,yet,atthesametime,they
also connect the kind of insecurities local dwellers live, such as water stream pollution, and the
impossibilitytodecideonwhatkindofchangestheirnaturalenvironmentundergoes,withthearmed
conflict.Armedgroups'enforcementofgoldminingisthemostnotoriouswayinwhichthearmed
conflictaffectspeoplelivingandworkinginthearea.Despitetheabsenceofphysicalviolence,people
lack ecological security. From this perspective, we can classify the kind of peace that participants
identified as a negative peace (Barnett, 2001). The situation described by participants confirms
findingsinaseriesofstudies.Differentreportsoverthepast12yearshavewitnessedtheriseofgold
mining as a source of financing for guerrilla, paramilitary, and other armed groups in Colombia
(BarthemandSouter,2004;Franco,2012;SánchezͲCuervoandAide,2013;Wagner,2016).Although
the ecological impacts have not been quantified in the Colombian Amazon, the most affected
departmentsbygoldminingareCaquetáandAmazonas(SPDA,2015).

Despitetheabsenceofphysicalviolence,miningimpositionimpedestheenjoymentofatleastthree
central capabilities: 1.) Life, both for the implicit threat to their lives if agents refuse new mining
operations,oropposethosealreadyinplace.Furthermore,peoplecapacitytoliveenjoyablelives,
accordingtoalifespanofregularlength(Nussbaum,2003),canalsobeimpairedduetoawholerange


37

of adverse effects related to illegal mining, notably, water stream pollution and mercury
contamination (SPDA, 2015). 2.) Bodily Health, compromised due to water stream chemical
contamination.Tocorroborateparticipants'descriptions,mercuryinhairsamplesfromindigenous
populationswhoinhabitalongthebanksoftheCaquetáRiver,ColombianAmazon,aregreaterthan
doubletheWorldHealthOrganizationthreshold(OliveroͲVerbeletal.,2016).Finally,10.)ControlOver
One'sEnvironmentresultsalsocompromised.Nussbaum(2003),definesthematerialdimensionof
‘ControlOverone'sEnvironment'concerninghowpeopleshouldbeentitledtopossessproperty,to
havehumaneconditionsatwork,relatetootherworkers,andbeabletousepracticalreason.For
thiscasestudy,theentitlementofpeopletoenjoyafunctioningnaturalenvironment,freefrommanͲ
produced pollution, would be a better definition for this capability. As this study shows, people's
controlovertheirsurroundingsisweakinthestudyarea,duetobothgoldminingandtheincreased
migrationofsettlerslookingforprofits(SPDA,2015).

ThecontinuousconnectionbetweentheColombianarmedconflictandtheminingextractivebooms
intheAmazonisnotsurprising.Oil,gold,coca,timberandemeraldshavefuelledtheinternalarmed
conflictinColombiasince1984(Franco,2012;UNEP,2009).Whatissurprisingisthat,evenwhenin
thefinaldocumentfromthepeaceagreementtherearerecurrentconceptssuchasenvironmental
sustainability,and‘livingwell’forminorities,themining,whichlargellyaffectsAfroͲdecendantand
Indigenouscommunities,wasnonethelessneglectedthroughoutthetext.Despitethecrucialrolethat
goldminingcurrentlyplaysinthedynamicsoftheColombianconflict,miningwasmentionedtwicein
thefinalagreement.Thetwooccasionswhenminingappearsinthetextistoascertainthatthestate
willtakecontroloverthetributaryrevenues,andwillfightcriminalactivitiessuchasillegalmining.
Withthecaveatthattraditionalartisanalminingshallnotbeconsideredcriminal(TheGovernmentof
ColombiaandtheRevolutionaryArmedForcesofColombia–People'sArmy(FARC–EP),2016).


6.2Actionsintomoredesirablefutures(ResearchObjective2)

Amongtheactionsthatparticipantssuggestedtoconstructmoredesirablefutures,Iwillconcentrate
on those actions conducive to resolve the conflicts in the existential, and physical territories
respectively. To recapitulate, more desirable futures for participants have the characteristic of a
positivepeace;apeacethatnotonlyguaranteesrulingoutphysicalviolencebutalsoprovidesthe
conditionsforhumanflourishing(Barnett,2001;Sen,2011,1999).Bothagentgroupsareadvocating
for equality, some participants go beyond equality for indigenous communities and humans in
general,toconsiderednonͲhumans’conditionsthatneedtoberestored.Toanalyseactionsconducive

38

toachievethispositivepeace,inthefollowingsectionsIintroducethekindofinequalitiesIwasable
toidentify,andthenIexplorethemechanismstoachieveequality.

6.2.1Realpeaceproposalsintheexistentialterritory

Thekindofinequalitythatcharacterisestheconflictintheexistentialterritoryistheunequalclaims
toreasonandrealitytheindigenousworldhasbeforethewesternworld.Consequently,indigenous
peopleshavereducedpowertodefinewhatkindofvaluesareworthstrivingfor.Therearetwomain
mechanisms in which participants think this inequality can be addressed. One is through formal
education; the second one is through strengthening traditional thought*. Young people from
Indigenous Reserves in the Amazon think that the way to fight ‘whites’ pressures is with western
techniquesandtools,eldersinsteadseethenecessitytohaveasolidtraditionalbasetoguidetheir
actions(AndoqueMacunaetal.,2011).

Formal education seems to be the clearest way internal agents* see to achieve a transformative
engagement with Modernisation, this through the acquisition of white knowledge*. Nevertheless,
standardised education has been the most effective apparatus devised for homogenising and
disciplining thought, and particularly, weakening indigenous resistance (Chomsky et al., 2010; von
HildebrandandBrackelaire,2012).Strengtheningtraditionalthoughtseemstobethe‘antidote’that
participantsseetopreventthattheeffectofthisengagementwithmodernityturnsintowhitening*
of indigenous peoples. This action is methodologically sound, as it is not through cataloguing and
recordingindigenousknowledgethatitwillstandachanceagainstmodernization,theonlywayforit
to survive is through practice (Agrawal, 1995). However, strengthening traditional thought* is a
necessary,yetnotenoughconditiontoofferrealpossibilitiesforpeaceintheexistentialterritory.
Safeguarding the interest of indigenous peoples is poorly served through the dichotomy between
indigenousandwesternknowledge,abetterapproachistoacknowledgethemultiplicityofdomains
andtypesofknowledge,thatonlydifferintheirlogicsandepistemologies,notintheirstatusorvalidity
(Agrawal,1995).

Realpeaceproposalsintheexistentialterritoryrequiremultipleactionsthatcannotbedefinedby
academic‘experts’.Surely,aviablemechanismtoachievemoredesirablefuturesisexperimentation,


39

yetthisisnolongertheexclusiveworkof´scientistsinwhitecoats´28,thisistheworkofacollective
(Escobar,1995;Latour,2004;Morin,2008).Regardingtheindigenousworldandecologymovements*,
communitiesneedtoexperimentwitheconomicalternatives,andsemioticresistance,challengingthe
Modernimposedmeaningof‘social'and‘nature'(Escobar,1995;KullmanandLee,2015).Regarding
thewesternworld,theuniversalisationofModernvaluesneedstostop(Latour,2013;Morin,2008,
1995). Fora long time,thescientificcommunityhasbeenaware thatthewesternworldneedsto
modifyitsvalues,andthatweneedtochangeourhabits,establishedthroughaperpetualeconomic
growthrhetoricthatdoesnotholdtrueagainstecosystemiclimits(Escobar,1995;Meadowsetal.,
1972).Certainly,“thereisaneedfortheharmoniousintegrationbetweenthewhiteandtheindigenous
world”(AndoqueMacunaetal.,2011,p.82).

6.2.2Realpeaceproposalsinthephysicalterritory

Unequal control over the environment, competing understandings of what this control entails,
together with different attachments to the land, characterise the conflict in the physical territory.
Indigenous people from Forest and Indigenous Reserves do not have the capacity to stop mining
activitiesthataffecttheterritoriestheyoccupybecauseminersreceiveprotectionfromarmedgroups.
Preventive measures suggested by internal agents are again related to strengthening traditional
thoughtandformaleducation.Externalagentsseestateinterventionastheonlymeanstostopmining
activitiesandprovidepeoplewitheconomicalternatives.Oneofthekeyelementsforcivilpathsto
peace proposed by Sen (2011) is formal education. This mechanism is expected to help downplay
divisive identities, which, together with material inequality, are for him the root causes of violent
conflicts(Sen,2011).FortheColombiancase,severalauthorsagreewiththeexplanationofmaterial
inequality as the root cause of the conflict (Beittel, 2014; Cárdenas Ruiz, 2015; Carmona, 2015;
Hernández,2015;RodríguezPico,2015).Othersagreewiththebothelements,emphasisingtherole
of divisive political identities, together with socioͲeconomic disparities in maintaining the armed
confrontations(Flores,2014;Vásquez,2008).

AccordingtotheColombiangovernment,toaddresssocialandeconomicinequalitiesafterthepeace
agreement,thecountryneedstoattainsimilar‘qualityoflife’levelsinurbanandruralareas(The
GovernmentofColombiaandtheRevolutionaryArmedForcesofColombia–People’sArmy(FARC–


28
 Latour (2004) uses similar expressions to emphasise the difference between Moderns’ conception of Science, where
experts worked in controlled environments, and nonͲhumans were not agents, to contrast it with the new kind of
experimentsthatinvolvebothhumansandnonͲhumans.

40

EP), 2016). It is not clear what is meant by ‘living well’, ‘wellͲbeing’, or ‘quality of life’ in official
documents, what is certain is that the mechanism is development. More specifically, as I briefly
discussedintheintroductiontothearmedconflictandthepeaceagreementinColombia(section
2.1),thetwodevelopmentdrivingforcesforthecurrentgovernmentareminingandtheexpansionof
theenergysector.Thismayexplainwhythepositionofthecentralgovernmentisnotstoppingillegal
mining,buttakingcontroloverthemonopolyoftributestotheNationalTreasuryfromtheseactivities
(The Government of Colombia and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia – People’s Army
(FARC–EP),2016,p.79).

Realpeaceproposalsforthephysicalterritoryrequirestoppingillegalminingoperations.Atthesame
time,areformulationoftheColombianstate's developmentmodelbasedonmineralextractionis
needed(Carmona,2015).Morethangovernmentinterventiontotakecontrolovertheprofitsfrom
illegal economies, what is necessary is a renegotiation of the very definition of progress. The
‘extractivelocomotive'restsuponthequestionableassumptionthatpeace,alongsideanequitable
future for marginalised groups, can only be achieved through mineral extraction (McNeish, 2016).
Theseassumptionstakeforgranted theecosystem damagesthatthis kindofdevelopmentcauses
(Bonilla Montenergro, 2015), and overlooks the other kind of insecurities it engenders. Pollution
producedbytheextractiveindustryhasgeneratedreactionsamongpeasantandethnicmovements,
together with environmental activists fighting for environmental justice (Montilla, 2014). Counter
actionstoappeaseprotestsfromgrassroots,afroͲdescendant,andindigenousgroups,includestate
abuse of force during open protests, and selective paramilitary assassinations of trade unionists,
leaders,andactivists(McNeish,2016).RealpeaceproposalsforColombiansrequirethatdevelopment
stops being the driver of political decisions. In general, western economy can no longer be the
compass for our way of advancement (Escobar, 1995; Latour, 2014b; Wright, 2009). Instead of
progress,astableandlastingpeacerequireslowprogression,thecompositionofacommonworld,
followingtheprecautionaryprinciple(Latour,2014b).

6.3Rolestomakemoredesirablefuturespossible(ResearchObjective3)

Participantsclearlydefinedtheroleofyouth:theyshouldfinishtheirformaleducationandcontinue
the traditional culture. Nevertheless, to achieve their agency they need support from relevant
institutions to foster the development of their capabilities and harness their acquired skills. The
Colombian state plays an ambiguous role in securing the interests of marginalised people. The
government'speacediscoursepromisestoguaranteeminoritypeople'srights,whileatthesametime
its development plans clearly undermine the possibility of these population to regain control over

41

theirenvironment.Thisambiguousrolesuggeststhattheinstitutionstosupportanddevelopyouth
capabilitieswillbebetterfulfilledthroughthemediationofecologicalmovement*groups.

Sen(2011)arguesinfavouroftheparamountroleofyoungpeopletoachievecivilpathstopeace.He
agreeswiththeneedtocreatescaffoldinginstitutionsthatwillallowyoungpeopletodeveloptheir
capabilities,thismainlythrougheducation,butalsothroughsportsanddirectpoliticalengagement.
Creatingyouthambassadorprogramsandparliamentswecanachievepoliticalparticipationbyyoung
people(Sen,2011).Althoughhedoesnotemphasiseaparticularagegroup,Latour(2013,2004a)also
stressestheimportanceoftheroleofdiplomats.AsignificantdifferencebetweenSenandLatour’s
approach to diplomacy is that for Sen (1999, 2011) the aim of representation is to empower
disadvantagedpeople, particularlywomenandyouth;whereasforLatour(2011),diplomacyisthe
work of aspokesperson* who represents both humans and nonͲhumans. In this case study, the
concernsraisedbyyoungparticipantsabouttheconditionsofanimals,theriver,andtherainforest,
makeyoungparticipantsviablecandidatesforambassadors.Theseyoungrepresentativescouldgo
beyondthedefenceoftheinterestsoftheircommunities,indigenouspeoplesingeneral,tobegood
spokespersonsinthenameofnonͲhumans.

6.4Limitations
Using focus groups and individual interviews as the primary data construction strategies have the
limitation of only gathering perceptions of people who have a previous interest in the topics. My
resultsarenotyettheworkingsofacollective,asthecollectiveisstillinthemaking.Additionally,
participants should ideally be engaged in all stages of the scenario process, from generating the
information and assembling the scenarios to interpreting them and presenting the information.
Beyond fieldwork challenges, I experienced several methodological difficulties. Trying to combine
approachesthathavesubstantialontologicalandepistemologicaldifferencesoftenrequireadeeper
understandingofwhateachauthormeansbythekeytermsheuses.Inasense,thereisnocommon
language,yettheyusethesameterminology.Iencounteredthissamedifficultywhentryingtoadapt
thecapabilitiesapproachtoaccountforindigenouscommunities’capabilities.AsmuchasNussbaum
(2003)soughttoprovidealooselydefinedlistofcentralhumancapabilities,thecurrentlististoo
related to western conceptions of ´quality of life´. A Modern framing is especially evident in
capabilitiessuchas‘practicalreason’,‘otherspecies’and´controloverone’senvironment´.Finally,
althoughIagreewithSchlosbergandCarruthers(2010),whentheypointoutatthepotentialforthe
capabilitiesapproachtobeappliedtoindigenouscommunitiesaboutEnvironmentalJusticestruggles,
theconceptwillneedsignificantadaptationstobeadequateinthecontextofcommunalcapabilities.


42

6.5Suggestionsforfurtherresearch

ThroughthisresearchIhavehighlightedthecrucialrolethatyouthandecologicalmovementsplayin
theconstructionofmoredesirablefutures,toallowforthecoͲactionbetweenhumanandnonͲhuman
assemblies in challenging ostensible conceptions of progress. Other case studies describing the
ecological dynamics in Amazonian Forest Reserves are needed, to describe how humans and nonͲ
humansassembleintheseareas.Thegoalshouldbetoidentifythoseagentswiththebiggestleverage
andfindouthowtheiragencycanbeharnessedtocontributetotheconstructionofcommonworlds.
Future research in these areas can be enriched by finding points of intersection between Political
Ecologyandindigenoussciencesandphilosophies.

Appliedresearchonindigenousyouthparliaments,andonthemechanismsthatweshouldimplement
toassemblehumansandnonͲhumansinarepresentativedemocracyarealsoneeded.Tothisend,
onetheoreticalapproachthatneedsfurtherexplorationishowtoextendthecapabilitiesapproachto
thecollectivesformedbyhumansandnonͲhumans.Nussbaumintroducedageneralexpansionofthe
capabilitiesapproachtononͲhumananimals(SunsteinandNussbaum,2004),yet,tomyknowledge,
thisapproachhasnotbeenexploredtoencompassnonͲhumanswhodonotbelongtotheanimal
kingdom29.

7Conclusion
Thepurpose ofthisresearchhasbeen todescribethedifferentfuturesenvisionedby participants
during the postͲagreement period in Colombia, identifying the characteristics of more desirable
futures,andtheactionsandrolesneededtomakethosefuturespossible.Thebaselinescenarioand
thethreefuturescenariosrevolvedaroundtwomainkindsofconflicts,namely,theconflictinthe
existential territory and the conflict in the physical territory. Through the existential conflict, the
indigenous world has been deprived of the entitlement to participate in the composition and
definition of the common world, and the values that are worth pursuing. Despite the absence of
physical violence in the study area, the conflict in the physical territory is present through the
protectionofgoldminingbyarmedgroups.Inturn,thedynamicofthisconflictreducesparticipant’s
essentialentitlementstolife,bodilyhealth,association,andcontroloftheirenvironment.



29
SomeexaplesofnonͲhumansthatshouldbetakenintoaccountaccordingtotheissuesrisedbyparticipants
aretheriver,theforest,andevenchemicals,notablymercury.

43

Moredesirablefuturesforparticipantsincludethepossibilitytoenjoyapositivepeace.Suchpeace
entails enhancing inhabitants’ ability to develop their communal capabilities, notably, to recover
controlovertheenvironment,beabletoenjoyanaturalenvironmentfreefrommercurypollution,
andhaveopportunitiestodefinewhattheworldiscomposedofandwhatkindofprogressionisworth
strivingfor.Realpeaceproposalsintheexistentialterritoryrequiretheentitlementoftheindigenous
worlds to challenge Modernisation as the only possible path imposed by the western world. True
peaceproposalsinthephysicalterritoryrequirearenegotiationofthemeaningofprogress,anda
commitmenttosecurethenaturalenvironment.Theactionsthatwillhelptomakemoredesirable
futures possible for Forest Reserve dwellers are related to formal education and strengthening
traditionalthought.InColombia,thegovernmenthasdefinedthewayofadvancementthroughits
developmentplan,andthetwomechanismsforprogressareminingandtheexpansionoftheenergy
sector.Peaceintheexistentialandthephysical territoryrequire notprogress buta precautionary
progression,toallowforviableassemblagesofhumansandnonͲhumans.Theroleofyouth,alongside
ecologicalmovements,iscrucialinthecompositionofacollective,tochallengeColombia’scurrent
developmentmodel.Morethanastableandlastingpeace,thismodelensuresthecontinuationof
wars that have never been recognised as such, they are not even regarded as conflicts, but the
inexorableadvancementofModernisation.
 


44

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 Annexes

Annexe1:Glossary

Agency*: Sen (1995, 1993, 1999) only attributes agency to humans, and sees nonͲhumans as
resources(Sen,1984).Humansareagentsbecausetheyhaveacapacitytoreason,andreasoniswhat
sets humans apart from the the rest of the animal kingdom (Sen, 2002, 1999). Nevertheless, he
acknowledgestheroleofvaluesandthecapacityhumanshavetodevelopasenseofresponsibility
towards other species (Sen, 2004). Latour (2004, 2005, 2013) refuses the claim that only humans
possessreasonandagency,nonͲhumansareagentsaswell,althoughtheiractionisofadifferentsort,
theiragencyisasimportantasours.Admittedly,oursociallifewouldbeunthinkablewithoutthecoͲ
actionbetweenhumansandnonͲhumans(CallonandLatour,1992;Latour,2013,2005;Strumand
Latour, 1987). Agency throughout this research is “the capacity to make other being(s) do
something”30(CallonandLatour,1992;Latour,2013,2004).

Agents*:HumansandnonͲhumanswhoexerciseagency,inotherwords,agentsareallthosebeing
whoareabletomakeothersdosomething(Latour,2005).

Ancestralthought*:Synonymfortraditionalthought(seedefinitionbelow).

Balsa(s)*Golddredgingship(s).

Collective:ThisisakeyterminthePoliticsofNatureproposedbyLatour(2004).Broadly,thisword
designatesgroupsofhumansandnonͲhumansthatassembleprogressively.Thistermhelpstobreak
thelinkwith‘social’and‘society’thatarealreadyconstructeddomainsthatonlyconcernhumans.In
Latour’swords:“Thefactorsgatheredinthepastunderthelabelofa‘socialdomain’aresimplysome
oftheelementstobeassembledinthefutureinwhatIwillcallnotasocietybutacollective”(Latour,
2005,p.14)

Colono(s)*:Thisisanexpressiongenerallyusedbyindigenouspeoplefromthestudyaretodesignate
NonͲindigenoussettlers.Participantsreferredtocolonsandwhites*interchangeably.



30
On‘Howtomakesomeonedosomething’seeLatour(2013).


52

Construction*:FromOldFrenchͲcom(with,together)+Ͳstruere(topileup),thewordmeans“topile
up together, accumulate; build, make, erect" (Harper, 2016). An adaptation of this term for the
contextofthisresearchis“tobuild/create(arguments,ideas,scenarios),bysystematicallyarranging
participants’interventions,withargumentsfromacademicandofficialsources”.Constructivism*:is
aphilosophicalapproachtoproblemsthatemphasiseseitheraCritiqueofPureReasonoracultural
criticism.Inrecenthistory,thetermconstructivismwasfirstusedinmathematics.CONSTRUCTIVISM,
CONSTRUCTIONISM,orCONSTRUCTIONALISM,arealltermsusedindifferentintellectualsettings.The
pointofencounteramongthemisthattheymaintainthedichotomybetweentheworldofideasand
therealworld,establishedbyPlatoandformalizedbyKant(Hacking,1999).Itookadifferentapproach
to constructivism, which is the one proposed by Latour (2002, 2013): Constructivism can be
understood as a common ground to bring different domains (scientific, political, ethical, etc.) into
fruitfulcommunication.Agoodexampleiswhoascientist,apolitician,amoralistcanstartdiplomatic
conversationsthroughthefollowingaffirmation:“Atleastwecanbesureofonething:thatyourgods
asmuchasours,yourworldsasmuchasours,yoursciencesasmuchasours,yourselvesasmuchas
ours, are constructed.” (Latour, 2002). From this approach, we can avoid getting entangled into
fruitlessScienceWars,askingwhetherFactsareratherfictions,andcaninsteadengageinthereally
important questions: “what is well or badly constructed?” and “how can we make better
constructions?”(Hacking,1999;Latour,2005,2004b,2002).

Deontology*:OfGreekorigin,dentͲ,combinedformofDeon"thatwhichisbinding,duty,"with–
ology(Harper,2016),thisisatermthatLatour(2014)suggestsasabetterfitforthetaskofontology
"metaphysicalscienceorstudyofbeing,"(Harper,2016).Inourquestforcomposingacommonworld,
ourbindingdutyshouldbetofirstlistentothe‘beings’intheirlanguage,beforewedividetheminto
subjectsandobjects(Latour,2013,2005).Thisontologicalperspectivewashelpfulinthisresearch
projectbecauseitallowedmetoprogressivelyunderstandnonͲhumansnotasnonͲsubjectsbutas
agents.AgoodexampleisthatIcametounderstandtheriver,mercurypollution,andtheforestas
entities,whoactandmakeotheract.

Ecology movements*: This is a general term to designate communities and groups advocating for
EnvironmentalJustice31.Thetermiscloselyrelatedto‘socialmovements’usedbydifferentauthors


31 See (Barnett, 2001; Schlosberg and Carruthers, 2010) and Schlosberg, D., 2013. Theorising environmental justice: the

expandingsphereofadiscourse22,37–55.doi:10.1080/09644016.2013.755387




53

in this thesis (Escobar, 2007, 1995; McNeish, 2016; Sen, 1980; Wright, 2009), yet with a crucial
difference:thistermattemptstoemphasisetheontologicalapproachItook.Iintentionallyavoidusing
‘social’andreplaceitby‘ecology’,toemphasisethatthesocialisnotanalreadydefineddomain,but
it is under construction, thus allowing for the socialisation of excluded humans and nonͲhumans
(Latour,2005,2004).

Equality*:DifferentunderstandingsoftherootcausesoftheinternalconflictinColombiawilldictated
dissimilaractions.FromtheviewthattheinsurgencyinColombiahasitsrootsinsocialandpolitical
inequalities (Flores, 2014; LeGrand, 2003), congruent actions will be targeted to increase equality.
Equalityofwhat?ThiswasthequestionthatSen(1980)setuptoanswerwhenheproposedhisversion
ofthecapabilitiesapproach.Hearguesthat,fromanethicalperspective,itisinsufficient,andoften
misleading,tofocusonincometomeasureinequality(Sen,1995).Instead,focusshouldbeplaceon
thecapabilitiesthatindividualshavetoachievetheiragency.Forhispart,Latour(2006)remindsus
thatdisregardingnonͲhumans’actionamountstoignoringtherealrootcausesofinequality.From
thisperspective,therearetwokindsofequalitythatweneedtostrivefor.Thefirstoneisequality
among peoples, meaning to abolish the difference between “us” (Moderns, nonͲethnic, Scientific,
Rational,HomoͲeconomicus),and“them”(underͲdeveloped,ethnic,nonͲscientific,irrational,homoͲ
sentimentalis)(Latour,2002).Thesecondoneisequalityamongagents,inotherwords,humansand
nonͲhumans arepartofthesameteam,andweallplaythesamerole,which inhisownwordsis
“groupformation”(Latour,2005,p.34).Equalitythenmeans,forthisresearch,toprovidehumans
andnonͲhumanswith thenecessaryconditionsto assemblein waysthatallowthem tofulfiltheir
capabilities.

Externalagents*:(A)exstandsforexternalagents.Theseareparticipantsinthisstudywhowerenot
bornintheAmazon,buthavebeenworkingthereforatleast2years.Theassumptionbehindthe
differentiation between internal and external agents is that given that they have different
attachmentsandperceptionsoftheterritory,externalagentsareexpectedtobelessawareaboutthe
territorialdynamicsthatconcernthosepeoplewhowerebornandhavebeenlivinglongerinthestudy
area.

Internalagents:(A)in.Giventhatnotalltheparticipantsfromthefocusgroupsidentifiedthemselves
asindigenous,notablysomestudentsfromtheBoardingSchoolbelongtotheurbancentreanddid
notsharetraditionalculturalpractices,itwasdifficulttotalkabouttheparticipantsfromfocusgroups
andintervieweesintermsofindigenousandnonͲindigenous.Thisdifficultytorefertooneoranother


54

groupofparticipantswasresolvedbyintroducinga‘Mobilityqualifier’,whichstandsforthecapacity
ofthosepeopletocomeinandoutfromtheareawithmoreorlessease32.Thisdifferentiationcomes
fromtheassumptionthatpeoplewithlow‘mobility’willknowtheterritory,thesocialnormsandties,
better than those who come from other areas. Under this assumption, internal agents will have
different expectations over what future would look like, because any threats will mean a direct
underminingoftheirandtheirfamilies’wellͲbeing,astheywillhavereducedcapacitytofleeincase
of increased pressures. (A)in, then stands for internal agents. I decided not to use “local” agents,
becauseintheendallagentsandallplacesarelocal(Latour,2005).

Mininglocomotive*:InColombiaTheGeneralPolicyforMiningDevelopment(2010Ͳ2014)iswidely
knownasthe‘MiningLocomotive’(CorteSupremadeJusticia,2012),orthe‘energyͲminingExpress’
(McNeish,2016).Inthisdocument,thetwopillarsforgrowthandemploymentgenerationaremining
developmentandenergyexpansion(Sernaetal.,2011).However,throughthelaw685of2001the
Colombiangovernment(AndrésPastranaPresidency1998Ͳ2002)declaredas“PublicUtilityandSocial
Interesttheminingindustryinallitsbranchesandphases”(CongresodeColombia,2001,p.2).

Moderns*:(Also–Westerns,ͲOccidentals*,Whites*).Itisdifficultformetotryanddefinethisina
fewlines,Latour(2013)hasdevotedawholeresearchprojectforanethnographyoftheModerns.
Somegeneralfeaturesthatcanhelptocharacterisethemare monopolisticvalues:One Science, a
uniqueReason,aunifyingDemocracy,andanundemocraticEconomy(Latour,2014a,2004).Their
mode of advancement is though progress and development. They evaluate the desirability of
interventionsaccordingtomaterialwellͲbeing,andtheprinciplesofefficiencyandeffectivity.

Occidentalworld*:InSpanish‘MundoOcciental’.Thiswastheexpressionthatonparticipantsinthis
studyusedtoreferredtotheotherkindofworldthatunderminesindigenousvalues.Itisregularterm
inColombiatorefertoIndustrializedvsDeveloped.SeeModerns*.

PublicUtilityandSocialInterestactivities*:isacontestedlegalterminColombia.Agoodexampleis
thatreforestationandhydroͲforestworksInthe“ProtectiveForestZone”weredeclaredofGeneral
Interest and Public Utility (Presidencia Republica Colombia, 1953); and the zones established as
‘NationalNaturalParks’weredeclaredPublicUtilityzonesthroughthe2ndlawof1959;thesetwo
contexts give the idea that ‘Public Utility and General Interest’ activities are those in line with


32
Giventheremotenessoftheareaandthelackofaccessroutes,theonlytwowaystocomeinandoutfromtheplaceare
throughtheriverorbyairplane,whichincreasesthecostsfortransportation.

55

biodiversityconservation.

Spokesperson*:ThisisakeyconceptintheLatour’sPoliticalEcology.Thisistherolethatconcerned
partiesplaywhentheyrepresenttheformationofassembliesformedbyhumansandnonͲhumans.
“Thesharpdifferencethatseemedsoimportantbetweenthosewhorepresentedthingsandthosewho
representedpeoplehassimplyvanished.Whatcountsisthatallthosespokespersonsareinthesame
room, engaged in the same collective experiment, talking at once about imbroglios of people and
things.”(Latour,2011,p.4)

Territory*:ThroughouttheliteratureIusedforthisresearchprojectthereareseveraldefinitionsof
territory.Ontheonehand,territorybringstomindideasconnectedtoadministrativedemarcations,
or with special confinements (Latour, 2014b). On the other hand, for the indigenous world the
definitionofterritoryisnotconfinedtospeciallimits:“theterritoryisalltheworldthattheancestral
thoughtcoversintheshamanisticvision”(MatapíandYucuna,2012,p.8).Myusageofthewordisa
combinationoftheconcepts:‘landscape’,borrowedfromHägerstrand(2001),incombinationwith
otherconceptsmorerelatedtotheindigenousvision,notablyGuattari's(1989)framingofthephysical
andexistentialterritories.Inmyview,existentialandphysicalterritoriesareaconntinium,themental
deviceswehavetodefinetheoutsideworldinmanywaysshapetheworld.Likewise,the‘outside’in
manywaysdeterminewhatwecanbelieve,beandthinkinthe‘inside’.Dividingthesetwoterritories
wasonlyusefultoshowhowtheColombianconflictisnotonlymanifestinarmedconfrontations,but
italsomanifestsinthoseareaswecannotsee.

Traditional(s)*:TheoriginalwordinSpanishis‘Tradicional’whichinthiscasedoesnotdesignatean
adjective,butanimportantrolewithintheindigenouscommunity.ATraditionalisaman,whohas
accomplishedtrainingoftheYuruparí33,andthroughhistrainingheisabletogiveadvicetopeopleon
verydiverseaspectssuchashealth,communallife,andingeneralbothsocialandecologicalaspects.
Traditionalthought:“elpensamientotradicional”alsoreferredtoas“ancestralthought”,isaconcept
thatescapesmyunderstanding,yetwhatIwasabletograspfrommyinteractionwithparticipants’,
this is the act of guidance and reflexion that traditional teach in their communities to guide their
decisionstoattainagoodlife.



33Thisisamaledriventraditionaltrainingandpreparationthatyoungmenareexpectedtocompleteiftheywanttobecome

Traditional*s.Specificinformationaboutthispracticewasnotsharedwithmebecausethisisonlyreservedformen.


56

White(s)*: In general, indigenous people and settlers in the Colombian Amazon refer to nonͲ
indigenous people as ‘whites’. This is clearly not a skin colour identifier; it rather establishes the
difference between people who follows the traditional culture and those who do not follow it.
Whites’* culture: Synonyms would be Modern* and Western culture. White knowledge: When
participantsreferredtothiskindofknowledgetheymadereferencestowriting,accountingandthe
useofcomputers.Whiten*:Becomewhite*.Thisishowsomeparticipantsandotherlocalresearchers
intheAmazonreferredtotheadoptionofwesternvaluesbyindigenouspeoples(AndoqueMacuna
etal.,2011)

 


57



Annexe2:AreaofTerritorialEntitiesintheAmazon
Table4:TerritorialEntitiesintheColombianAmazonbyarea

TerritorialEntities Area(Ha) %

WaterandsoilconservationDistrict 272,603.6 0.56

NationalNaturalParks 4,240,687.5 8.78
NationalNaturalParksandIndigenousReserve 1,690,402.2 3.5
AmazonianForestReserve(2ndLaw1959) 9,969,580.6 20.63
NationalForestReserve 31,152.6 0.06
NationalNaturalReserve 468,216.3 0.97
NationalNaturalReserveandIndigenousReserve 1,514,454.0 3.13
IndigenousReserve 22,519,546.6 46.61
Florasanctuary 9,926.8 0.02
Floraandfaunasanctuary 16.1 0
FloraSanctuaryandIndigenousReserve 278.1 0
Subtractedlands 3,479,248.5 7.2
IntegralManagementDistrict 1,399,037.0 2.9
Otherfigures 2,721,223.0 5.63
Total 48,316,372.9 100


Source:MurciaͲGarcía,U.,Castellanos,H.,Rodriguez,J.,2012.MonitoreoDeLosBosquesYOtrasCoberturasDe
LaAmazoniaColombiana.


Annexe3:Participantcharacterization
3.1CoͲresearchers
AsIbrieflydescribedinthescenariossection,mymycoͲresearchersinthisprojectwere40internal
agentsfromtwolocations,BarrioNuevoandtheBoardingSchool;andwith6externalagents.Barrio
Nuevo is located in the periͲurban area, at 15 minutes’ walk from La Pedrera, between the urban
centreandtheCamaritaguaIndigenousReserve(Figure5).FamilieslivinginBarrioNuevoorganised
themselvesunderthefigureofaCommunityActionCouncil,about50peopleareregisteredandlive
intheneighbourhood.21members,fromtheethnicgroupsMatapí,Yucuna,TanimucaandLetuama
participatedinFocusGroups.



58

Approximately226studentsareenrolledattheBoardingSchool,106womenand120men(InͲperson
communicationwithInstitution’sSecretary14.03.16).Fromthetotaleightmixedgroups,from6thto
11thgrade,Iinvitedtwostudentsfromeachgroup,8womenand8menjoinedtheFocusGroups.
Finally,thesixexternalagentsarepeoplewhohadbeenworkinginLaPedrera,eitherwiththeofficial
government, with indigenous organizations or independently. Participants in individual interviews
includetheMilitaryBaseCommander,therepresentativefortheWomen’sOrganization,aLawyer
whohadbeenworkingwiththeOPIACforoverthirtyyears,aprofessorworkingwiththeRegional
Government,aconsultantforaninternationalNGO,andanartisanalminer.

Table5:CoͲresearchers’characterisation
Traditional Code Mobility Mainrole Institutional Men/ Birth Livesin Time Originally
name/name qualifier characterisation affiliation Women date livingor from
working
inthe
territory

Jimet FG1p1 (A)in YoungmanBarrio Neighbourhood Man 1986 Barrio 6years LaPlaya
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

Henry FG1p2 (A)in YoungmanBarrio Neighbourhood Man 1996 Barrio 6years LaPlaya
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

Juan FG1p3 (A)in YoungmanBarrio Neighbourhood Man 1984 Barrio 10years LaPlaya
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

Álvaro FG1p4 (A)in YoungmanBarrio Neighbourhood Man 1994 Barrio 10years Guacayá
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

Tobías FG1p5 (A)in YoungmanBarrio Neighbourhood Man 1986 Barrio 3years Guacayá
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

Alexander FG1p6 (A)in YoungmanBarrio Neighbourhood Man 2002 Barrio 13years LaPedrera
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

NICOCO FG2p7 (A)in AdultwomanBarrio Neighbourhood Woman 1960 Barrio 10years Oyacá
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

Deicy FG2p8 (A)in AdultwomanBarrio Neighbourhood Woman 1989 Barrio 10years LaPedrera
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera


59

 MAÑARU FG2p9 (A)in AdultwomanBarrio Neighbourhood Woman 1963 Barrio 13years Guacayá
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

KOÑEMA FG2p10 (A)in AdultwomanBarrio Neighbourhood Woman 1961 Barrio 11years Guacayá
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

Yuber FG2p11 (A)in AdultwomanBarrio Neighbourhood Woman 1986 Barrio 9years Mirití
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

Dina FG2p12 (A)in AdultwomanBarrio Neighbourhood Woman 1993 Barrio 10years Mirití
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

KECHARU FG2p13 (A)in AdultwomanBarrio Neighbourhood Woman 1946 Barrio 35years Mirití
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

KEYACANARU FG3p14 (A)in AdultwomanBarrio Neighbourhood Woman 1999 Barrio 10years Mirití
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

Ana FG3p15 (A)in YoungwomanBarrio Neighbourhood Woman 2002 Barrio 14years Limuero
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La (Brazil)
Pedrera

KUACO FG3p16 (A)in YoungwomanBarrio Neighbourhood Woman 2000 Barrio 5weeks LaPlaya
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

BARifaico FG3p17 (A)in YoungwomanBarrio Neighbourhood Woman 2002 Barrio 11years LaPlaya
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

KU´URi FG3p18 (A)in YoungwomanBarrio Neighbourhood Woman 2001 Barrio 11years LaPlaya
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

JARIMAKARU FG3p19 (A)in YoungwomanBarrio Neighbourhood Woman 2009 Barrio 6weeks LaPlaya
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

KAÑAWiRU FG4p20 (A)in AdultmanBarrio Neighbourhood Man 1984 Barrio 6years Mirití
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

GUSMA FG4p21 (A)in AdultmanBarrio President Man 1958 Barrio 16years Mirití
Nuevo Neighbourhood Nuevo,La
council Pedrera

ALAuma FG4p22 (A)in AdultmanBarrio Maloquero Man 1949 Barrio 25years Mirití
Nuevo Nuevo,La
Pedrera


60

 WeñiRA FG4p23 (A)in AdultmanBarrio ViceͲpresident Man 1954 Barrio 6years Guacayá,
Nuevo Neighbourhood Nuevo,La Apaporis
council Pedrera

KAÑAWiRU FG4p24 (A)in AdultmanBarrio Neighbourhood Man 1944 Barrio 35years Mirití
Nuevo Councilmember Nuevo,La
Pedrera

Luciana FG5p25 (A)in YoungwomanHigh InstituciónEducativa Woman 2004 Barrio 11years LaPedrera
SchoolStudent SanJosé Nuevo,La
Pedrera

Helena FG5p26 (A)in YoungwomanHigh InstituciónEducativa Woman 2002 Centro 7years Centro
SchoolStudent SanJosé Providencia Providencia

Yurley FG5p27 (A)in YoungwomanHigh InstituciónEducativa Woman 2003 LaPedrera 12years LaPedrera
SchoolStudent SanJosé

Yolima FG5p28 (A)in YoungwomanHigh InstituciónEducativa Woman 2003 LaPedrera 2 Vista

SchoolStudent SanJosé months hermosa

LuisaAndrea FG5p29 (A)in YoungwomanHigh InstituciónEducativa Woman 2002 LaPedrera 2years Puerto
SchoolStudent SanJosé Córdoba

Andrea FG5p30 (A)in YoungwomanHigh InstituciónEducativa Woman 1999 LaPedrera 15years LaPedrera
SchoolStudent SanJosé

Tamara FG5p31 (A)in YoungwomanHigh InstituciónEducativa Woman 2001 LaPedrera 13years LaPedrera
SchoolStudent SanJosé

KÓQUeru FG5p32 (A)in YoungwomanHigh InstituciónEducativa Woman 2000 Vereda years LaPedrera
SchoolStudent SanJosé

BryanStiven FG6p33 (A)in YoungmanHigh InstituciónEducativa Man 1999 LaPedrera 4years Leticia
SchoolStudent SanJosé

Leandro FG6p34 (A)in YoungmanHigh InstituciónEducativa Man 2003 LaPedrera 12years LaPedrera
SchoolStudent SanJosé

John FG6p35 (A)in YoungmanHigh InstituciónEducativa Man 2003 LaPedrera 13years LaPedrera
Anderson SchoolStudent SanJosé

Fabián FG6p36 (A)in YoungmanHigh InstituciónEducativa Man 2001 LaPedrera 11years LaPedrera
SchoolStudent SanJosé

Gilberto FG6p37 (A)in YoungmanHigh InstituciónEducativa Man 2004 LaPedrera 4years Araracuara
SchoolStudent SanJosé

LuizAngel FG6p38 (A)in YoungmanHigh InstituciónEducativa Man 1996 LaPedrera 17years LaPedrera
SchoolStudent SanJosé

Wilmer FG6p39 (A)in YoungmanHigh InstituciónEducativa Man 1999 LaPedrera 15years 0

SchoolStudent SanJosé

Nicolás FG6p40 (A)in YoungmanHigh InstituciónEducativa Man 1999 Camaritagua 5 LaPedrera

SchoolStudent SanJosé months

AM Ip41(PAM1) (A)ex ManArtisanalMiner N/A Man 1948 LaPedrera 30years Cali


61

 ManLawyerworking Independent/advisor
withindigenous inYaigojéIndigenous
Juan Ip42(PG3) (A)ex Man 1964 Bogotá 26years Bogotá
communitiessince Resguardcaseagainst
1990s Cosigo

Javier Ip43(PMil1) (A)ex ManMilitaryBase ColombianMilitary Man 1989 LaPedrera 2years Boyacá
Commander Forces

Germán Ip44(PNG1) (A)ex ManBiologistNGO ACT Man 1974 Armenia 23years Bogotá
Consultant

Carlos Ip45(PEdu1) (A)ex Man Man 1944 Leticia 20years Socorro

Limnologist/Professor DirectorofInnovation
workingwiththe &TechnologySENA
regionalgovernment

Womanschool
PrimarySchool
Teacherandleaderof
Adriana Ip46(PEdu2) (A)ex Bartoloméde Woman 1970 LaPedrera 13years 0
thelocalwomen’s
Igualada
organisation

Castellanos Inp47 (A)ex WomanRegional RegionalDirectorPNN Woman 1964 Bogotá 30years Bogotá
DirectorPNN

MuñozSosa Inp48 (A)ex ManParkYaigojé ParkYaigojéDirector Man 1963 Bogotá 30years Bogotá
DirectorPNN PNN

Alfonso Inp49 (A)ex ManParkPuré ParkPuréDirector Man 1970 Leticia 15years Bogotá
Segura DirectorPNN PNN

Tucano Inp50 (A)in ManOperatorPNN OperatorPNN Man 1975 LaPedrera 40years Mirití

Lancheros Inp51 (A)ex Woman Biologistconsultant Woman 1984 LaPedrera 2years Bogotá
Neva Corpoamazonía

Cardona Inp52 (A)ex Woman Developmentand Woman 1985 LaPedrera 3years Manizales
Ospina Environment
ConsultantCI

Palacios Inp53 (A)ex ManSocialSciences SocialSciences Man 1967 Bogotá 13years Bogotá
ConsultantCI ConsultantCI

Arévalo Inp54 (A)ex Womanvisiting Biologistandvisiting Woman 1986 Bogotá 2w Bogotá
Gonzáles researcherbiological researcherbiological
monitoringCI monitoringCI

Rey Inp55 (A)ex Womanleading Primatologistand Woman 1989 LaPedrera 2years Bogotá
Goyeneche researcherbiological leadingresearcher
monitoringCI biologicalmonitoring
CI

Danna Inp56 (A)ex Woman Visitingresearcher Woman 1987 Sweden 2 Medellin

Sustainability withCI months
Scientistcandidate
LUMES



62

Coding
FGp:FocusGroupparticipant
Ip:Interviewparticipant
Inp:Informalparticipant


 


63

Annexe4:Consentform
CONSENTIMIENTOPARAPARTICIPARENPROYECTODEINVESTIGACIÓN
“ConstruyendoescenariosenelAmazonas:PeriododepostͲacuerdoenColombiaysus
implicacionesparalaBiodiversidad”

Introducción

Estimadoparticipante,minombreesDannaVilladaOrozco,soyestudiantedelamaestríaenEstudios
Ambientales y Ciencias de la Sostenibilidad en la Universidad de Lund, Suecia. Actualmente me
encuentrollevandoacabounainvestigacióncomorequisitodegrado.Lainvestigacióntienecomofin
crear escenarios de los probables desarrollos que se pueden presentar en el casco urbano de la
Pedrera,lasreservasforestales,y/olosParquesNacionalesNaturalesubicadosenelDepartamento
delAmazonas.Específicamente,seanalizaránlasimplicacionesdelosescenariosprobablesparala
biodiversidad, particularmente en el período posterior al acuerdo de Paz. Estos escenarios serán
generadosatravésdegruposfocalesconactoresclaves.

Porfavortómeseeltiemponecesarioparaestudiarelcontenidodeestedocumentoantesdedecidir
si va a participar. Igualmente le invitamos a discutir el estudio con sus familiares o amigos, o con
cualquier otra persona con quien desee hablar sobre el tema. La decisión de participar, o de no
hacerlo,dependecompletamentedeusted.Acontinuaciónsepresentalainformaciónnecesariapara
tomarladecisióndeparticiparvoluntariamente:

Siustedaccedeaparticiparenesteestudio,seesperaqueparticipeenunaentrevistaindividualoen
ungrupofocal.Estasdosactividadespuedenincluirregistrosaudiovisuales.Laentrevistatendrá
unaduraciónaproximadade20a30minutos,mientrasqueeltiempoestimadodelgrupofocales
aproximadamente2horas.
Durante la entrevista o el grupo focal se le preguntará sobre sus percepciones acerca de las
oportunidadesyamenazasparalabiodiversidadqueustedpuedeidentificardesdesuexperiencia
personalolaboral,enelterritoriodelAmazonas.
El resultado final del proyecto de investigación será compartido con usted al final del proceso vía
correoelectrónico,ylatesisresultanteserápropiedadintelectualconderechosreservadosdela
investigadora.
Losresultadosdelestudiopropuestotendránlafinalidadprincipaldeentregarsecomotrabajode
tesis, para optar por el título de Magister en Ciencias del programa en Estudios Ambientales y


64

 CienciasdelaSostenibilidad,sinembargo,lainformaciónpodráserutilizadatotaloparcialmente,
entre otros, en publicaciones de revistas, actividades con fines académicos, y/o investigaciones
posteriores.
Suparticipaciónenlainvestigación,yenlasactividadesderivadasdeésta,noimplicaningúnriesgo
para su salud mental y física. Aunque acepte participar en este estudio, usted tiene derecho a
renunciarasuparticipaciónencualquiermomento,sintemoraserpenalizadodemaneraalguna.
Por su participación voluntaria no se generará ningún tipo de compensación económica, como
tampocogenerarácostosparaustedolosdemásparticipantes.
De ser requerido por usted, la participación en este estudio puede mantenerse completamente
anónima y la responsable de la investigación mantendrá su confidencialidad en todos los
documentosrelacionadosconsuparticipación.

Podrá contactar a Danna Villada a través del correo electrónico <ess14dvi@student.lu.se> si tiene
alguna pregunta acerca del estudio. Si desea conocer información adicional sobre el programa de
Maestríaolauniversidad,porfavorcomuníquesealcorreoelectrónicoinfo@lucsus.lu.seoingresea
lapáginawebhttp://www.lumes.lu.se.

ACTA CONSENTIMIENTO INFORMADO 

Yo _____________________________________________________________ identificado con

documento de identidad___________________________________ acepto participar
voluntariamenteenelProyectodeInvestigación“ConstruyendoescenariosenelAmazonas:Periodo
depostͲacuerdoenColombiaysusimplicacionesparalaBiodiversidad”,dirigidoporDannaVillada
Orozco,investigadoraresponsable,estudiantedelprogramadeMaestríaenEstudiosAmbientalesy
CienciasdelaSostenibilidad,acargodelCentrodeEstudiosenSostenibilidadenlaUniversidadde
Lund,Suecia.

Declaro haber sido informada/o de los objetivos y procedimientos del estudio y del tipo de
participación.Enrelaciónaello,aceptoresponderunaentrevista,oparticiparenungrupofocal,y
permitir la generación de material de registro, audios, videos, fotografías, sobre el tema de
escenarios probables de cambios en el territorio del Amazonas y las implicaciones para la
biodiversidad,desdemiconocimiento,experienciasypercepcionespersonalesqueseanpertinentes
paralainvestigación.

Declaro haber sido informada/o de los posibles usos del registro de mis opiniones, del material

65

audiovisula,ydelasrepresentacionesvisualesquesepuedangenerarenelejerciciodelaentrevista
odelgrupofocal,queserviránparaanálisis,oconfinesilustrativosy/oeducativosynocomerciales.

Declarohabersidoinformada/odequemiparticipaciónnoinvolucraningúndañoopeligroparami
saludfísicaomental,queesvoluntariayquepuedonegarmeaparticiparodejardeparticiparen
cualquiermomentosindarexplicacionesorecibirsanciónalguna.
Declarosaberquelainformaciónentregadaseráconfidencialyanónima.Entiendoquelainformación
seráanalizadaporelinvestigadoryquenosepodránidentificarlasrespuestasy


opinionesdecadaparticipantedemodopersonal.


Traslafirmadelpresentedocumentoelparticipante,osurepresentantelegal,recibirácopiadeeste
formato,yeloriginalseráadjuntadoalacarpetadedocumentosrelacionadosconelparticipante
 


66

Annexe5:SemiͲstructuredinterviews
“ConstruyendoescenariosenelAmazonas:PeriododepostͲacuerdoenColombiaysus
implicacionesparalaBiodiversidad”

PreguntasguíaparalasentrevistassemiͲestructuradas:

Población:FuncionariosdeinstitucionesgubernamentalesynoͲgubernamentales

Nota:Libertaddenoresponderalgunapregunta
Nohaypreguntascorrectasoincorrectas,loimportantees

1. Presentaciónpersonal

1. ¿Mepuededarunadescripcióngeneraldeustedydesutrabajo?¿Quéedadtiene?¿Quéestudió?
CuálessuProfesión?Engeneralcuálessonlasfuncionesdesucargo?

1. ¿Cuánto tiempo lleva trabajando en el Amazonas? ¿En qué lugares ha trabajado dentro del
departamento?Cuálessuimpresióngeneralsobreeltrabajoenlazona?

II.Conceptos

1. ¿Quésignificaparaustedelperíodode“postͲacuerdo”?Enquépiensacuandosemencionaeste
período?
2. ¿Quéentiendeustedporbiodiversidad?¿Quérelacióntieneesteconceptoconsutrabajo?

III.Territorio

1. Conquépoblacióntrabaja?¿Quécambiosavistoenelterritoriodurantesusañosdetrabajo?

1. ¿Qué tendencias de desarrollo a podido identificar durante su trabajo?/ ¿Qué diferencias hay
entreelsitioqueencontrócuandollegóaláreayelsitioenelquetrabajahoy?

IV.Escenarios



67

1. Basadoenlastendenciasquehaidentificado,¿Quéseimaginaquevaasucederconelterritorio
enlospróximos15añossisefirmaelacuerdodepaz?¿Quéoportunidadesyamenazaspuede
prever?

1. Situvieralaposibilidaddeinfluirenelfuturo,¿Quédesearíaquesucedieraenelterritoriodel
departamentodelAmazonasenlospróximosaños?

V.PosturaInstitucional

1. Conoceustedlavisióninstitucionalsobreloscambiosquesepretendenenlospróximosaños?Se
lehainformadodealgúnplan,enlainstituciónparalacualtrabaja,quesepretendaimplementar
enelperiododelpostͲacuerdo?

1. ¿¿Cómocreeustedquelainstituciónparalacualtrabajapuedecontribuiracrearelescenario
idealqueustedseimagina?

Población:

I. Presentaciónpersonal

1. ¿Mepuededarunadescripcióngeneraldeusted?¿Quéedadtiene?¿Aquédedicalamayorparte
desutiempo?¿Quéactividadrealizaparasubsistir?

1. ¿Cuántotiempollevaviviendoenestelugar?¿Enquélugareshavividodentrodeldepartamento?
Cuálessuimpresióngeneralsobrelavidaenlazona?

II.Conceptos

1. ¿Quésignificaparaustedelperíodode“postͲacuerdo”?Enquépiensacuandosemencionaeste
período?AescuchadoustedsobreelprocesodelacuerdodePaz?

1. ¿Quéesparaustedlaselva?¿Quéentiendeustedporbiodiversidad?¿Quérelacióntieneeste
conceptoconsutrabajo?



68

III.Territorio

1. Conquépoblacióntrabaja?¿Quécambiosavistoenelterritoriodurantesusañosdetrabajo?

1. ¿Qué tendencias de desarrollo a podido identificar durante su trabajo?/ ¿Qué diferencias hay
entreelsitioqueencontrócuandollegóaláreayelsitioenelquetrabajahoy?

IV.Escenarios

1. Basadoenlastendenciasquehaidentificado,¿Quéseimaginaquevaasucederconelterritorio
enlospróximos15añossisefirmaelacuerdodepaz?

1. Situvieralaposibilidaddeinfluirenelfuturo,¿Quédesearíaquesucedieraenelterritoriodel
departamentodelAmazonasenlospróximosaños?

V.PosturaInstitucional

1. ¿Conoceustedlavisióninstitucionalsobreloscambiosquesepretendenenlospróximosaños?
Se le ha informado de algún plan, en la institución para la cual trabaja, que se pretenda
implementarenelperiododelpostͲacuerdo?

1. ¿Cómocreeustedquelainstituciónparalacualtrabajapuedecontribuiracrearelescenarioideal
queustedseimagina?



Población:PobladoresycomerciantesestablecidosenLaPedrera

I. Presentaciónpersonal

1. ¿Mepuededarunadescripcióngeneraldeusted?¿Quéedadtiene?¿Aquédedicalamayorparte
desutiempo?¿Quéactividadrealizaparasubsistir?

1. ¿Cuántotiempollevaviviendoenestelugar?¿Enquélugareshavividodentrodeldepartamento?


69

 Cuálessuimpresióngeneralsobrelavidaenlazona?

II.Conceptos

1. ¿Quésignificaparaustedelperíodode“postͲacuerdo”?Enquépiensacuandosemencionaeste
período?AescuchadoustedsobreelprocesodelacuerdodePaz?

1. ¿Qué es para usted la selva? ¿Qué entiende usted por biodiversidad? Qué relación tiene este
conceptoconsutrabajo?

Población:Miembrosdeetniasindígenas

I. Presentaciónpersonal

1. ¿Mepuededarunadescripcióngeneraldeusted?¿Quéedadtiene?¿Aquélabordedicalamayor
partedesutiempo?¿Quéactividadrealizaparasubsistir?

1. ¿Cuántotiempollevaviviendoenestelugar?¿Enquélugareshavividodentrodeldepartamento?
Cuálessuimpresióngeneralsobrelavidaenlazona?

II.Conceptos

1. ¿Quésignificaparaustedelperíodode“postͲacuerdo”?Enquépiensacuandosemencionaeste
período?

1. ¿Quéentiendeustedporbiodiversidad?¿Quérelacióntieneesteconceptoconsutrabajo?

III.Territorio

1. ¿Porquésevinoaviviraestazona?¿Aquéetniapertenece?






70

Annexe6:ProtocolforScenarioexercises
Introducción

Este taller fue realizado el 5 de Marzo de 2016, en la comunidad de Barrio Nuevo, La Pedrera,
Amazonas.Esteejerciciodeconstruccióndeescenariosfuediseñadoeimplementadoenelmarcode
lainvestigación“ConstruyendoescenariosenelAmazonas:PeriododepostͲacuerdoenColombiay
susimplicacionesparalaBiodiversidad”,conlaautorizacióndelosmiembrosdelaJuntadeAcción
Comunal, quienes autorizaron a la investigadora Danna Villada para realizar 4 grupos focales con
hombresymujeresquienesquisieranvoluntariamenteparticiparenlainvestigación,bajolacondición
dequelaestudianteapoyaradealgunamaneraelprocesoorganizativodelacomunidad.Esteacuerdo
se cumplió por medio del primer taller, realizado el 27 de febrero, y la entrega de documentos
realizadael16deMarzode2016.Elpresentedocumentofueadaptadodeunaguíaparaconstrucción
deescenariosconcomunidadesenbosquestropicales,estedocumentoesdeaccesopúblicoatravés
deinternetenelsiguientelink:
http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/BCronkleton0601.pdf

Objetivos

I. IdentificarloscambiosquesehandadoenelterritoriodelDepartamentodelAmazonas,más
específicamenteenelcascourbanodeLaPedrera,laszonasdereservaforestalylasáreasde
losParquesNacionalesNaturales.
II. Conocerlaspercepcionesdelosparticipantesacercadeloscambiosprobablesquepueden
darseenelterritorioenlospróximos15años.
III. Crear escenarios futuros de posibles transformaciones que se darán en el territorio,
incluyendounfuturodeseable.

Productos

Entre dos y cuatro escenarios, en forma de narrativas, mapas, modelos, dibujos, dependiendo del
formatodeseado.

Tiempoymateriales

Laprimeraseccióndeltallertieneunaduraciónde1díadetrabajo


71

Marcadores,papel,lapiceros,papelrecicladoenformadetarjetas,cinta.
Unagrabadoradevozyunalibretadeapuntesparaelfacilitador

Participantes
Un/afacilitador/a
Unapersonaquetomelosapuntes
Entre6y8participantes

Presupuesto

Alimentación(Desayunoyalmuerzo)

Concepto Cantidad Costo Total

TOTAL 0



Detalledeactividadesconcadagrupofocal

1sesiónde2horas(actividadesrepartidasen1h45mincon1descansode15min)

PreguntasguíaparalaConstruccióndeescenarios

Paso1:Presentaciónpersonal

Enparejascadaparticipantepresentaasucompañero

1. Nombrecompleto,¿dóndeyenquéañonació?

I. ¿Cuántotiempollevaviviendoenelterritorio?


72

Paso2:Conceptos

Elgruporespondecuálessonsuspercepcionesacercadelossiguientesconceptos

¿Qué significa para ustedes el período de “postͲacuerdo”? ¿En qué piensan cuando se
mencionaelperiododepaz?
¿Quéesparaustedeslaselva?¿Quéentiendenustedesporbiodiversidad?

Paso3:Identificarloscambioenelterritorio

Construirunalíneadeltiempohastahoy,respondiendoalassiguientespreguntas

5.¿Cuálessonloscambiosimportantesquehanvistoenelterritorioenlosúltimos5,10,15,30años?

6.¿Quédiferenciahayentreellugarqueencontraroncuandollegaronyellugardondevivenhoy?
(accesoaalimentos,recursos,agua,bosque,animales,quéhacelagente,transporte,salud,bienestar,
cultura,cantidaddegente)
 
Paso4:Construirunconceptocomúnsobreescenarios
Aunquehayvariasdefinicionesdelapalabra,aloquenosreferimosenesteejerciciosonescenarios
comonarracionesdeloqueloshabitantesseimaginanquevaasucederenelterritorio.Así,paraeste
caso,escenariossonrespuestascreativasalapregunta“¿Quépasaríasi…?”.

Paso5:Crearnarracionesdeposiblesfuturos
EnesteestudioseestáinvestigandolosimpactosparalabiodiversidadenelmarcodelpostͲacuerdo,
detalmaneraquelapreguntadelpaso6seríaentonceslasiguiente:

7.¿Quéseimaginanquevaapasarconelterritorioquehabitanenlospróximos15años,sisefirma
elacuerdodepaz?

8.¿Quévaapasarconlapoblación,lasvíasdeacceso,lacultura,elidioma,elbosque,losanimales?

9.Situvieranlaposibilidaddeinfluirenelfuturo,¿quédesearíanquesucedieraenelterritorio?



73

Paso6:“Oportunidades”vs“Amenazas”

10.Cadagrupoidentifica3oportunidadesy3amenazasquepuedenpreverenelfuturo.

Oportunidades

1.

2.

3.

Amenazas

1.

2.

3.


Taller:Construccióndeescenarios
SegundaSesión


Paso7:Presentaciónydiscusión

2. ¿Lahistoriatienesentido?¿Porquéyporquéno?
3. ¿Quépuntosdelahistoriapuedensercontroladosporlacomunidadycuálesno?
4. ¿Cuálessonalgunasdelasleccionesquesepuedenaprenderdeestahistoria?
5. ¿Cuálessonlospuntosclavequelacomunidadpodríamonitorearparaversiestahistoriaestá
ocurriendorealmente?
6. ¿Cómoseríadiferentelacomunidadencadaunodelosescenarios?¿Quéseríasimilar?

Paso8:Refinarlasnarracionesyanalizarlosimpactos

Introduciruneventosorpresivo

Discutirlosimpactosdelosescenarios

Oportunidades ¿Cómo podemos aprovechar esta oportunidad? ¿Cómo podemos prepararnos para esto?


74

 Amenazas ¿Qué puede hacer la comunidad para prevenir esta amenaza? ¿Si no es posible prevenir esta
amenaza, cómo se pueden mitigar los impactos negativos?



7. ¿Quéaccionespuedentomarlascomunidades?
8. ¿Hayaccionesqueustedespuedentomarparaalcanzarelfuturodeseable,oparamitigaruno
negativo? (Para mitigar los impactos del escenario negativos en mí, mi familia, y mi
comunidad?)

 


75

Annexe7:Codesforinterpretativecontentanalysis

1. Temporalcategories(xaxisindatamatrix)

Iusedthesecategoriestocodethedataaccordingtopastandpresentevents,andwhatpeoplethink
couldhappeninthefuture.ForthepastandpresenttimeframeIusetheExpanded(C)+(D)(P)(S)(I)(R)
scheme.Mysourceforbasiccategoriesdefinitionwas:(Nessetal.,2010).Thefirstadditiontothe
schemewas(C)changes,thatIneededtocreatethebaselinescenario,usingtheterritorialchanges
that participants described. General additions to the basic scheme were time qualifiers (past and
present),alongsideactors’motivesaspossibledrivingcauses.Toexplorethefuture,Idistinguished
between(D)Driverinthepresentand(D)FDrivingForce.

Table6:ExpandedDPSIRTemporalCategories

Timeframe TemporalCategory No. Code Definition SubͲcategories

Name

Past& ChangesandPast 1 (C) Changesintheterritoryperceived

Present trends by participants during the last 15
(Recentpast years. These changes are not
/Remote restrictedtoanyparticularsubject,
past) but to those things they judge
important.
Driver 2 (D) Driversaretheperceivedexternal
or internal causes, or agents’
motivations or drives34, that have
steered movements toward or
away from desired states in the
past or continue to do it in the
present.
Pressure 3 (P) Pressures are the influence or +(P) positive
effectofsomeoneorsomething.In pressure that
relation to the previous category, counterbalances
they can be thought of as negative
consequences of the Drivers, in pressures or
otherwords,theyaretheconcrete drivers
processesoractivitiesthatagents
perform under the influence of a
Driver.Pressurescanbepositiveor
negative, they are positive when
theyhelpachievingadesiredstate,
andarenegativewhentheyresult
inundesirablestates.


34
 Motivations are not included in the original framework, only external and internal forces situated in both Social and
EcologicalSystems.

76

 
State 4 (S) State is the resulting perceived
condition the territory, people or
metaphysicdomains.
Impacts 5 (I) Impact is the negative +(I) is a positive
consequence of a state; it can consequence
entail effects to Humans or nonͲ
Humans alike. As most of the
consequences addressed by
participants were negative the
symbolusedwas(I),inturnthose
positive consequences were
differentiatedwiththe+symbol.

Response 6 (R) Responsesarethereactionstothe
previous phases. They can be
targeted towards addressing any
of the prior categories. They can
aim at avoiding or mitigating the
effectsofanyoftheotherphases,
and can be both lead by actors
affectedornot,orbyinstitutions35
Future DrivingForces 7 (D)F Driving Forces or Drivers into the
(Shortterm/ Future, is what participants
Longterm) perceive as situations, choices,
behaviours or events that could
change the course of a trend,
generally to either improve or
reducetheirperceivedwellͲbeing.
Opportunities 8 (Op) Opportunities are future (Op)Econo
possibilities to improve living Economical
conditions of individuals, families opportunity
or communities, that participants
could imagine for the postͲ
agreementperiod.
Threats 9 (T) Threats are what participants
perceivedasfutureeventsoracts
thatcould represent a physical or
symbolical menace to individuals
orcommunities.Theycouldalsobe
thought of as pressures into the
future.
Uncertainties 10 (U) Uncertainties represent what
participantsexpressedasunknown
to them about current or future
states.Theseunknownissueswere
important as long as they were
thoughttoaffectinsomewaythe


35
Asoutlinedinsection2(TheoreticalFoundation),theoriginalschemefocusesonpolicyͲmaking,thisstressestheroleof
institutions and policyͲmakers in the issuing and application of responses, for instance in the form of taxes, subsidies,
regulations, etc. Nevertheless, as this study focuses on actors in the bases of Hägerstrand nested domains (does who
ultimatelyfolloworrefusetofollownormsanddirectivesissuedbyupperecosystem’smanagementdomains),thestress
hereisplacedonactorsdirectlyaffectedbythesituations.

77

 pictureofparticipants’considered
futures.

Futuredetachedfrom 11 (DF) ThisscenarioiswhereIassembled
knowledge(Dystopian all the descriptions of the
Future) undesirablefutureforparticipants.

BusinessͲasͲusual 12 (BAU) In this scenario I grouped
participant’s description of a
future where things will continue
to be as they currently are, and
nothingwoulddrasticallychange.

Futurereattachedto 13 (UF) This scenario contains what
knowledge(Utopian participantsdescribedwhenasked
future) about what changes they would
like to see in the territory. This
consider future represents
participants’idealfuture.


2. Atemporalcategories(yaxisindatamatrix)

Table7:Atemporalcategories(Naturalandbuiltenvironment,capabilities,andactors)

Atemporal No. Code Definition SubͲcategories SubͲcategory

CategoryName definition
Natural 14 N(A)/(nH) Nature, wilderness, N(A)Nature agents 
environment in general all nonͲ (nH)NonͲHumans
Humansthatarenot
manͲmade.
15 Man built physical —Ͳ —Ͳ
Built
—Ͳ structures and
environment
artefacts.
16 Capabilities What people is able C1Life These are the tenth
todoandtobecome, C2BodilyHealth Central Human
usingtheirsocialand C3BodilyIntegrity Capabilities proposed
political, economic C4 Senses, Imagination, by Martha Nussbaum
freedoms and andThought (2003),basedinSen’s
protection,alongside C5Emotions (1999) Capabilities
Capabilities
freedom of C6PracticalReason approach. See the
opportunity. C7Affiliation definition of each
C8OtherSpecies category in table 8
C9Play below
C10 Control Over One’s
Environment
17 (A)I Actors are mainly (ACT) 
groupsorinstitutions
that participants
Actors mentioned, but who
did not directly
participate in this
researchproject

78

    



Table8:HumanCentralCapabilities


Source:Nussbaum,2003

 


79

Annexe8:Samplesfrominterpretativecontentanalysis
3.1AppliedexpandedDPSIRtoanalysepastandpresenttrends

Table 7 contains aggregated results from Past & present trends identified by participants. I used this
information to create the Baseline scenario, or point of departure for the imagined futures, This is a
summaryofthemostsalienttrendsmentionedbypeoplewhenaskedaboutthechangesthattheyhad
seenintheterritoryofLaPedrera,andbyextensiontotheDepartmentofAmazonas,Colombiaduringthe
last15to30years.Weconstructedrawdatathroughscenarioexerciseswithinternalactors(A)inlivingin
the areas of Forest Reserves and the nonͲmunicipalised area and external actors (A)ex, who had been
workinginLaPedreraortheAmazonasDepartmentforatleast2years.

Table8:Applied(C)+(D)(P)(S)(I)(R)
Atemporal TimeFrame:Past&Present
Categories (Remotepast30years/Recentpast15years/Present:2016)
TemporalCategories
1.Changes(C) 2.Driver(D) 3.Pressure(P) 4.State(S) 5.Impacts(I) 6.Response(R)
Considerable Men are hunting Overhunting and Now it is more Animals are not Now there are
reduction of andoverfishingto overfishing is the difficult to find allowed to institutionsthathelpto
animals and trees sell animals in main reason to see animals like reproduce and are protectanimals(C)+(P)
in PeriͲurban and town (D) lessandlessanimals charapas, peccary, gettingextinct(I)nH (R) and some of them
14.Natural
Forest Reserve (V)economic (P) chachalacas, (A)inM&WYouth vs give economic
environment
areas(C) parrots and Animals are now incentives to people to
macaws. Fish are hidingfromhumans help in conservation
also getting scarce (A)inMAdults efforts(V)economic
(S)
(A)in Many More families There is more Unlike the urban Theforestthatwas People have gather in
changes in migrating to the commercialisation areawherestreets cleared up for the past and they have
infrastructure and area and also the in the urban area, have been buildinghouseswill cleared up roads and
15.Built buildingmaterials influenceofwhite this can be both a asphalted, in the nevergrowback(I) the soccer court in
environment settlersmachinery good and a bad periͲurban area BarrioNuevo(R)
have produced thing+(P)/(P) roadsareinavery
many of these poorcondition(S)
changes(D)
Several changes in Western culture Settlerscamewitha Indigenous people Through the Barrio Nuevo
culture and isseenasthemain verydifferentwayof have been influence of Neighbourhood
customs. cause for culture thinking. Indigenous adopting settlers’ western culture, members decided to
Indigenous loss but at the people could no culture, but they indigenous culture organise evening
communities are sametimeitisthe longer keep the stilldependonthe is increasingly lost meetings to strengthen
16.Capabilities requesting formal way in which samecostumes and forest and (I) culture (R).Indigenous
education and young people can customs(P) traditional ways of communities are
access to improved their harvest and interested in
“technical wellͲbeing and hunting to feed strengthening their
knowledge”(C) help their families their families. (S) culture(R)
(D) (V)NoͲeconomic
Familieshavebeen Gold mining is a Miners throw the There is increased Mercury passes Official armed actors
migrating from good business for mercury used to pollution in water through the food (The military) has
remote areas to the external extractgoldintothe streams. NonͲ web.Peoplecanget bombardedtheminer´s
have access to actors who come river(P) humanandhuman deformities due to balsas*(R)
education. Miners toextractit.These contamination an excess in
are mainly actorsdonotcare withmercury(S) mercury. This is
17.Actors
externalactors(C). about what transmitted from
V)economic happens to locals, one generation to
they only mind thenext(I)
about what they
canextract(D)
V)economic


 


80

 Annexe9:CoͲrelationbetweenparticipants’perceptionsandthepostͲagreementperiod

Therewerefourdegreesofawarenessamongparticipantsaboutthepeacenegotiationsbetweenthe
ColombiangovernmentandtheFARC(Figure10).Thesedegreesofawarenesswere:(a)Participants
whoopenlysaidtheyhadneverheardanythingaboutthepeaceagreement,butmentionedgeneral
thingsliketheneedtorespectthetermsofthemutualaccordifpeaceistobemaintained:FG2Adult
women&FG3ͲYoungwomeninBarrioNuevo;(b)Thosewhomentionedgeneralthingsaboutthe
armedconflict,andelaboratedonthepossibilityforimprovingtheirlivingconditionsifthereispeace:
FG1ͲYoungmen&FG4ͲAdultmeninBarrioNuevo;(c)onepersonwhowasacquaintedwiththeperiod
andcouldtalkaboutsomethreatsandsomeopportunitiesitcouldposeforpeoplelivinginthearea
(Ip46ͲWomanschoolTeacherandleaderofthelocalwomen’sorganisation);and(d)Thosewhohad
a high level of awareness, meaning that they were not only able to identify the “postͲagreement
period”withthecurrentnegotiationsbetweentheColombianGovernmentandtheFARC,butthey
could also discuss about the territorial, economic or social possible implications of it, at a local,
regionalornationalscale.Thisgroupincludesalltheremainingparticipants:FG5ͲYoungwomen(High
SchoolStudents),FG6ͲYoungmen(HighSchoolStudents),andallofthe(A)exͲinterviewees,both
formalandinformal,exceptforthewomen’sorganisationleader.Evenwhensomeparticipantshada
poorlevelofawarenessaboutthepeaceagreementprocess,theyallrelatedfuturethreatstothe

Figure10:DegreesofawarenessaboutthepostͲagreementperiod
ThisgraphshowsthefourdegreesofawarenessaboutthepeaceagreementamongparticipantsfromFocus
Groups, formal and informal interviews. Focus Groups are taken here as a unity. Awareness of the peace
agreement was varied within the Focus Groups. Nevertheless, group discussions helped to level out those
informationalbasediscrepancies,thereforefocusgroupsaretakenasaunity.


81

commodificationoftheforest,whichtheyrelatedtotheincursionofwhiteswiththeirmachineryinto
the area, and those with higher levels of awareness about the peace process named
“commercialisation”,and“mercantilisation”.Giventhat43participantsoutof56(77%),hadbetween
fairandverygoodawarenessofthepeacenegotiations,participants’futurescenariosarecorrelated
withtheirperceptionsabouttheeffectsthatthepeaceagreementcanproduceintheterritory.


82