Exam Prep – Science

Human Biology
DNA Structure

- DNA has a double helix structure that spiral around each other to look like a spiral staircase as they
are connected via nitrogen base pairs.
- The double helix is made up of sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate.
- The base pairs connecting the double helix consists of:
 Adenine (A)
 Cytosine (C)
 Guanine (G)
 Thymine (T)
- Adenine (A) links with Thymine (T), Cytosine (C)links with Guanine (G)

DNA Replication
- Process where the Genome’s DNA is copied in cells which creates two identical DNA
molecules.
- They would copy the genome, then divide to create two daughter cells with its own Genome

Mitosis

- Purpose:
 For either development, growth cell replacement or asexual reproduction
- Stages of Mitosis
1. Interphase
The phase before mitosis starts when it grows and copies its DNA.
2. Prophase
Chromosomes become attached to the spindle fibres on the centromere.
3. Metaphase
 Chromosomes become attached to the spindle fibres on the centromere.
4. Anaphase
Chromatids move away from each other to the opposite sides of the cell.
5. Telophase
Chromosomes/Chromatids moved to opposite ends of cell, Nuclear membrane reformed
to create two nuclei
- Diagram

- Mitosis creates two identical diploid cells

- Represented with term ‘2n’, each have the same amount of chromosomes
- Humans have 46 chromosomes (2n=46)

Meiosis

- Purpose:
 Produce more gametes with half genes of the parent cells
 Meiosis I purpose is cell division to separate the homologous pairs
 Meiosis II purpose is separating the sister chromatids
- Stages of Meiosis
1. Interphase

2. Prophase I
Chromosomes become visible, crossing-over occurs. Nuclear membrane
disappears and chromosomes duplicate
3. Metaphase I
Spindle fibres from centrioles attach to centromeres of the chromosomes from equator
of cell.
4. Anaphase I
Fibres pull apart the chromatids, homologous chromosomes move to opposite sides of
the cell.
5. Telophase I
Cell divides (cytokinesis) Forming two haploid daughter cells)
6. Prophase II
No chromosomes replication to form two chromatids. Nuclear membranes disappear
while spindle apparatus forms
 7. Metaphase II
Spindle fibres attach to centromeres of chromosomes and pulls them to opposite poles
8. Anaphase II
Sister Chromatids of the Chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends, They are
no longer connected, and the former chromatids are called ‘Unreplicated Chromosomes’
9. Telophase II
Chromosomes reach opposite ends. Cytokinesis occurs. Four haploid daughter cells
produced that aren’t identical

- Four unidentical haploid cells are produced (either sperm or egg)

- Term used is ‘n’
- Human: n=23

Chromosomes
People have two copies of each chromosome, One from mother and other from father using gametes

Genes
Basic unit of heredity passed from parent to child. Genes are a sequence of DNA.

Sex-linked inheritance
Characteristics that are affected from sex chromosome genes. X chromosomes typically has the trait as
it carries more genes that the Y chromosomes.

Dominant/Recessive
Dominant refers to the relationship between two versions of a gene. Alleles of gene can have different
traits. Usually, less common trait is referred to as ‘recessive’ while more common is referred as
‘Dominant’

Heredity
Punnet squares and Pedigrees

Punnett Squares:
- Punnet squares are helpful at predicting the variations and probabilities that comes with cross-
breeding
- Can be from autosomal chromosomes or sex-linked trait
- Uppercase = dominant gene, lowercase = recessive
- Can only have recessive trat if both genes are
recessive.

Pedigree
- Shows relationships between family members and genetic pathogenic variants and diseases
- Determines patterns of disease within a family

- Pedigrees are either autosomal or sex-linked inheritance

 Autosomal
 Characteristics based on chromosomes, not sex chromosomes
 Same number of male and females affected
 Can have dominant and recessive characteristics
 Sex-linked
 Characteristics influenced by genes carried on sex chromosomes
 Usually affects males more likely as it has only a single X chromosomes
 Dominant
 Trait/condition must be found in every generation
 Person who has trait must have a parent that is affected by it
 Recessive
 Can skip generations
 An ‘affected’ individual can have ‘unaffected’ parents
 If both parents have the recessive characteristics, then all offspring will have
the trait
-
- Roman numerals determines generation, numbers resemble the order of birth of the
individual

Homozygous Two identical Alleles nucleus Structure in a cell that stores

of a particular gene chromosomes. Also, where RNA is made by
DNA.
Gene Used to measure Chromosomes Structures that look like threads that is
Heredity. Gene is a found in the nucleus. They are made up of
trait that can be Protein and a single molecule of
transferred from a Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Contain
parent to an offspring. specific instructions that make organisms
These can determine unique
the characteristics
DNA DNA is genetic Allele Matching genes, one from are mother and
information find in the father.
nuclei. It is found in
most of the living
organism and is the
storage of the
chromosomes.
Trait A specific Mitosis The process of cell division. It replicates its
Characteristic of an chromosomes and cuts them in half,
individual producing two nuclei in the preparation for
cell division. This results in two daughter
cells that have the same genomes as the
parent cells
Heterozygous Two different Alleles Meiosis Another type of cell division. This is more
in a particular gene related to sexually reproducing organisms
that would reduce the number of
chromosomes in a gamete.
Gamete Reproductive cell of a Autosomes One of the numbered chromosomes, not
plant or animal sex chromosomes. Humans have 22 pairs
of autosomes
Asexual Reproduction A way of reproduction Nucleotide A Molecule consisting of a nitrogen base,
where the offspring is phosphate and sugar
produced by a single
parent.
Recessive A heritable pedigree A chart/diagram that shows the common
characteristic appearance of phenotypes of a particular
controlled by genes gene.
 which can be seen in
the offspring.
Although, the
offspring can only be
affected if both
parents have that
recessive gene
Diploid Diploid cells are protein A biomolecule that is a long chain of amino
somatic cells that acids
contain two complete
sets of chromosomes
Genotype The sequence of DNA Gametes Multiple sex/reproductive cells (egg and
that is unique to sperm)
another genotype.
The two alleles that
the person has
inherited from their
parents.
Genome The entire set of DNA Double Helix The physical attribute of a DNA relating to
instructions found in a the two rotating pillars that looks like a
cell twisted ladder.
phenotype The characteristics Centromere A place of a chromosomes usually finds in
from an individual the centre. Plays a key role in cell division
that is can be seen.
This is due to the
instructions of the
genes
haploid A single set of Chromatid One of the two identical halves of a
chromosomes in a chromosomes that was replicated to
cell. Usually found in prepare for cell division
sex cells.
dominant Trait that is more Nitrogen An element that is found almost
commonly find, is everywhere
expressed of one copy
of allele for a that
particular trait.
Sex-linked genes Genes that are carried Traits A specific characteristic of an individual
on the sex
chromosomes

Physics
Vectors and Scalar

Vector: a quantity that has two independent properties (magnitude and direction)
- Eg: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, lift, drag, thrust, weight
Scalar: a quantity described by only magnitude
- Eg: Length, area, volume, speed, mass, density, pressure, temperature, energy, entropy,
work and power
- Eg2: S=50m North-East
Distance/Displacement; Speed/Velocity
 Distance: the magnitude or size of displacement between two positions (total distant travelled)
Displacement: the vector difference between the ending and starting positions of an object (shortest
distance from point A to B)
- The difference between distance (Scalar) while displacement is that distance is the total
length travelled while displacement is the minimum path between them (Vector)

Speed: the time rate at which an object moves along a path

Velocity: the rate and direction of an object’s movement
- Eg: V=52m/s North-West
- The difference between speed and velocity is that speed measures the time rate of an object’s
movement (Scalar) while velocity is the rate AND direction of an object’s movement (Vector).
Conversion
- M/s to km/h = m/s x (3.6)
- Km/h to M/s = Km/h / (3.6)
Acceleration
Acceleration: the rate change of velocity (usually when speed changes or direction of velocity is change)
- Accelerating: velocity is increasing
- Decelerating: Velocity is decreasing
Newton’s laws of motion

1. An object that is at rest will remain at rest – An Object that has a constant velocity will
stay at that constant velocity forever, unless it’s acted upon an unbalanced, external
force.
2. The object’s acceleration is directly proportional to the unbalanced/net force and in
directed proportioned to the mass of the object. (F=ma; where f = net force, m = mass, a
= acceleration)
3. An object’s action force has an equal and opposite reaction force.

First Law

- Also known as ‘Law of Inertia’

- Inertia: the continuity of an object’s motion, such as at rest or constant motion, unless an
external force is applied
- Force: an influence that causes an object’s motion with mass to change its velocity
 Push: the force responsible for the change of an objects state of rest
 Pull: the force responsible of an objects state of rest but in the opposite reaction of
push
- Common forces:
 Applied force: force applied to an object from a person or another object.
 Gravitational force: the force that pulls objects with mass towards each other.
 Normal force: the force that of an object that prevents solid objects from passing
through each other.
  Air resistance: force that acts opposite to the relative motion of an object’s
movement.
 Frictional force: the force that is generated by two surface that contacts and slide
against each other.
 Tension force: force transmitted through rope when pulled by forces acted from
opposite ends.
 Spring force: force of compression when a metal spring is stretched or compressed,
it is displaced from its equilibrium positions.
- Newtons refer to force (N), the SI unit
- Net Force: the sum of forces acting on an object
- ‘every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to
change its state by the action of an external force.’

-
-

Second law

- Also known as the law of acceleration

- “The object’s acceleration is directly proportional to the unbalanced/net force and inversely
proportioned to the mass of the object.”
- F = MA
-

Third Law

- Law of action-reaction
- ‘An object’s action force has an equal and opposite reaction force.’
Formula Sheet
Chemistry
Periodic Table

How to read a periodic Table

Elements: a particle that can’t be broken down and is the fundamental building block for everything

Atoms: a substance with single element

- Eg: gold (Au), Helium (He), ect.

Atomic Structure

- Consists of three different sub-particles

 Protons
 Neutrons
 Electrons

Subatomic Relative Charge Relative Mass

Particles
Proton +1 1
Neutrons 1 1
Electrons -1 1/1800
- The protons and neutrons are located inside the nucleus while electrons are located in the
electron shell.
- Eg: Potassium – protons: 19, electrons: 19, neutrons: 20

Atomic Number: The number of a chemical element in the periodic table, they equal the number of
electrons and protons.

Atomic Weight: the total weight of an atom

Electron shell configuration (ending on Calcium)

- Valence shell = last shell (cannot exceed over 8)

- Calcium configuration = 2, 8 ,8, 2
- The groups determine the electron configuration.
- Noble gasses are most stable filling all the valence shell spots.
Compounds: a substance with two or more different elements that has chemically been joined

- Eg: Water (H2O), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), salt (NaCl)

Isotopes: a form of element that has the same number of protons but different number of neutrons

- Can become unstable and possibly radioactive.

- Eg: Carbon 12, Carbon 13, and Carbon 14

Isotopes vs. Radioisotope

- An isotope is a radioactive isotope.

- The different between these two is that one is a safe, stable isotope and the radioisotope is
radioactive

Ions: an atom that has an electric charge

- Can be positively (cations) or negatively charged (Anions)

- Ions have an extra electron or have an electron deduct from the element to mimic the
stableness of a noble gas
- If an element loses its electron, it becomes positively charged, if it gains an electron, it
becomes negatively charged
- Usually loss electrons are given to create an ‘ionic compound’ which is a compound of stable
ions.
- Eg: Li+, Mg2+, Cl-

Molecular Compound

- Consists of molecules whose formula represent the actual number of atoms bonded
together in the molecule
- Eg: Oxygen (O2), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Dichlorine Heptoxide)

- List of how many elements is in the molecular compound.

 Mono- 1
Di- 2
Tri- 3
Tetra- 4
Penta- 5
Hexa- 6
Hepta- 7
Octa- 8
Nona- 9
Deca- 10

Ionic compounds/bonds

- Formed by two or more atoms by the transfer of one or more electrons between
- When an element loses an electron, that electron is transferred to another element to
create a cation and anion
- Creates a stable compound

- Formed by combining a metal element to a non-metal element to create a salt.

 Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
 Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4)
 Barium Phosphite [Ba3(PO3)2]

Metal and non-metal properties

Metal Non-metal
High melting point Lower melting points
Conductive brittle
Heat conductive Non-malleable
High density Can be gas, liquid or solid
Malleable Not conductive of heat or electricity
ductile Not lustrous