DUONG QU66 VIET (cha; bin) - BAM VAN NHi GIAO TRINH DAI SO So CAP (In lan thi ba) NHA XUAT BAN BAI HOC SU PHAMG2 UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION PUBLISHING HOUSE GIAO TRINH BAl SO SOCKP ‘Duarg Quée Vig (Chi bn ~ Bim Van Nhl ‘ich duge xu dn theo ch dg bid sogn cia Trung 89 bg Su pharm HS Nel ‘hye wactng te do 0 in quyén xudt bin thude vé hd xust bin Bal hoc Su pha, Methinh thie sao chép tobab hey mot chin hoSecéc inh thas phat inh ima king cy cho phép tude Bing vin bin ‘a Nha xudtbin Dal hoe Su phar dua vipham phap lust, Chung thin rong musa abn dase nna tity déing ap cay) ¥ abe G8 6 sdchv ng cang hod thign hon Me gj sch a vein thd va dlch wy bn quyén ‘in vulling gitvé diac email kehooch@nxbapeduyn (Ms s8 sich teu chugn quac t@: SBN 978-604-54-2137-6 EdTrang oda cnwond 1. MOT VAINGUYEN Lico BAN. §4. Nguyén If Dirichlet. $2. Nauyén Icy tr rdi rac. $3. Nguyén Ifxuéng thang... $4. Cac nguyén If co ban cho ede bai todn dé. §6. Nhin van 48 theo quan diém cuc tr chuong 2. NHUNG VAN bé so CAP vE DAy sé. $1. Nhing téng hu han khéng thé bidu din due qua cac ham dai sé §2, Mét vai loai day truy héi se §3. Cac phurong php xéc dinh ede téng haw han. §4. Phuang php sit dung ham sinh Chuong 3. MOT VAI TRONG DIEM VE GIAI TicH TRONG CHUONG TRINH PHO THONG. §1. Cac bai toan vé tigp tuyén.. §2, Cc Ging dung cita dinh If gid te trung binh §3. Céc phutang phap tim gid tri lén nhat va gid ti nhd nhat. Chuang 4. DONG NHAT THUG VA BAT BANG THUG §1. Mot s6 déng nhét théte of din... §2. Mét s6 phuong phap chéng minh bat ding thae §3. Ham I6i va bat dang thtte Jensen... 106 125A aks iN Chuong 5. PHUONG TRINH VA BAT PHUONG TRI §1. Nhing khai nigm oo ban. $2. Nhtng dang phyong trinh ed ban. §3. Bat phuong trinh va hé bat phuong trinh §4. Két thite va biat thite Tai ligu tham khdo.M6 DAU SINT ER ERNIE pe coca sms Giao trinh trinh bay mat 1 yjcho sinh vin Khoa Tos — chuyén 48 d6 g6m 2 logi: Loai a oat cée chuyén dé vé Dai sé $0 cfp cin trang Tin, Trudng Dai hoc Su pham Ha Ndi. Cac hi sit dung c&c nguyén li co ban ma rét thiéu wns va mai séc nhiig cong cu manh dé ‘u nham gép phan nfng cao nang lic gidi toan dang chuéin bi lam thay 4 bac ‘Trung hoe. Khac vdi céc sch vé Dai s6 So cp néi chung, m(t hé théng mé eae bai giang mang tinh chuyén Q iii quyét hang loat. Tat oA dé phé théng cho nhting sinh vién ndi dung eda gido trinh 1 i. Cc yéu cfu cha méi bai ging mang tinh huéng nghiép cao. Thai dé tich eve etta ngudi hoc 1a phai biét phat trién va sng téc ra cdc bai tap hay, theo ting chi dé, m6t Ki nang rét cin cho vige lam thay cita ho sau nay. Trong phdn tap Iuyén theo tiing chi 4é, giao trinh déi hdi cdc sinh vién phai tu suu tim va dac biét lA phai ty dé ra duge c&c bai tap phuc vu cho titng cha dé. Nhiing bai todn so céip san sinh tif todin hoe dich thue quyét khong phai lisin phém due nguy tao béi di tha “mii”, tiy cde qué trinh nhao nan, xa la véi ban ch&t sang tao khoa hoc. That chua én, dau d6 quanh ta cdn c6 ngudi do higu sai hode nén néng chuyén huéng nghiép, ma da thudng o6 tim hoiie ty tgo ra cai “mui vi Ay” ngay ca khi tiép cfn vi nhting If thuyét toan hoc hién dai, nhiing thanh qua quan trong nhét cia lo&i ngudi, nhiing mén hoo 6 stic i tgo thé gidi quan va phat trién tu duy cao. Nhiing vin dé vé toan so céip thei IA nhiing vin dé rét co ban va gan giti véi adi sOng thie. Thong qua ite gidi hode dé xudt ra cdc bai toén so cdip, ngudi lam dit é trink €9 han ché ting van c6 diéu kign phat trién tu duy. Vi th€ n6 a mot minh dat tot as ren lyn tu duy ton hoc cho hge sinh phé théng. Tuy nhién chring ta ae vat bidt ‘91b8 nhimng bai tp toén kiéu “meo déi ae oat dog Big ee er Tn Qué ing cdnh nude nha nguy cp 04 hodng bay th byrten outee cd bee Khong thé ding lam muu huge nba bink? . Bat data : bi ‘4 Todn hoc néi riéng, von d& ludn "éxh mong eda khoa hoe néi chung ¥Gi buténg vé dai dus, nhiing théch thie mudn thud eda loai ngudi. Cae ben _ ht ta eis tied . %, ma bigt ran Tuygn cho hye txd ctia mink nbing PRATT Ne tuong lai, ding chi bist “1am xiéo” trong nhag “a0 UO". 1 cting ki ning “ tigu cia gio trinh 1a giip cho ngudi hoe ¢6 thém ban Tinh, © j va sing tac cfc bai tap toain e6 ¥ nghia. Ni dung gido trinh gém nam chung: Chuong 1. Mét vai nguyén If co ban. Dé 10 ode nguyen Ii sau: vo Dirichlet; Nguyén If cue tri rai rgc; Nguyén Ii.xudng thangs Cée nguyen It 69 bay cho cde bai toan dém; Nhin véin dé theo quan diém cuc tri. Chuong 2. Nhing vin dé so cdp vé day 86: Bao gm che van ive Sau Nhung téng hitu han khéng thé biéu dién duge qua ede ham dai s6; Mot vai loai day truy héi; Cae phuting phap xdc dinh day 66 va'eéc téng hitu hen, Phuong phap sit dung ham sinb. Chutong 3. Mét vai trong diém vd Gidi tich trong chuong trink phd’ thong Chuong nay trinh bay cae ndi dung: Céc bai toan vé tiép tuydn; Céc tng dung cita dink Ii gid tri trung binh; Cac phuong phép tim gid tri lén nhatt va gid bf nhé nbét. Chuong 4. Dong nhat thite va. bét déng thite. Noi dung gém cde van dé sau: Mot s& déng nhat thtte cd dién; Céc phuong ph4p ching minh bat ding thite; Ham Idi va b&t dng thite Jensen. Chuong 5. Phuong trinh vd bat phitong trink. Thong qua cée bai sau: Nhiing khai niém cd ban; Nhiing dang phudng trinh co ban; B&t phuong trinh va hé bat phugng trinh; Két thite va biét thie. C6 thé néi ndi dung cia méi chuyén dé chi 1A mét khtic dao d&u c6 tinh djnh hung. Viée mS mang lam cho cde phuong php va cac loai bai tap them phong phi va da dang 18 vige cin 1am cia mi ngudi hoc. Can nhéin manh ring, chiing t6i khéng hé muh dua ra huéng din Idi gidi cdc bai tap, cling nhu ¢6 mot gido trinh bai tap tuong tng, béi didu d6 sé khong gitip ich gi cho cdc ban, Cai ma goi la Toan sd cap, kién thtte If thuyét thudng don gian, cén¢ cu thudng thé sd. Lao dng giau “tiéu xdo” dy mudn thanh thao chi c6 thé tu lam ma théi, ¢6 chéing chi nén xem qua lam mAu d6i lan. Nhat a lai 6 trinh dé 6pint cfc ban, nhiing sinh vien nam cudi chudn bi tot nghiép, hoc mén nay gang 1 mOn h6c k6t thio, Cac tac gid chan thanh cim on GS.TSKH. Lé Mau Hai va én HA 9. New’ ic Hai di doc ban thio va déng gép nhiing § kin bé ich cho quén sch. Cui cing ching téi mong muén cdc bai gidng nén duge té chte duéi dang jc budi seminar, ma ging vign 1a ngubi inh huténg va dig hah t3 chite. Nh6m téc gia sach phn céng bién soan nhu sau: PGS.TS. Duong Quée Viét cha bién va viét cée chung 1; 2; 3. TS. Dam Van Nhi viét Chuong 4 va Chuzng 5. Cae tac gidChuong f wiseenacston CO BAN NGUYEN MON Vv Chiing ta khong tramh khéi phi a6 mpt voi nhiing, bit tofin nguyen 84, sping 464 twdng con chita chju sy chi phot edn ning If thuyét én. Troms hang tinh huGne d6, che nguydn If phd bién 68 trd Uhinh extu efinh. Bidt sti dung, Hin hoat cite nguyen 16 96 1 mot Igi the, gitip nhin Abin v i quyél hid bal toAn mot ; nguyen Ii hinge fich higu qua. Ngodi nguydn If phiin quy ADs fing LOi khong a6 cfip Adin wang, fe ban di qué quen thude, 6 diy ay rin bay mOt 66 nguydn If ma nhitug img dung cla ching chlet; Nguyen li eve i ban eho cde bai tone ¢ yhé tinh (2, D6 IA che nguyen If sau! Nguyen li Dir j roi rac; Nguyén li xudng thang; Céc nguyén li toin dém; Nhin véin dé theo quan diém >j. Nam bai ging kign khai thée va phat tridn ching, Ching téi cho ring, due inh bay trong chuong efin phii duge ngim vio “mau” cée sink vidn ‘ion cdng sdm cing tt. Thong qua hd théng noi dung cia chutong, ching toi mnudn tao Ip mOt san thp nhd, nhim gitip ede ban sinh vién c6 duge mot s Ki néing stt dung cae nhanh nhay eiia cae ban trong gidi tofin sd efip. Chuing t6i cde ban 86 sang the duge nhidu aé toan hay, mot ki nding rat céin thidl qua Lrinh day hoe sau nay cha che ban. Ciing giéng nhu moi nguyén If trong: lai ong Ai dutge ede bic thank hién dic két, tuy rift don gin, nhung stt ng nh thé nho, thi tht kh6 biét bao! Cang ein nhian manh ring, its c6 duge céc thuft toan sit dung cae nguyén If, vi dé a mot trd ngai 1én nguyen If nay. Nhén d6 g6p phin thie dy thém sy cing hi vong ring, i cho dung cling ta khong bao g la nhitng diéu khong thé lam duge, Tu duy may méc guyén If, Ding nguyén i khi ndo va vao ché nao, ‘A lil Nhiing ngu¥i di trude chi 6 thé aé Iai ong vide sit dung che n clu hdi 6 mdi ngudi hay ty tr cho ban mt chit kin nghigm, gitp ban tiép ein nhanh han, Cae bai gidng tin chutang ehi 1A nhitng “edi beh” ban du, ehée chin n6 sé duge ofc bom tinh vidn phit tridn, sfu va rong hon nhidu.§1. NGUYEN Li DIRICHLET . Di Nha tofn hoe néi ting ngudi Die Piter Gutstav ae 7 “rishi (1805 — 1859), mét hoc trd lin eda thién tai Friedrich Gause ar - es than thoai, da phat biéu “Nguyén If ofe Hop hay Ngtn kéo de Newtek ‘9p chita ken + 1 vét, thi mét trong ode hép chita it nhdt n+ 1 ude. pee oy 80 nguyén If nay 1a “Nguyén If Léng va Thé", ma dang don gian nhat dug phat bigu la: Khong thé nhdt 5 chi thé vdo 2 chide ling, sao cho trong mdi ling c6 Bhong qué 2 chti. Cai kch6 sit dung ctia nguyén If nay 1 4 ché phi nha, biét hose ty sing tao ra “léng” va “thd”. 11, Nguyén li Dirichlet voi cudc song quanh ta Phat biéu 1. 86 ngudi nhiéu hon o@ ghé, &t tén tai ngudi khong dude ngéi, Phat biéu 2. Binh nhé nude nhiéa, ft phai trio. Phat biéu 3. Ban tay phi Mat Trdi, dt 06 bi hé. Phat biéu 4. Trong 100 ngudi sé cé it nhét 9 ngudi sinh cing thang. Phat bidu 5. Lép hoc 6 60 ngudi ma diém kiém tra chi cho diém chin, thi sé 6 ft nhat 5 ngudi cé sé diém ngang nhau. Pht biéu 6. Trong 1000 ngudi sé c6 it nhat 8 ngudi cing sinh nhat. Phat biéu 7. C6 8 loai hoc béng khée nhau, vi vay dé chée chén 6 10 hoc sinh nhan hoc béng cing loai, thi sohoc sinh duge nhan hoe béng ft nhét 9 gc bong phai 1a 21. Phat biéu 8. Vi trén du méi ngudi c6 khéng qué 100.000 agi tée, nén it nat 800 cng dan Viet Nam cé s& sgi téc trén du ngang nhau. Bai tap 1. Hay thi ue lugng xem Vigt Nam 06 ft nhat bao nhiéu ngudi cing: sink nh@t; cling tudi va cling sinh nhat; cing tudi, eang thing vi coy nhét; cing gid, ngay, thang va nam sinh? 2, Ty dé xudit ede tinh hudng trong ddi song, qua g6c nhin cita nguyén If Dirichlet, 1012. Nbiing bai todn khi gidi phai nhan ra “long? Ban luén nhé rin, : ®, nh€n ra “léng” hoie “thd” Ja diém méfu chat 4 ‘5 a a" Ia aid, c vige s# dung nguyén If Dirichlet, : iii ‘Ta bat dau van 46 tt tinh hudng sau: Vi du 1. Neui ‘are @ BuO} ta tung ngdu nhién mol lugng nhiéu hen 200 vidn adi at dd ae vio ” a ibe nent Ying ¢6 dign tich 1a, Ching minh rang bao gid cing ‘én 7 7 ‘ole thang hang, hoe lap thanh 3 dinh cia mot tam gide 66 aign Ufch khong vugt qué mot nita mét vudng, Gidi: Ta chia dam dat thanh.100 6 vudng bang nhau, bdi cic dudng song son x ole canh hinh vudng. Vi s6'vién sdi nhidu hdn 200, nén &t c6 ba vien 4B: G thude cang mt 8 vudng. Néu A; B; C lchOng thang hang, thi ching lap thank mie fai gi4¢ nam trong mgt hinh vudng ¢6 canh dai Im. Do 46 dign tich ca né Khéng vugt qua mot nita mét vudng. Trong 18i gidi may, ngudi ta da phai s4ng tao ra 100 chide Jéng, a6 chfnh 14 100 6 vudng trong dam dat da cho. Vi du 2. V6i n 1a mét sf nguyén duang cho truée, chéing minh ring trong n+ 1 sd nguyén tuy ¥, luén tén tai hai sée6 higu chia hét cho n. Gidi: Nhan xét rang, ede 86 du 06 duge khi mang chia n + 1 s6 nguyén cho n, chi c6 thé 14 0, 1, 2, .... n= 1. Vi vay, i s6 khi chia cho n nhan dutge cling mot sé du. Do dé higu cda hai chon. $6 léng ma ta cAn nhan ra trong ldi giai nay chfmh 1a n. Vi du 3. Ngudi ta son den mot sé cung cha dudng trdn véi ting d6 dai che cung 46 bé hon nifa vong tron, Ching minh ring tén tai mot dudng keinh 6 hai dau Ichng bi son den. Gidi: Ta son xanh t6t c& cde cung déi xting vdi cde cung da bi sdn den cla dudng tron. TY gia thiét ta suy ra, téng dé dai cia t&t c& cde cung da bi tin bé hon a6 dai dudng brn, Do 46 tén tai mot diém chuta bi son, va dying kinh qua diém nay chinh 1a dung kénh ofn tim Lai gidi nay dA phai tao ra léng c6 stte chtta khéng hét s6 thé. Vay phai 6 thé & ngoai léng. Vi du 4. Choa, b, ¢, d,¢, fg, h, k la efe hang s6 thige khéc 0, edn x; y la the big, dat Azax +by +o; B= dx tey+fC=exthy+ k. Ching minh ting tim h@ sau sé c6 ft nhat mOt he v6 nghiém: 1B20 A>0 ‘A >0 Amd 70 Bso, {p>o, {Bo c0 C0 Gi: Nhgn xét ring, m&i mign nghigm oda mot ho 66 tone ne v6 my mién mé trong mat phang, bi gidi han bdi ba duéng thang 26 phuong trinh = 0. Vi ba dung thang chi phan chia mat phdng t6i da than, 7 mién, cho nén trong tam hé dai cho it o6 ft nhét mét hé vd nghiém. Cie léng khong hién, ching dai hdi ngudi gidi phai ty phat hién. Nguyén Ii Dirichlet cho mét két qua bat ngd va thti vi sau: s Dinh li. Moi day n* + 1 so’ thue phan bigt déu cé mét déy con dai n+] hode thie suf tng hod thuc su giam. Chitng minh: Gia sit a, ag, «. khée nhau, Goi by 1a dé dai ca mét day con thye su tang 6 d9 dai cye dai bit dau tit ay, o 18 d6 dai cita mot day con thue su gidm c6 dO dai oye dai cting bi dau ti a,. Nhu vay, méi so hang a, cha day sé tong ting véi mét cap nguyén dung (b,, ¢,). Ki higu S 1A tap tat cd ede cap vita lap. Bay gid gid st trai lai, khéng c6 mét day con don digu nao ¢6 46 dai n + 1. Khi dé 8 phdn ti cla S khéng vudt qua n*, Nhv vay theo nguyén li Dirichlet, thi At phai c6 ha cap tring nhau, Tite la tdn tai j < k dé (b, ©) = (by, ¢,). Vi a; va a, khée nhav, nén chi cé thé a,> a, hoiic a, < a, Néu a;> a,, thi ta xy dung dude mot day con gidm bat dau tira; ghép vdi day con gidm c6 dé dai o, bat dau te a, da tén tai tiv ddu, va ta duge day gidm e6 d9 dai ¢, + 1. Duong nhién q + 1 < ¢= 4 ta gap phai mau thudn! Lap ludn tuong ty a;< a, ciing giip mau thudn, Ts nhan duge chitng minh. # 1a mét day n? + 1 s6 thyc d6i mi 1 6 Bai tap 1, Trong mat phang, cho mot ngii giée 16; ABCDE. Nguai ta tinh tién ngt gidc nay theo cde vecto ¢6 cling diém dau A, cin diém cudi la B; C; D; E Két qua la ta duge 4 ngit giée méi. Ching minh 4 nga gide nay anny ng’ Bide da cho, thé nao ciing c6 2 ngit gide c6 mién chung véi dign tich dutong 2%. Ching minh ring trong 52 sé ty nhién cho tr ut6c, udn chon ra duge 2 86, cé téng hose higu chia hét cho 100. gy, Trong mot hinh vuéng c6 canh Im Idy ra 51 diém tuy y. Chttng minh rang t6n tai 3 diém n&m trong mét hinh trin o6 ban kinh bé hon im, 4 ae minh ring trong m@t danh sch gm 5 hoe sinh véi sé diém téng két déi mt khéc nhau, tinh tiv trén xudng Iuén tdn tai 3 ngudi cé sh diém tang, hofc giam dan. 5. ‘Ching minh ring tix mét day vé han cde s thy ting déi mot khée nhau, Iuén trich ra duige mot! day con don didu ting hoje gidm ¢6 86 lugng phéin tit tuy y. 6, Hay sang tac ra 10 bai todn c6 noi dung khée nhau, Ichi gidi phai sing tgo ra “ldng” 1.3, Nhiing bai toan khi giai phdi nhan ra ca “thé” va “léng” Cai kh6 sit dung cia nguyén If nay 18d ché che yéu U6 “léng” va “thé” thudng bj che khuét, ching ddi hdi ngudi gidi phai tu phat bign. Vi du 1. Chting minh ring luén tén tai mét sé nguyén duong n, khong vudt qué 2006, dé 2" — 1 chia hét cho 2007. Gidi: Xét day a, = 2', i= 1, 2, ..., 2007. Nhan thay ring cdc 6 trong diy déu khong chia hét cho 2007. Vi i vay, khi mang eéc s6' nay chia cho 2007 Uhi che 66 dul cha né chi nd trong tap gdm 2006 sé (1, 2, ..., 2006}. Bai 6 2007 86, nén &t phai c6 hai s@'a, > a, khi chia cho 2007 nhan cing s6 du. Dat n= t—b, kai a6 n < 2007 va a, — a = a4(2” ~ 1) chia hét cho 2007. Vi a, nguyén 66 v6i 2007, nén (2"— 1) chia hét cho 2007. Mu chét JA ta phai tao ra 2007 thé a= 2,i= 1,2, .., 2006}. Vi du 2, Chitng minh ring trong n + 1 s6 nguyén duong khéng vugt qué 2n, bao gid cing t6n tai hai s6 sao cho sf ndy 1a b6i eta 96 iia (Bai toiin cha P. Erdos, 1913 - 1994). Gidi: Goi cée 88 48 cho 18 ay ax Bae Bay gid ta phén tich cfc 86. nay § dang tiéu chudn: a = 2h b, véi b 1a sO tu nbién 18, i= 1, 2... n+ 1. 2007 va 2006 ling 1,2, 1Bbye Khong vugt qua Nhu vay, ta duige n + 1 96 ty nbién 18 by Ps n 6 18, cho nén tro’ Nhung trong 2n sé nguyén duang dau tién, thi aie han by = by =D. Ki CAC $8 by, Ba, on by dt phai o6 hai sd nhu nhaw, chang ha a= 2b via, = 2", 83 06 mét 66 "6 Day 1A mot bai toan ma khi gidi ta phai nhan Ta 7 ob ndim trong cée 6 Ichéng vugt qua 2n, sfng tgo ran + L“th6” Duy Bas» i Vi dy 8. Neudi ta son tat cd cde canh va ede duvdng chéo cian mot Ine gi, 16i bai hai mau khéc nhau, méi canh hode duting chéo chi duge son mot may Ching minh ring trong dé tén tai mot tam gide o6 ba canh cing mau. . Gidi: Gia sit Iye gide a ABCDEF va 2 mau son 1A xanh v} 5. Trop nam doan AB; AG; AD; AB; AF phai e6 ba camh duige son ching mau, chin han d6 1a AB; AC; AD, va duge son mau dd. Ta xét tip ba dogn BC; CD; By, Néu ba dogn nay e6 mOt doan ditge son mau dé chang han BC, thi tam gig ABC khi 46 duge son cing mau dd (xong!). Néu ba doan BC; CD; BD khéng y doan nao son mau 48, thi né phai duge son ton mau xanh. Khi dé tam giie BCD duge son mau xanb. Ching minh da xong! ng”, 46 18 n ogy voy Dawe Bai tap 1. Ching minh ring tén tai mét lug thite cila so 29 tan cing bang cae chi 8600001 Ching minh rang tén tai s6 6 dang 20062006...2006 chia hét cho 2007, 3. Ngudi ta viét n sé tu nhién (n> 1) bat ki vao mét hang a,, a4, ..., a, Chimg minh rang, bao gid cing tén tai mat ss ké nhau theo ding trait ty trén 06 téng chia hét cho n, 4. Ching minh rang trong 100.000.001 8 diiu tién eda day Fibonacei daze xae dinh bai fy= 1, f= 1 va fae =f. +f vOi moin > 0, 8 c6 sd ma t§n cling clia n6 1a bn 800, 5. Ty sang tao ra 10 bai ton e6 ndi dung khée nhau, khi gidi phai sang tao ra cd léng va thé. 14§2. NGUYEN Li CUC TRI ROI RAC Neuyén Heye ‘ri rdi rae duge phat bigu nhu sau: Trong mot tap hitu han va khae rong cae 86 thyc luén: (a) tén tai mét 36° bé nha va: mét s6’lén nha (b) luo ip diige chting theo trGt tu ting hodc gidm. Nguyén lf that don gian, nhung sit van dng etia'né da tha’m séu vio nhiu chting minh ton hgc. 24. Chitng minh sy tén tai ciia cc eta hinh ; Teng thue té, mu6n tach mt cé thé ra khdi mOt dam dong, ngudi ta thud ne P ai dua ¥a mét tiéu chf no d6, lam cho déi tugng cdn tach néi tri nb reo tiéu cht 46. Khi chiing minh cde bai toan su tén tai cha mat cfiu inh es nguyen If cue tri, ngudi ta cdn dat ra mgt quan hé thi tu nao dé, ma cfu hinh néu tén tai sé 1a mét Adi tugng cue tri Xin due bat dau van dé véi bai ton sau day. _ Vidu I. Cho 2n diém phan biét trén mét dudng tron, trong a6 06 n diém wring va n diém den (n> 2), Chitng minh ring lun tén tai: (i) Mét cach nd tit c& cdc didm tring véi cde diém den béi n dogn thang sao cho céc doan thing khéng c6 diém chung. (ii) MGt cach ni t&t ca cde diém tréng véi ede didm den bai n doan thing sao cho cdc doan thang tiing déi mét edt nhau Gidi: Goi $ 1a tap tat cd cde cach ndi tat cd cae diém trang véi cdc diém den bai n doan thang. Duong nhién $ khée ring va hitu han, Theo nguyén Ii cute tri, thi s8 tén tai: mét céch ndi N 06 téng dO dai cae doan néi nhé nh&t; indt cdch néi L 06 téng 46 dai céc dogn néi Idn nat. Ta sé ching minh véi cach néi N, thi ce doan thing khéng c6 diém chung, That vay, gid sti trai lai néu 06 hai diém tréng A; B va hai diém den XY duge néi bai hai doan AX va BY edt nhau tai 1. A 15 eee, BX, cdn cée doan k Khi d6 néu ta thay tuong sg hai don AX v2 By a : ae (AT + 20 + E+, duge git nguyén, thi do AY + BX < AI * m 1G je doan n6i b6 hdn ti, oA BY, nen a duige mt cfc nb Kgs 68 OME” ' she doen néictia N (mmduthudn). Do vayNenod MAPS ga ane Bay gid ta 6@ chting minh tidp xne ve cach idm tréng A; B va ke néi timg doi mot c&t nhau, That vi i a ee edt nhau. Khi dé néy, diém den X; Y duge néi béi hai doan A & cai q . ; AY sé cat BX tai thay tuong ting hai doan AX va BY bai ‘Ay va BX, thi AY sé diém J nao a6. A B x Y d6 ta tao duge mé Vi vay AY + BX = (Ad + JY) + (BU + JX) > AX + BY. Ter n néi cia L (mir cach néi mdi 6 téng céc dogn néi 1én hon tong cdc cae doa thudn!). Do vay L thoa man (ii). Vi du 2. C6 n di bong du véi nhau theo nguyén If d&u ving, tite 1a mi ddi phai ddu voi tat c& c&c adi con lai. Biét rang trong méi tran dau khéng ¢ hoa. Ching minh ring lu6n c6 thé xép thit tu tén ce doi theo mot cOt doc sa cho di diing truée thang ai ditng sau. Gidi: Goi $ 1 tap t&t cd cdc cach xép mt sf 4gi trong n doi trén, the e6t doc sa0 cho d9i ding truvée théing di déng sau, Do § 1a hitu ban va khét réng, cho nén sé tén tai céch xép c6 tén nhiéu ddi nhat. Ta cin chitng mint rang, céch xép nay phai c6 dit tén n d9i. That vay, nu cach xép a6 chi gdm ¢ t p (mau thufn!). , , ” Vi dy 4. Ching mink réng vdi moi s6 nguyén n > 1, thi 2"— 1 khong chia hét cho n. Gidi: Gia sit tn tai sO nguyén n > 1 va 18 ube cita 2” — 1. Khi d6 dong nhign n 18. Goi p 18 ude nguyén t6 nhé nhét cia n, thi p 18. Theo Dinh li Fermat nhé ta cé p chia hét 2°" ~ 1, Bay gid goi k 1A s6 nguyén duong nhéd nhit sao cho p chia hét 2* - 1. Ré rang k < p~1 3). Biét rang méi duéng thing di qua 2 diém b&t ki déu di qua mt diém thit ba. Ching minh rang n diém da cho thang hang (Bai todn Sylvester, 1814 — 1897). 2, ‘Trén mat phing cho n diém (n 2 8), trong dé kh6ng 06 8 diém nao nam trén mot dudng thing. Chting minh ring tdn tai mt duéng tron di qua 3 diém ma khéng chita diém cdn lai ndo bén trong. i lén hen 10 va nhd hon 100, Chimg minh 3. Cho 7 doan thang c6 a6 dai thanh 3 canh cia mét tam gic. ring luén tén tai 3 doan 4. Chimg minh rang ¢6 vo han s6 nguyén t6 06 dang 6n +5. 5. 6.64 ngudi trong mot hoi théo, biét ring moi nguidi déu quen véi st nhat 6 ngudi khac. Ching minh ring tén tai 12 ngudi, dé c6 thé x8p ho quanh mét ban trén, sao cho méi ngudi déu ngéi gitia 2 ngwdi minh quen. 6 ‘Thm 5 bai todn khi gidi duge lap ludn theo nguyén If eye br. 172.2. Tim ewe tri rdi rac vy a kh va rt #hidu ONG eB. Ny, ‘Tim eve tri rdi rge ludn 1a mot van ¢ pj vo hi¢u hod. Sau day chin, stfe manh ciia Giai tich todn hgc hodn todn bj vo De 86 lam quen mot chit véi loai toain nay. sim d22.GiR six, x, Vi dy 1. Cho m va dla céc 66 nguyén ¥ vey if bot ° 4... + ¥4 = m. Tim gid tri nbd y 1A ede bign nguyén duong sao cho x; + %2 + -+ cba S= x7 + xP 4x? sat & hit Gidi: Goi @ 1a tap tat of ofe gié tri cia 8. Ta thay ie N ae Ke Bn. Do d6 theo nguyén If cue ti 22 xa, thi lun tn tat Nk a nhatt eda G. Gid si (ay ay... ai) lam cho S nhan gi a That ore minh ring céc s6 a, as, ..., ay chi hon kém nhau toi aa Ta nat veg sttchang han a,~a, =a > 1. Khi dé ldy b=a,—1;c= a+ 1, thia, +a, =}, va b? +c’ 3 1a mot sO nguyén duong. Gi sit x1, Xp) oy xy la bién nguyén duong sao cho x,%, ... y= m. Tim gid tri lén nhat cha S =x) + Froth xh, Gidi: Goi A lA tap t&t cd cdc gid tri cha S.Ta co A hitu han va khée riz Theo nguyén If cy trj rdi rac, tén tei U la 66 lén nat cha A. Bay gig’ gid: (ay a, ..., ay) lam cho S nhén gié tj U. Ta s8 ching minh rang cfc sO a,, a 4.06 mOt 861A m, cin tat e& ede 6 khdo Ia 1. Bay gig gid st a,> a> ...21 Ta cdin chi ra rang a,=m, edn a, = ..= ay= 1, That vay, n&a a; a3 +2 dn dé (a, B, a, &) dn Lam cho gid tr} cha § Thon U=a} +a} +... 46 (mau thudn !). Vay a,= m va do d6 ay U=m'?+(@-)). 84= 1. Gi tri lén nhét cha S sé 18pai tp ho m va d 1A cée so 4. Che ‘A cdc sO nguyén vi m = d 2 2. Gid ait bigh nguyen dviong s00 cho x, tot, tc eae ye itl BY Myon Ral stein iy co «$x, =m. Tim gia tri ahd nhat va gid tri lén ahét cha S= Ss den ho ay, ay, , os 2, OhO 21, Ag, ny By 8, Dy, Dyy by JA ce hing s6 thule dudng, edn xy, Xp lacd a ; x, 1A cdc bign khong Am sao cho Yay, = a. Hay tim gid tri nbd nbstt va fet Kb at <2 . lon nhat eda bidu thie: Sb, x, . i 3, Gidstx,, x, . . %, 1A cée bién nguyén duong ¢6 tich 1a dl, Tim gid tri nhd o ee 5 . nhat cba S= x} +x} +... + x4, Hay mé rong bai toan nay! 4, Hay sutu tdm hod sang tac 5 bai toan thude loai nay. 2.3, Thiét p thi tu trén cdc yéu té binh ding Su thiét lap thu ty trén cdc yéu t binh ding da lam gidm di rét nhiéu irudng hop xét trong bai tofin. D6 chinh Ia tinh uu viét eda phugng phép nay. Vi du 1. Tim cae $6 nguyén té a, b, ¢ sao cho abc < ab + ac + be. Gigi: Vi vai tré cia a, b, e nhy nhau, nén khong lam métt tinh téng quat ta 06 thé gid thiét a’ < b < c. Ti dé suy ra ab + ac + be < be, va do a6 abe < Sbe, Néu a > 3 thi Sbe < abe (mau thudn ), Vay a= 2 va gid thiét tré 1. thinh Qbe < 2b + 2¢ + be. Ta nhan duge be < 2(b +c), hay i + 2 5 Didu may din dén b < 6. Khi a6 n6u b = 2, thi moi c nguyén t déu tho’ man. Néu b= 8 4 duige to’n b6 Toi gid. thie =3 ho&e c= 5. Hoan vj cdc nghiém da 6, ta sé duta r: Vi due 2. Cho a, b, ¢, d 18 cae 86 thufc adi mot khde nhau. Giai he phuong tinh sau: | la-uy+ fa-de+ Ja-d =21 b-alx + Jo-de+ [b-dlp =1. @ Je-ax+ je-By + je-dt =1 lan afe+ [a- dys Bde =2 19qbinh ding trong Dai tod, nen ba 08 yy Gidi: Do vai tr cua a, b, G yén vé h sau day: sita>b>e> d. Khi dé h¢ (1) duge che (a-b)y+ (a-czt 6 _ (a= b)x+ (b-oz+ (b- DE on (a-de+ aye C- OE F (a-ayx+ (b-dy+ (o-de = 3 it it triy phutong ty Bién déi hg (2) bing efch, ly: phuiong tin. ee a dong Bah ae that hai; phudng tein tht hai triy phudng trinh thé Be: BIST tri phuong trinh thi tu va giti nguyén phudng trinh cudl, “ (a-bex+y+e4t)=0 (b-o-x-yeztt)=0 @) (e-a)(-x-y-2+t)=0 (a - d)x + (b-d)y + (c-d)z = 1 andjt =2 @ Dé thay (8) lap ttte duge quy vé “xty+24+t=0 -x-y+z+t=0 -x-y-2+t=0 (a -d)x + (b= d)y +(c-d)z =1 1 a-d° Vi du 3. Cho ay, ap, «5 Aa, by, bs, ..., by 1a cde hang sO thue duong, é Dé rit ra duge nghiém 1a y=2=0;x=t ‘ Xp Kay =» X4 18 ce big khOng Am sao cho )*5 = 1, Hay tim gid tri nhé nl 4, a va Ién nhat cia biéu thite A= )"b,x,. a . Gidi: Gia sit ab, $ agbeS ...< aby. Khi dé ta 06: 4 a ab, ayb; = ab, = boa oe, fal a, 20po dé abi S A S ayby, Bai x, = a, cin x, =u = xy= 0 thi A= aby x, x, ; Re = 0 thi A= agby. Vay ayb, 1A gid tri nbd nh&t cha A; tj 6a nhat cha A, ay cn by la gid pai tap 1, Tim tat cd ede s6 nguyén dudng x, y, z sao cho xyz=9-+x +9 +2 2, ‘Tim 12 sO nguyén duong, sao cho téng cia chting bing tich cita chting. 3. Chg minh rang, ttt 25 s6 nguyén duong khée nhau e6 thé chon ra hai s8, sa0 cho cc sf cén lai khong thé bang téng hodc higu cia hai s6 vita chon. 4, Hay sng tac hoje sutu tam 5 bai tap gidi bing phuong phap nay. §8. NGUYEN Li XUONG THANG Neuyén If xuding thang d& duge nhiéu nha todn hoo sit dung dé ching minh m$t phudng trinh nghiém nguyén v6 nghiém. Phuong phép nay duge mo ta nhu sau: Gia sii C 14 mét tip cde cfu hinh nao 46, ma néu gid dinh C khée ring, thi trén C cé thé trang bi duge mét quan hé thit ty, cho phép loc ra duge phin ti cue tigu a € C. Réi bang phuong phép nao d6 (ma thudng goi 1a xufhg thang) ta lai chi ra duge trong C c6 phin tit b véi b < a. Tit d6 rit ra Cphai 14 tap réng. 31, Nguyén li xudng thang véi phuong trinh nghigm nguyén Van. dé gidi phuiong trinh nghiém nguyén, con goi 1a phuong trinh Diophante (Diophante 1A mgt nha ton hoe Ai Cép sing vio Ihoang 150 - 350 seu Cdng nguyén) 1& mot treng tam cha L{ thuyét 68. Van dé nay 1udn Tudn 1A mn6t thaeh thie Ian a6i vdi nhn logi. C6 18 chinh tai dia hat nghéo nan cha li thuyét cde phudng trinh Diophante é céc thé ki trude, da edn sinh ra Nguyen lt twéng thang ~ mot nguyén Ii 4& trd thanh kim chi nam cho nhiéu nguot Ughién eitu loai phuidng trink nay.6 day: uyen sau Vi du 1. Gidi phuiong tginh ngniom ne! axt dy! + t= at nay 06 mot ngbigm (05 0; 05 anh 1 eats BI ids Drude hd 1a Udy meny PRONE TN ebao. GiB = 6 06 nigh, Ta edn ching té ring né khong cP ngbie mp dang (ai Pi & a véi a Kthéc Khée nghiém trén thi phai tén tai ngbiGm tha tone ‘36 t&t cA cde nghig, sham cht d > 0. Theo tinh chat cba 6 wy nbioms arn autong nb nihatt. Ta th abut way &t phdi ob nghigm (ro; mi D5 @ vdid cen 4 piz Sst TH dng thy ngay q chan va gid sit q = 2s: Khi dé ta c6 4m fre vita 66, t& yt ra 2m‘ +, nay ta rat ra p chan, p= 2t. Lai thay vac dang thd ic bay v0 aang thie, + gt! = de Dn dén n chin va gid sit n= av. Tip bY etiam Oi = 2s', Dén lugt m chin va ma = 20 tem te © i Pang thie nay chiing bo (ws Vi ty , (mau thudn !). A dy! + 2th = 8 72 (1) khOng « trén ta c6 m* + 8v' + 4t! cde bude trude ta duge 8w’ cing 14 nghiém cha phudny Vi du 2, Chitng minh ri nghiém nguyén thod man xyz # 0. Gidis Nod xét ring néu (1) 06 nghidm th, me se 06 neh (x; ¥; 2) véix, y, 2 nguyén ducng va titng doi mat nguyén t6 cling nhi i wéi x 18 y chin. Dé oho tién, ta chi nhée aén loai nghiém nay cia (1). Gidd (x; y; 2) la m6t nghiém cia (1) voi 2 hd nhat. Kbi a6 (x% y%s 2) 18 mét nghife cia phuong trink u® + v?= w’ 2) Do a6 tén tai cp (a, b) véia > b nguyéni cing nhau, chan 1é khée nhau sao cho x” , y= Qab; z= a” + b? (til chét nghiém cita (2). Vix 1é, nén a 18, Do a va 2b nguyén té cing nhau, nb tivy? = Qab ta rit ra a= t? va 2b= 2 Ti x? = a? —b’ ta cing thay ngay (x; bit la nghiém eda (2). Lai do x Ié nén x = m?—n’ b= 2mn; a= m? + n? trongé 1a t6 cing nhau va chin 1é khéc nhau. Ti a = t? va 2b = s° tat g trinh da cho, nhung voi s <4 he 3ng phuong trinh xity = au, city m, n nguyé! _b _/8y2 oy mn=5 = @) Do m, n nguyén t6 cing nhau, nén m = p® va n = q’. Cang¥ a=m?+n?= th, ta suy ra (p; q; t) IA nghigm ofa (1). Dé fring t= Va < Vz “ (mau thudn !) Nh@n xét: (1) v6 nghiém chting to rang phugng trinh Ferm! xti+y! = 2 khang c6 nghiém nguyén thod man xyz # 0, Fermat da chit minh két qua nay, sau 46 Buler ching minh cho phuong trinh x + y?= 2°. Gute aan: Cac chting minh trén khigh nhiéu ngudi 6 og of dé tin rang, chi? Fermat da ding phuong ph4p nay dé chtng minh dinh Ii 1én cha ong (va e6 thé ong! 22gp at alt C6 rit nhidu ngudi di nB tye chimg minh Dinh It 1én Fermat bing phi php xu0Be thang ngay trén tap céc sof nguyén, nhung ho aa khong thé i nh on tonne war d6 ngul t8 nahi dé vige mé ring vanh sé nguyen, 48 tr8n dé xubing than : no inh li Fermat vdn ding, Vige lm nay tuy vin that bai, na tof boc 6 BIA tri. Vi vly, Cang in, ma mii ta pei Dich rion nhung da dé ‘ei nhiéu If thuyét phi doi déh nam 1994, Dinh If én Fen : i. erate Sie eal a8 tring ving Geisiawrw nat mi dige mot nha todn hye ngui Anh eb que 4h Hoa : ites (eink nam 1953, tai Cambridge) gidi quyét tron ven. Khéc véi nig thin i AK true, thign Lai de bigt cha A. Wiles dé khin Ong adm cim nhin doe mot bie tah thép Khéng 18, ding ding sau cAi vi mém mai rét dB lam quen eda n6. Mac ds di som 6m gide mong chinh phuc “quy dit” khi gap né 8 tuéi lon 10, tai mot tht vign cing cong & thank phé qué hucng dng, nhimg phai égi téi hon hei mufoi nam sau théi oo nnéi den v6i Wiles, Va nu mot sy chi doi, ddu mia thu nam 1984, Gerhard Frey da batt rgd dun a mot If gidi din én mot cdim nhan phi thuting ob 6ng v8 méilign he gia Dinh It én Fermat voi gid thuyét Taniyama ~ Shimura Ii la. M6t gid thuyét vi dai dén Ieh6 tin vé méi quan hé song tring giita cée dang modular va cée phung trinh Diophante c6 dang eliptic cba hai nha ton hoc Nhat Ban: Yutaka Taniyama va Goro Shimura, thdi ki bau chign tranh Thé gidi thet hai, Duge kich thich manh mé bai cdm hing mda thu nam 1984 cia G, Frey, vao ndm 1986, Ken Ribet (Gido ou truting Dai hoc California 4 Berkeley) da chi ra ring, néu gid thuyét Taniyama — Shimura ding, thi Dinh li lén Fermat ching. Chimg minh cia K. Ribert da gin ket mOt bai toan n6i ting nit cba thé ki XVII véi mgt bai ton 06 ¥ nghia nhét cba thé ki XX. Vi thé la, dinh li cudi cing cba Fermat khong cn Ta mt bai toan bidt lap, ding bén ria céc Iu dai tofn hoe dé sO cba thé ki XX! Wiles a hin duge tin tite nay vao mét buéi t4i mba hé nim 1986, khi dang nhém nhép li tra da 3 nh mot ngutdi ban. Thai khie lich sit 46 d& duge Ong nhé Iai: “Toi nhui bi dig gid... Toi biét ring tir thai diém nay dong di cia téi sé thay déi... VA gid day (Oi edn phai di vé nha va bit tay lam viée véi gid thuyét Taniyama — Shimura”. Néu nhu dai thi hao Neuyén Du vigt Truyén Kiéu, ngay sau cdi dam khi ma con “én lanh” dn dinh didm vé thdi cude ap >, sau khi ong vigng théim m§t ngdi chia, thi xung dng manh mé ela ci tin vao dém he 1986 d6, da da Wiles dén m6t cuge banh trinh ddy tham vong, nhim chinh phyo dink Himalaya ofia ton hoc thé ki XX. Réi trong suét 7 nam troi den de trén mot ge xép, Wiles da b mat bit tay vao chitng minh gid thuyét Taniyama —Shimura, va Ong da thanb cing. Ching minh cia ng 4& h6i ty hdu hét nbitng efng cu todn hee tink vi nt cia moi thd; dei. Cong tinh cba 6ng da th6ng nhilt dtge mhiu Tinh wie todn hee, tudng mb és lién quan véi nhau, Chi o6 6g, m@t thién tai véi mt vén vain hod vA tei thite khéng 16, ng y6i cht kién dinh khéng Idi, de nh&n ngi.v6 song méi 6 thé hodn thanh mét céng tinh lén lao dén nhu vay! Thé la, lai théch 46 tén tai trong: suét 958 nim do Fermat dua ra, 23sqong HE HE a6 TORE Woe A mi 4 ai ain! CP tir mot euth sich eba Diophante, 6 44° f “gh méi dé tring vans”. Bai ta int nguyen! 1. Gidi phugng trinh sa Ba gh bute xy vai nghiém § 2 oo. ; sty ve: o6 7 nan tne binh phuong ot vi Q 2. Chitng minh rang khéng thé hau ti, | ately Gidi phutong trinh nghigm nguyen saw" Eg 4. Gidi phuong trinh véi nghigm newye” ge ay ree nay oh 5. Phot hap véi nguyén Ix ham lién tye brn 1AP compacy hay ehting nj 1 xudng thang bét ding thie Cauchy bang nguyén Hay sutu tém hofe’ty ra 10 bai ton £141 P bang phudng phép xudng thang. huong trinh nghiém ngw, Neguyén li xudng thang trong hinh hoe jai cdc phudng trinh nghiém nguyt .g 1di gidi sic bén cho nhiéu bai to: 3.2. Khéng chi c6 ting dung trong viée gi nguyén Ii xuéng thang cdn cung ep nhitn hinh hgc. Chang han, ta hay xem xét bai ton sau day. Vi du I. Chimg minh ring voi 3 » MAA): tshgjem M= DNA, MAL “0A, )i leh ifereh em ; Nas N(A, OA, A,) Nhn xét: N, ¢6 Ch, so hang. Khi 6 nguyén iba tri duge chiing minh nha bé dé sau: BE dé N(A, UA, UU A,) = Yvan, . a) im Ching minh: V6i mot phén tita € A, UA,U ~UA,, ta thay ngay trong vé trai cla (1), a duge dém 1 lén. Dé c6 (2), ta cain chitng t8 ring trong v@ phai cia (1) a cting chi duige dm 1 lan. That vay gid sit rang, a chi thude vio diing k tap trong cée tp 48 cho. Khi dé véi méi t < k, thi trong tong N,e 86 duge tinh C\ ln. Cdn véi t > k, thi trong ting N, a khéng duge tinh In ynho. Nhu vay, theo vé phai cia (1), thi s6/ldn dim a theo kiéu vé'phai 6 1A 28. . Lewes, =1-(- Yenc) =1-a-nk=1, a Ta nhan duge dang thite (1), Bay gid gid sit A,, A,, ..., A, cing JA céc tap con ca mot tp hétu han X nao 46 06 N(X) = N. Ta edn dém sé luong tat c& cée phéin tit cha X ma khong thude A, UA, U--U AL, tic 1a cain tinh N =NK\(A, VALU UAL ViN =N-N(A, VA, UU A,,), nén theo bé dé ta lap tite nhan dude nguyén Ii sau: Nguyén li bie trie: N=N-N, +N, ~..+(-D°N,, Neguyén If bu trix 1a mot céng cy v6 cing quan trong trong viée gidi cée bai toan dém. Sau day chting tdi sé chi ra mét vai vi dy Icha dién hinh, gitip cAc ban lam quen. Vi du 2. Con la thu va n phong bi ghi sin dja chi. Bé ngau nhién cao la thu vao phong bi. Héi x4c sudt dé xdy ra su kién khéng mdt 14 thu nao bd diing dja chi 1A bao nhiéu? Gidi: Trude hét ta thély ngay cé n! cach bé thu. Bay gid ta edn tinh xem ¢6 bao nhiéu céch bé thu sao cho khéng thu nao ding dia chi. Goi X IA tap tat cd cae e&ch bd, cdn A, 1a tap tt c& c&c cdch bd sao cho 1a thu thit ke ding dia chi. Ta c6 n tap con cua X: Ay, Az, ..., Aj. Nh lai rang No = NA, 9A, Aw A) c6 Ck sé hang. Con > 4 OE ” Asi, cig aes NA, AA, 0...04,) = (0-10)! (66 cfc céich bé sao cho 06 kr thu dting dia chi). Vay es 2 (—1)* New! Ce Bi vadods N =N[X\(A, UA, U~ agen Ti 46 ta thay xac eudt edn tinh 1a >” t= 29ve 4 oe Chit y+ Khi n ra vé tan thi LS gi ty v8 e"'. Nhu vy vin di tg 5 2(-1)* : th ora, thi xéc suat nay edn cao hon +. 86'N =n! or duge goi la sé mat trét ty 3 a Bi toan tinh sO mat trat ty da dat ra 6 trén, that khé ma gidi quyét ng, thiéu vang nguyén Ii ba tri. Vi du 3. Tinh xem c6 bao nhiéu ton anh tir mot tap A gém m phan ty lén mét tap B cé n phan tt. Gidi: Goi X 1a tap tat c& cdc anh xa th A dén B, thi N= N@& =n". Gy si B = {1, 2, ..., n}. Goi A; 1a tap tat cf cac anh xq cha X ma anh cia 16 Khéng chita i, Khi d6 ta duige ede tap con chia X 1a Ay, Ayy Aye Nhu vay 86 cae toa anh 1a N = NEX\ (A, UAU...U Ad] va Me > NA, OANA) iste eyen Nhan thay rang N(A,MA,1...NA\,) = 0 céc anh xa tir A vao tap n~k phan tu = (n—k)", Do dé N= (n-k)” Ch. Vay N =n™+ PCD Mn ~ kyCk = PCR - ky. fH i Dé chinh la sO eae ton anh cén tim, Vi du 4. Cho a,,a;,..., , 14 cde sé nguyén lén hon 1 va doi mot nguyén té cting nhau. Héi trong tap m sé nguyén duong ddu tién c6 bao nhiéu sf kh6ng chia hét cho bit ki s6 nao trong eae s6 da cho? Gidi: Dat X = {1, 2, m}, va goi Aj la cde sé trong X chia hé cho aj. Khi dé ta duge A,, Ap, ..., A, 1a cae tap con cia X. Ta thay ngay 86 céc sf cain tim 1a N =NIX\ (4,UA,U...UA)] va N= N(X) =m. Ta 06 Me NANA NAL), Asi cipenesig snwai NA, MA, 1. MAL) = 86 che 86 trong X chia hét cho a, , ... a, = 66 cae s0 trong X chia hét cho tfeh a, ... a, = phén nguyén Vay Ne= Asi, «iy anes sl m+ Yeo > it sip c 6 nghiém thuée M khi va chi khi max f(s) > e. : (©) Néu f(x) 06 déng thai gid tr] nhé nhat va gid tri Ién nhét trén M, thi phuong trinh f(x) = m c6 nghiém khi va chi khi min f(x) < m $ max f(x). 32Sau day ching téi xin chitng minh, chang han Nguyén If 2, cdn céc nguyén Ii Ihae duge ching minh tuung tat. Ching minh nguyén li 2: f(x) $c o6 nghiém thuge M Ichi va chi kkhi tn tai x» thuge M dé f(s) < ec. Do dé min fe) $ Me) < c. Nguge lai néu mip f(x) $ ¢ Va Xo thude M lim cho min f(x) = £(%9), thi f(a) < ¢, Do dé bat phutong txinh 06 nghiém x, M, Vi du 1. Tinh ch&t cia ham f(x) = acosx + bsinx + ¢ duge nin theo quan digm ove tri nhu thé nao? Gidi: Ta biét rang ham nay duge quy vé: f(x) = Ya? +1? cos(x — 9) + 6, voi a cos TE Khi dé ta thay ngay min f(x) =¢- va? +b? va max f(x) = 0+ at +0 , TY d6 suy raz i) f(x) = 0 vai moi x khi va chi Ichi min f(x) =c- Va? +b? > 0, va do d6 o> vat +b. Gi) f(2)_S 0 véi moi x khi va chi khi max f(x) =c+ Va? +b? < 0, vado docs - va? +b?. (iii) Phuong trinh {(x) = 0 c6 nghiém khi va chi khie - Ya? +b? < 0 < e+ Ya? +b? . Diéu nay tuong duong vai |c| < va? +b?, haye?< a? +b?. (iv) Bat phuong trinh f(x) < 0 ¢6 nghiém khi va chi khi min f(x) = ¢ — va? +b? <0, haye < va? +b. (v) Bat phuong trinh f(x) > 0 c6 nghigm khi va chi khi max f(x) = ¢ + Ve? +b® > 0, hayc > - va? +b?. (vi) £G) dng nhét 0 khi va chi Ichi min f(x) = max f(x) = 0, tuong duong c-Va? +b? =0+ va? +b®=0, haya=b=c=0. Vi du 2. Tim m dé hé sau 06 nghiém: x? -8x42<0 x? +x? -5x+1) xef.2] = én mi = mi ((0)} = -2. Dap sd: m 2 ~2. FZ 2 23, nén min f(s) = min{f(1), (2) Ap 86 Vi du 3. Tim m dé batt phuong trinh sau cé nghigm: cos3x — Beos2x + 7cosx + 1 = m. Gidi: cos3x — Beos2x + Teosx + 1 = deos*x — 10cos"x + 4cosx + 6, p, t= cosy, thi tap gid tri efi t 1a doan [-1; 1]. Nhu vay bat phugng trinh di ¢ 6 nghiém Khi va chi Iehi f(t) = 40° - lot? + 4t +6 = mcé nai thude dy, tah 5tv13 [-4; 1). Ta'c6 f(t) = 124? - 20t + 4=0 khi va chi khi t= =. Xét thay g 5-V18 © 4, 1) va dé cing chinh 1a hoanh dd cita dim exte dai. Do 6g i= 6 = -1682 , 104v13 58, _ 1882 , 106408, tri I6n nhét eda {(t) trén doan [-1; 1] 1a fC 75 : sn oté tri oft ‘ 1682 , 10413 nguyén Ii 4, ta suy ra cde gié tri cfn tim cita ml: m SE + 9 Vi du 4. Tima dé hé sau c6 nghiém: oS +4-3 Sa va ciing khong 6 gi la mdi! Nhung ede ban hay di xa thém cha Bay gid ta thtt chuyén v&n dé sang ham sé, . Loai 1. Tim gid trj lén nhatt ca ham s6 y = g(x) + 1£6) 1 trén mil Gidi phép: Ta thiy ngay y = max{g(x) + f(x), e(x) — x}. Khi d6 Gi) maxta, b}= |p| =maxfa +b, AB) t nia xem Sao? én M. max y= max [max{g(x) + £0), 6) — £03] = max{max (g(#) + £2), max (eCs) — £6). Nhu vAy vige tim max (g(x) + | f()|) duige ehuyén vé tim max (g(0 + fe) va max (g(¢) ~ f(s). Ta Khong cf phi pha dau tr] tuy@t d6i cha biéu thite | f(@) |. Vi du 1. Tim gid tri lén nbat cba ham so y= 3x) —4x? + 9x-4 + |x?—2x? + 6x—6| trén mién [-10; 10}. Gidi: Dat f(x) = (8x? - 4x? + 2x — 4) + (x* - 2x? + 6x — 6) = 4x° — 6x? + 8x — 10; g(x) = (8x* — 4x? + 2x — 4) — (x* - 2x? + 6x — 6) = 2x? — Ox? — ax 4 2. Khi dé ta c6 max, foo) = 3470; max, 6(X) = 1762. Vay pax, 9 = 3470, 36 }Vi dy 2, Tim gid rj Ién nhat oda ham sé = [Scosx + sinx ~ 1] + cosx + sinx. 2 Dat {s) = (osx + sinx) + (Scosx + sinx — 1) = deosx + 2sinx — 1 va x + sinx) — (Bcosx + sinx — 1) = —eosx + 1. +2 —1=2V5 —1; max g(x) =3. mién (0; 3]. Gidi: Dit f(s) = (e+ 8x) + (e* — 2x ~ 9) = 20% HX BVA 8(8) = (C+ Bx) ~ (0% = 2x — 2) = 5x +2. Bai cde ham f(x) va g(x) déng bign trén todn true 86, nén mee f(x) = £8) = 208 +1 va max g() = 9(8) = 17. Vay max y= 2e°+ 1, Tuong tu loai 1, ta c6 loai 2 déi vdi viée tim min nhu sau: Loai 2. Tim gid tri nhé nhét ciia ham s6y = g(x) — |f(x)| trén mién M. Gidi phdp: Ta c6 y = min{g(x) + £69), g(x) ~ £69}. Tit 46 siay ra min y = min[ min{g(x) + f(x), g(x) — £60) = min{min (g(s) + £09), min (g(x) - f()}. Vi du J. Tim gid tri nhé nbét oka ham sé y= 8x°— 4x? + 2x — 4 ~ |x°— 2x? + 6x — 6] trén mién [-10; 10]. Gidi: Dat f(x) = (Bx° — 4x? + 2x — 4) + (9 - 2x? + 6x6) = 4x° — 6x? + 8x — 10; g(x) = (8x = 4x? + 2x ~ 4) — (3 - 2x? + 6x — 6) = Ox? — 2x? — 4x + 2, 374 = -4690, nas. Vay irin,¥ AGO; BO) = = Khi do ta ed nin. fi) = ann, Vi du 2. Tim gid tri nhé nhat cha ham sO y= cosx + sinx — | acosx + sinx ~ 11- Gidi: Dat £(x) = (Cosx + sinx) + (Scosx + sinx — 1) = 4cosx + 2sinx - 1 2eosx + 1. va g(x) = (cosx + sinx) — (Scosx + sinx - 1) = Dé thay raing min f(x) = -J4? + 2 —1=-9.J5 — 1; min g(s) =-)- Vay min y=— 275 -1 | x — 2) trén Vi dy 3. Tim gid tri nbd nat ofa ham sy = 0% + x— |e*- 2X . Dit f(x) = (e* + 8x) + (e* — 2x — 2) = 2e* +x -2 mién [0 Gi va B(x) = (e+ 8x) - (e' ~ 2x 2) = 5x +2. . Bi hai ham f(x) va g(x) déng bién trén toan truc sd, nén amin £(@) = £(0) = Ove min g(x) = (0) = 2. Vay miny=0. Bai tap 1. Tim gia tri lén nh&t cia cdc ham sau day: y= cos3x + | cos3x ~ 2cos2x + cosx ~ 1]; y=sin 3x + |1+ sinx—sin 3x]. 2, Tim gi tri nhé nhat cla cdc ham: y= sin 8x + 2sinx — | sin3x —sinx - 1|; y= cos’x + sin*x — sin2x — | cos®x + sin*x — dsin2x — 1]. Hay dé xuat cde bai toan khac thudc loai nay. 4. Hay tim cdc tng dung khac cho cac vitn dé trén. 38NUUONG VAN Di! SO CAP WE Day 60 Cée bai toan vé day c6 mét lich sit rt du dai va lin quan dén nhigu linb vue todn hoc. Chuong nay dé cap dén nhiing van dé rat cap thiét vé day Bao gém céc van dé sau day: Nhizng long hitu han khéng thé biéu dién duge qua cdc ham dqi s6; Mét véi logi day truy héi; Céc phuong phap xée dinh day 86’ vd ede téng hitu han; Phitong phép st dung ham sink. Qua nOi dung cilia chuang, chting t6i mun trang bj cho ede ban nhiéu logi toan réft phé théng vé day. Ciing thong qua cae phuong phép trinh bay trong chuong, chiing tdi hi vong sé tao cho cae ban c6 mét tam nhin. Dac biét ti dé cdc ban c6 thé biét ra nhiéu loai bai tap vé day véi ndi dung phong phi, Diéu nay sé gitip ich cho ede ban trong qué trinh day hoc sau nay, $l. NHUNG TONG HOU HAN KHONG THE Bru DIEN DUOC QUA CAC HAM DAISO Van dé tinh tdng riéng hitu hen S(n) = S*u, cha mot day s6 (ur thudng hay gap nhiéu trong Todn hoc S¢ cap. Mic dd da o6 nhiéu cong cu hd trg, nhung hau hét cdc téng sé 1a khéng tinh duge. Nhiing ngudi c6 kinh nghiém khi nhin vao mét téng, trude hét ho sé cam nhan dude téng dé ¢6 kha ning tinh duge hay khéng. CAm nh4n nay c6 duge tix dau? Bai nay phan nao Sidi thich duge didu a6. Thue chat cia viéc tinh téng yu, la di tim bidu thie giai tich S(n) cha i bign 86 ty nhién n trong ldp cdc biéu thite hién c6 dé S(n) = Yu, . Chdng han iat 39a, n(n +), yo; 1) =n?,... Thé thi, hau p, intending ta abu aa bide Si = REEDS Dias = nh THEY My fa ‘a i cde téng Ichéng tinh duge hoje chua tinh duge, chinh 14 vi piéu thie % khéng ndm trong lép cdc bidu thtfe quen thuge cita ching ta. 4d. Tiéu chudn cho nhting téng khong biéu dién duge qua cac biéu thy, hitu ti - a: ascot Jing hoe sinh phé thong mdi Iam quen vat vige tinh téng hi, ft ai lai dai dét deo duéi viée tinh cde téng: by imi Chi trit nhi han cla day: 86, chide sé yoy yt (a#0). Vige khong nén lam d6, 1a do khOng 06 bidu thi i’ Gak+b im ia hiju ti nao bidu dign céc téng nay. Nguyén nhan sé duge If gidi qua tiéu chug, don gian sau: : Tiéu chuén 1: Biéu thite f(x) vdi biéh nguyén didong x khong phdi | biéuu thite phan thite hitu ti néu mét trong ede diéu kién dui day xdy ra: £9) 9 () limf(x) = @ vd im sa eae Gi) limf(x) 0 va lim xf(x) = © (iii) flax) nhan gid tri hidu ti vdi moi x vd Limf(x) la mét s6v6 tt. Chitng mink: (i). Gia sit trai lai, £9 = ee véi P(x) va Q(x) 1a cée dang da thit theo bién x. Kbi dé néu diéu kign (i) duge thod man, thi do limf(x) = 0 né 1s iat «fl Pi deg PO) > deg Q60), vd Iai do tim! = tim-FED = 0 nén dex Poo‘ deg [xQ(x)] = 1 + deg Q(x). Dan dén deg Q(x) < deg P(x) < 1 + deg Q6 (mau thudn!). Ta nhan ditge (i). (i), Gia ot tén tai = an v6i P(x) va Q(x) IA ede dang da thite the x) bién x. Khi d6 do limf(x) = 0, nén deg P(x) < deg Q(x). Lai c6 limf(x) ° 40F P(x) lim GG. = ©, din dén 1 + deg P(x) > deg deg P(X) < deg Q(x) < deg P(x) + 1 (mau thuiin!). (ii) Q@). Nhu vay ta thu duge duge chting minh. i). Neu didu k : i Gi iéu kin (iii) xy ra, thi ta lun 66 {(x) = aS vGi P(x) va Ox) 1a cée dang da thtte theo bign x trén truding hit ti, Khi dé limf(x) khong thé ja mot 86 v6 ti (mau thudn!), (ii) duge xée nhfin. @ Vi du 1. Biéu thiic cha bign sé nguyén dung n: f(n) = yu Khong phai 1a mot biéu thie hiu ti, 1 Chitng minh: Vi chudi ye phan ki ra v6 ew, nén f(n) = yt 6 ia in imf(n) =o. Ding quy nap ta sé chi ra rang f(n) < Jn +1. Tw diéu nay suy f(a) ra lim = 0. Ap dung Tiéu chudn 1 G) ta nit ra f(n) khong phai 1a bidu thie nit ti. Vi du 2. Biéu thie cha bién sé nguyén dudng n: g(n) = a cing iat khéng phai la mét biéu thie hitu ti Ching minh: Ta biét ring chudi Leibnitz 1 = -In2 va dé ching iat minh dude In2 la mét sé v6 ti. Do d6 limg(n) = -In2 1a mat sé v6 ti. Do dé tix Tiéu chudin 1 (iii) ta rat ra g(n) cing khong phai la mét biéu thite hiu ti, v6i a; b nguyén duong khéng phai la Ching minh rang f(n) = ae cEP mét biéu thitc hitu ti, » Hay dua ra 10 day so hitu tf (u,),21 c6 S(n) = Diu, khéng phai 1 biéu fa thc hitu ti. 41a. ATE, biéu thy : 12. Tidu chudn cho nhiing Wng khong bieu dign duige qua bieu thi agi sé Bay gid ta ban dén mét loai téng Ihde nhu: aé di tinh cde tong nay. Bai thye te y 4 an. cit 6 an dat van . . Tt nhién, efing khong nén 48 ng hau ti ndo piu dién ching. Kkh6ng c6 céc bidu thite dai sé trén trud hing. Nhd lai rang bidu thite £(%) vi bién x duge goi 1a mot. bide He dai trén trutng K néu tén tai ede dang da thite P,(x), PyQX)s «» Pa(@) trén IS, khong déng thai bing 0.48 S7P){CI? = 0. pign x cang véi cée phan ti Nhén xét: Cac biéu thite duge tao nén tit " hai can 1a cdc biéu thite dyi eta Q théng qua 4 phép tofin s& hoe, cing phép i 86 trén Q. ‘Ta lai cé mét tiéu chudn sAu sic hon sau day: Tiéu chudn 2: Néu bidu thite fle) vdi biéh x cb limf(x) la mét 36 siéu viét thi f(x) khong phdi la mét biéu thie dai sd trén Q. Ching minh: Gia sit tréi Iai, f(x) IA mot bidu thtie dai sO trén trudng ck sO hitu ti Q, Khi dé tén tai cdc dang da thite Py(x), P,(&),..., Py(s) trén Q Ichéng déng thai bang 0 48 )°P.(x)[f@)} = 0. Bay gid ta gid sti a m= max{deg Po(x), .., deg P,(x)} va limf(x) = a. Dé dang théy rang YP Cotter 0= lin=’—_____ Vi B 1, ..., ay la cdc sé hitu ti khéng déng thdi bing 0. Tw gid thiét « 1a s! gu vidt, nén digu 6 kho aun Vay ft - éu thi siéu vit, nén diéu d6 khong thé xay ra. Vay f(x) khéng thé 14 mét biéu th dai strénQ. a ° 42Vi dy 1. Bidu thie cia bin s6 nguyén duong n: h(n) = 3°} khong phai i! Ja mot diéu thite dai sé trén Q. Semin . Sl ro Ching minh: Ta c6 Yimb(n)= og =e 1A mOt s6 sidu viét. Vi vay theo ed | qieu chudn 2 thi h(n) Ithéng thé 1a mét biéu thite dai s6 tren Q. Vi dy 2. Bidu thite cha bign o@ nguyén dung n: D(n) = sh, cing wa? kh6ng phai 1a mét biéu thite dai sd trén Q. | Chiing minh: Bai x 1a mot s6 siéu vigt, nén ta c6 imD(n)= 7+ xse ie im 6 1a mét 86 siéu viet. Theo Tiéu chudn 2, thi D(n) khéng phai mot biéu thie dai od trén Q. : Bai tap 1. Chitng minh rang ede bigu thée Ui) = 3/4 va Via) = pas khong ial a phai 1a cdc biéu thitc dai sé trén Q. 2, Hay dua ra 10 day 86 hitu ti (u,)y21 06 S(m) = Y'u, khong phai la cdc biéu thite dai s6 trén Q. 8. Chitng minh ring céc biéu thie véi bién s6 thy: at (véi a duong khée 1) q va cosx, la cae biéu thite siéu viét trén R (tie la khéng dai sé trén R). 52. MOT VAI LOAI DAY TRUY HOI nghién citu mét vai loai day truy hdi, bao gém Trong bai nay ching ta n téng quét, téng hitu han, tinh don digu va su | che vain dé: Xée dinh s6 hang hoi ty. 43 epee cy m