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Step by Step Method To Conduct Applied Research in Organizational Engineering and Business Management M Todo Paso A Paso para La Investigaci N
Step by Step Method To Conduct Applied Research in Organizational Engineering and Business Management M Todo Paso A Paso para La Investigaci N
Cultura y Educación
To cite this article: Manuela Escobar-Sierra, Luis-Augusto Lara-Valencia & Pilar ValenciaDeLara
(2021) ‘Step-by-step’ method to conduct applied research in organizational engineering and
business management (Método�‘paso�a�paso’�para�la�investigación�aplicada�en�el�ámbito�de�la
ingeniería�organizacional�y�la�gestión�empresarial), Culture and Education, 33:1, 28-77, DOI:
10.1080/11356405.2020.1859735
Figure 1. Knowledge map about research methods applied in organizational engineering and
business management.
®
Source: the authors, using the VosViewer software
‘Step-by-step’ method for research in organizations / ‘Paso a paso’ para realizar investigaciones en la organización 31
Indeed, we propose to see the first cluster as part of the research process, the second one
related to the research context characteristics, and the last cluster with the process triggers.
In this context, we find some authors that emphasize the research process while referring to
research methods applied in organizational engineering and business management. Ates
(2012), for example, proposed case study methodology as a useful tool of business education,
for its potential to develop decision-making and critical-thinking skills. Gilstrap (2009)
intended to describe the use of the fractal case study method to understand individuals and
their connection to their organization. Perren and Ram (2004) analysed some philosophical
paradigms of the research adopted by small businesses and entrepreneurs. Shi and Dow
(2019) proposed a new approach called the raw case method of learning. Rashid et al. (2019)
provide novice researchers with a practical step-by-step guide to conduct case studies in the
business. Lo et al. (2020) suggested theoretical triangulation and integration of mix-
approaches (quantitative and qualitative) as essential for business research. Easterby-Smith
et al. (2009) highlighted data sources, data collection and the scale of investigations as the main
differences among some researchers about organizational learning. Moreover, Fiegen (2010)
recognized case studies as the most popular strategy in business instruction literature.
In contrast, some authors focus on the characteristics of the organizational and business
research context. Chetty (1996) and Perren and Ram (2004), for example, reviewed the case
study method in the context of small- and medium-sized firms as a decision-making tool. Shi
and Dow (2019) applied their raw case method of learning in an open, real-time information
space. Indeed, De Massis and Kotlar (2014) provide useful guidelines to researchers in the
context of a family business. Buhmann et al. (2018) illustrated the methodological challenges
encountered in the business and human rights research context. Moreover, Michailova and
Liuhto (2000) ascertain some issues of organization and management research in the former
socialist countries as a peculiar but also very attractive research context.
Finally, other authors mainly consider the triggers of the research applied in organizational
engineering and business management. For instance, Perren and Ram (2004) study the
implications and consequences of philosophical paradigms adopted in the study of small-
and medium-sized firms. Furthermore, Koltai et al. (2014) described an extended case
methodology to reveal how cultural, organizational and automation factors influence human-
automation trust development.
The abovementioned theoretical context confirms business and organizational
research as a young discipline. Indeed, we have discovered that there are not enough
specific research methods for this discipline. Many experts have only focused on ‘case
studies’ as a research strategy of business and organizations, despite the challenges of
the context and the recent recommendations of experts and practitioners.
Step 1
Empirical or theoretical knowledge
These two types of knowledge form the research project’s starting point. In this
phase, the researcher becomes aware of the problematic situation that he or she
wants to study through empirical knowledge or previous theories. It is essential to
‘Step-by-step’ method for research in organizations / ‘Paso a paso’ para realizar investigaciones en la organización 33
specify that the researcher must make both types of knowledge clear, regardless of
which type was the starting point. For this purpose, it may be useful that the
researcher defines some specific ‘keywords’ that contain the main topics of the
problematic situation.
34 M. Escobar-Sierra et al.
Theoretical knowledge
For its part, theoretical knowledge created in academic institutions (Kouritzin
et al., 2009) and available in the literature (Flick, 2009; Joedodibroto, 1991)
forms the foundation of a research project. Therefore, in this step, we must review
the available literature on the topic of interest, attempting to identify: (a) future
recommendations suggested by researchers in their studies; (b) documented sug
gestions on the practical implications that their research considers; moreover, (c)
new ways of approaching a topic that encourage conducting a research project
(Webster & Watson, 2002). In this step, researchers may review peer-reviewed
sources published in the last four or six years, specifically future recommendations
and conclusions. For more information on the previously suggested strategy, see
Figure 3, where knowledge on a topic is represented as a tree, called the
knowledge tree. On this tree, the outer leaves are equivalent to recent studies,
which are associated with recommendations, suggestions or new ways of
approaching the topic that encourage and promote subsequent studies.
These reviews — both those of empirical and theoretical knowledge — can be
completed chronologically, conceptually, methodologically or in a table or matrix
(Webster & Watson, 2002). Some experts recommend that it may be useful that
the researcher looks for proposals — i.e., indexed and not-indexed according to
the type of knowledge — that suggest the combined study — intersection and also
its conjunction — of the previously selected keywords or topics. Next, we present
in Figure 4 two possible representations for empirical and theoretical knowledge.
Researchers can use the Venn diagram when the experts suggest the intersection of
the topics. Alternatively, they can use the sets when the experts suggest their
conjunction.
Once both types of knowledge, empirical and theoretical, are referenced, we suggest
continuing to the second step, described below.
Step 2
Justification
This step is particularly important when the study requires approval from other
people or entities, because here we frame the problem according to the commu
nity, state and other stakeholders’ needs. Justification seeks to contextualize the
problem identified and to clarify the situations that led to their emergence
(Hernández Sampieri et al., 2006). For this step, we suggest beginning by seeking
primary and secondary data — e.g., facts, figures and statistics indexed or not-
indexed — about the economic, political, social, technological and cultural situa
tion on a macro level (for example, globally or nationally) and developing them in
a micro context (specific environment). This approach solidifies the study’s
justification.
36 M. Escobar-Sierra et al.
Step 3
Context of the problem, research question and general objective
Once the previous stages have been completed, we should specify the study’s general
objective, the context of the problem and the research question. That said, it does not
matter which of these two points initiates the researcher’s study: both should be clear
and conclusive, as specified below:
General objective
The general objective must answer the question of ‘What are we studying?’ to solve the
research question proposed. In other words, the general objective must directly answer
the research question, even using the same words. Its format should be simple,
measurable, attainable, challenging and feasible at the time to avoid possible deviations
in the research process (Hernández Sampieri et al., 2006). To state the general objective,
using a verb in the infinitive is recommended to start the phrase. Some experts suggest
using one of the following verbs — its selection in accordance with the question:
develop, design, produce, modify, integrate, create, extend, construct, comprehend, pro
pose, combine, establish, evaluate or specify. Others classify research purpose as explora
tory, descriptive or explanatory (Yin, 1981) and propose the use of some verbs for each
purpose. For example, verbs like know, define, detect, explore, inquire and prove can be
used in exploratory research. Other verbs that we can use in descriptive research are
analyse, calculate, characterize, classify, compare, quantify, define, describe, diagnose,
examine, identify and measure, whereas in explanatory research we can use verbs like
check, demonstrate, determine, establish, evaluate, explain, relate and verify. Finally,
others such as Anderson et al. (2001) propose the use of some verbs according to
Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy.
‘Step-by-step’ method for research in organizations / ‘Paso a paso’ para realizar investigaciones en la organización 37
Step 4
Theoretical framework
Each new study should be based on existing knowledge, and the researcher must
take a position concerning this knowledge. In this sense, all studies must be
conducted within a frame of reference or previous knowledge so that the researcher
can assign the project to previous theory, school or focus (Bernal, 2010). For this
purpose, a literature review becomes a useful element in the construction of the
theoretical framework.
In this sense, we suggest the construction of this framework in two parts. In the
first one, the researcher should look or construct for the current status of the
discussion or state of the art of his main topic. When the researcher decides to
look for it in the literature, it is advisable to seek articles whose titles have phrases
such as ‘state of the art’, ‘construct’, ‘concept’ and ‘systematic review’.
Additionally, try looking in handbooks or reviewing the frame of reference of an
author close to the research topic. In other cases, when the researcher decides to
construct or does not find it in the literature, it is advisable to conduct a literature
review, following some of the existing techniques — e.g., bibliometric analysis,
content review, among others. In the second part, and with the current status of
the discussion clear, the researcher must choose his or her project’s theoretical
framework. In this process, it may be useful to consider many different theories,
how their general premise applies to the research topic and which experts have
used them while reviewing near topics. Afterwards, the researcher can select the
theory or theories that they will use as the theoretical framework. For more
information on the strategy proposed in step 4, reference the construction of the
theoretical framework shown in Figure 5, where we represent the knowledge as
a tree. On this tree, the new leaves are equivalent to theoretical knowledge,
whereas the branches, trunk and roots represent the selected theory as the theo
retical framework.
Step 5
Specific objectives and methodology
Once we complete the previous stages, we must define the project’s specific objectives
and the research methodology. It does not matter which of these two points initiates the
researcher’s study. We must conduct both, as specified below:
Specific objectives
The specific objectives will guide the study. Hence, there must be an interconnection
between them throughout the development of the study (Hernández Sampieri et al.,
2006). In some cases, specific objectives can follow a sequence based on the theoretical
framework. This means that the researcher defines the stages of the study according to
the proposal selected as theoretical lenses, while in other cases, researchers define the
specific objectives considering the expected products. For example, they can relate each
specific objective to papers, patents, statutes, books, among others. Finally, we suggest
that its composition begins with some of the following infinitive verbs, with the goal
that each action helps respond to the research question posed and contributes to the
general objective: adapt, group, associate, outline, change, categorize, classify, combine,
comment, comprehend, conclude, confirm, construct, contrast, convert, create, criticize,
debate, decide, deduce, demonstrate, develop, describe, determine, differentiate, discrimi
nate, discern, design, distinguish, exemplify, elaborate, choose, enumerate, sketch, specify,
establish, evaluate, express, extend, form, generalize, plot, identify, equate, infer, integrate,
interpret, judge, pinpoint, modify, order, organize, pair, plan, predict, propose, recognize,
reconstruct, record, relate, reorder, reproduce, resolve, summarize, label, select, structure,
solve, underline, sustain, transform, locate, value or verify.
Methodology
This step is one of the most tricky parts of the research proposal because many different
approaches do not agree. We review some of these proposals, figuring out definitions
and decisions that the researcher has to take during the proposal design. So, we suggest
the revision of each criterion, taking special care with the researcher`s decisions and
their implications. For example, it may be a good idea to specify these criteria in a table,
like a checklist, that details the choice or decision made for each of the criteria. Next, in
Table 1, we propose the checklist for the methodology stage, and then we describe each
criterion, specifying the required decisions.
‘Step-by-step’ method for research in organizations / ‘Paso a paso’ para realizar investigaciones en la organización 39
Research paradigms or approaches. This is probably the most crucial decision for
the researcher in this step, because his or her decision directly affects or deter
mines the data analysis technique. A research paradigm or approach is
a worldview or perspective about research based on a set of shared assumptions,
concepts, values and practices (Johnson & Christensen, 2016). In other words, it is
an approach to thinking about and doing research and, therefore, producing
knowledge. In this context, some authors propose positivist or post-positivist,
interpretive or constructed, and critical theory and postmodernism as the science
paradigms. The first paradigm refers to the positivist or post-positivist focus,
typically linked to quantitative measures (Gephart, 1999). The second is related
to the interpretive or constructed approach, typically related to meanings and
qualitative symbolic acts (Hammersley, 2013), whereas the third and last of these
paradigms is focused on critical theory and postmodernism, generally linked to
finding contradictions (Gephart, 1999). In contrast, others introduce three domi
nant educational research paradigms or approach quantitative research, qualitative
research and mixed research (Borrego et al., 2009).
2020; Saldaña, 2011). At the same time, some others suggest a mixed approach
that combines ways of reasoning (Silverman & Marvasti, 2008).
Theory, as a part of knowledge (Mitchell & Cody, 1993), plays an important
role — i.e., the role of theory — in the construction of this knowledge.
Traditionally, authors associate the role of theory in qualitative research with the
‘context of discovery’ own of inductive reasoning. Whereas, they relate quantita
tive research to the ‘context of justification’ common in deductive reasoning
(Reichenbach, 1938). In this context, the researcher must choose his or her way
of reasoning and the role that theory will play in the research process. When
choosing a deductive role, the researcher begins fieldwork with a model or
a theory to verify. When choosing the inductive role, theory and results emerge
from the data collected. For its part, with the deductive-inductive role, the
researcher begins with a model to subsequently enrich or change it, whereas
with the abductive role, the starting point is the description of a fact or phenom
enon that leads us to a hypothesis. Next, in Figure 6, we try to summarize this
through the figures of syllogism.
Remember the research question. In this criterion, the researcher only needs to
repeat the research question that has previously been defined in step 3. Although
this standard does not represent a specific decision or activity, the researcher must
keep the research question in mind for the next decisions.
Research hypothesis. There are different types of hypotheses that include inductive
and deductive, directional and non-directional, and null and alternative hypoth
eses (Toledo et al., 2011). Accordingly, there are alternative definitions for hypoth
esis; some of them are related to (1) stating the research problem, (2)
characterizing the questions posed in the protocol, and others to (3) defining the
conclusions reached (Toledo et al., 2011). In this context, we, conceiving the
hypothesis as a supposition, adopt the last definition. Where the researcher
moves from the hypothesis to the thesis because of its power of conviction
‘Step-by-step’ method for research in organizations / ‘Paso a paso’ para realizar investigaciones en la organización 41
(Metcalfe, 1996), this election of moving from the hypothesis to the thesis tries to
arrange arguments applying procedures most akin to logic, but previously intro
duced by Aristotle into early rhetoric (D. L. Clark, 1951).
Research strategy. Also known as the research approach (Cavaye, 1996), some
authors define the research strategy as a general plan of how the researcher will
go about answering the research question or questions (M. Saunders et al., 2009,
p. 600). In contrast, others assume it as a way of going about one’s research,
embodying a particular style and employing different methods (Cavaye, 1996).
Despite these differences, experts agree when referring to its importance for
ensuring the research value (Walshe et al., 2004). Traditionally, research strategies
have been associated with a type of reasoning, but this is not the main point. It is
most important to select a research strategy that corresponds with the research
question and the purpose of the study, the existing knowledge, the available
resources and researchers’ philosophical underpinnings (M. Saunders et al., 2009,
p. 141). Some of the most popular strategies are the experiment, survey, case
study, action research, grounded theory, ethnography (Angrosino, 2008), archival
research, correlational, causal-comparative, single-subject and narrative (Mills &
Gay, 2016). Finally, it is necessary to highlight that researchers can select more
than one strategy because they are not mutually exclusive (M. Saunders et al.,
2009, p. 141).
Unit of analysis. Also known as ‘unit of observation’ (Ybema et al., 2009, p. 24) or
‘unit of action’ (Pozzebon, 2004). Despite being an underestimated aspect of the
research process, its definition determines what the researcher will collect.
Moreover, how he or she is going to understand it (Roth, 2015). In this context,
we define the unit of analysis as the smallest element of study, observable or
measurable, concerning a collection of other elements of the same type. It means
that the experimental unit of analysis is the smallest unit treated by the researcher
during an experiment (Cresswell, 2012, p. 620). Also, its declaration is
a consequence of other decisions, such as what to analyse, what level of detail
and where. (sample) (Cavanagh, 1997).
Research design. Different from research methods (or techniques of data collec
tion), research design refers to the overall structure and orientation of an inves
tigation (Bryman, 2005). This structure provides a framework within which data
are collected and analysed, specifying the measurements or observations to be
performed and when they will be collected (Bryman, 2005).
In this context, and paying particular attention to when data will be collected,
we highlight in this phase two (if there is a single method) or three (if there are
multi-method) essential definitions of the researcher. In the first one, the
researcher should define if he or she will conduct a single or multi-method for
the data analysis. In the second, the researcher defines how and when they will
gather the data for his single method or multi methods. For example, (a) defining
if the researcher actively manipulates aspects of a setting, either in the laboratory
or in a field situation, and observes the effects of that manipulation on
42 M. Escobar-Sierra et al.
Data collection techniques. Once variables are defined, the researcher needs to
identify the types of data that will measure those variables. We collect data
through instruments, and an instrument is a tool for measuring, observing or
documenting (Cresswell, 2012). Some authors define these instruments or data
collection techniques at the beginning of the research proposal (Johnson &
Christensen, 2016), others according to the research strategy (Mills & Gay, 2016)
and others according to the research paradigm (Cresswell, 2012). For example,
Johnson and Christensen (2016) have a general proposal that includes tests,
questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, observations and constructed and sec
ondary or existing data. On the other hand, Cresswell (2012) proposed observa
tions, interviews, questionnaires, documents, audiovisual materials, personal
narrative and reflexivity (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003), focus groups, media data,
visual data and data from the internet (Crowley et al., 2010) as options to collect
data in qualitative studies. Also, the test of individual performance, the measure of
individual attitude, observation of individual behaviour and factual information
for quantitative studies (Cresswell, 2012). Moreover, Mills and Gay (2016) defined
techniques like re-storying, oral history, an examination of artefacts, storytelling,
letter writing and autobiographical and biographical writing for narrative research.
Techniques like participant observation, field notes, interviews and the examina
tion of artefacts for ethnographic research. Techniques like naturally occurring
data — data ‘derive from situations which exist independently of the researcher’s
intervention’ — such as test scores, attendance records, portfolios, anecdotal
records, interviews, surveys, questionnaires, video and audio recordings, maps,
photos and observations for action research. Also, techniques like surveys for
survey research, among others (Mills & Gay, 2016).
Next, with the instruments or data collection techniques selected, the researcher
has to select — between existing instruments and those available in the literature
(Cresswell, 2012, p. 157) — or design the specific content of his or her instrument.
Crocker and Algina (2008) suggest a specific step-by-step method for instruments
design, which includes (1) define the purpose of the test, (2) identify behaviours
44 M. Escobar-Sierra et al.
that reveal the construct, (3) characterize the behaviours, (4) construct an initial
pool of questions, (5) define a previous version for each question, (6) reassess each
question, (7) conduct a field test, (8) reassess the initial version of questions, (9)
verify reliability and validity (Willimack, 2013) and (10) standardize the instru
ment. For the fifth step, it is essential to take into account that there are different
types of questions. Some of them try to measure cognitive matters — e.g.,
Objective Item (multiple-choice, true/false, matching and short answer or comple
tion) and performance assessments (essay and performance tasks) — while others
measure noncognitive affairs — e.g., Thurstone, Likert, Guttman, Osgood or
attitude scaling — (Bandalos, 2018). Finally, it is necessary to highlight that
resulting answers do not directly correspond with the characterized behaviours;
they are measures or observable variables directly collected and that need
a mathematical ‘transformation’ into latent variables — i.e., through a factorial
analysis (L. A. Clark & Watson, 1995) — which represent behaviours or constructs
(DeVellis, 2017).
Research model. At this level of the research proposal two levels of abstraction exist,
a conceptual level (related to conceptual variables, constructs, latent variables or not
directly observed variables) and an operational level (related to observable variables
directly collected) (Schwab, 2013). The purpose of this phase is to graphically represent
the relationship between these two levels of abstraction, and among the independent
and dependent variables that represent the conceptual and the operational level
(Schwab, 2013), as we show in Figure 7.
In this context, we suggest that the researcher (1) retakes the independent and
dependent variable(s) (remember that it may be both or only the independent variable
(s)), (2) defines the validated relationships in the literature between these variables, to
represent them with a continuous line, and (3) represents the relationships to validate
between those variables with a broken line.
‘Step-by-step’ method for research in organizations / ‘Paso a paso’ para realizar investigaciones en la organización 45
Expected result for each specific objective. According to the selected research paradigm
and its aim, we expect a specific result. For example, if we chose the positivism
paradigm, we expect to test a theory, replace it or complement it to some extent
(Gephart, 1999). Moreover, if we chose the interpretative paradigm, we expect to
build a theory (Gephart, 1999).
In this context, and taking into account the qualitative and quantitative tech
niques that these paradigms apply (Gephart, 1999), we can recognize the expected
results of qualitative techniques as interpretative. However, when we consider the
expected results of the quantitative techniques, it is essential to review the propo
sals of different authors. Giudici (2003), for example, classified methods, according
to the aim of the analysis, as descriptive methods (which only try to describe
groups of data briefly, and treat them at the same level, without a hypothesis of
causality), predictive methods (which try to describe one or more of the variables
with all the others, looking for rules of classification or prediction based on the
data) and local methods (which aim to identify particular characteristics related to
the interests subset of the database). Sharma (2012), Lind et al. (2012) and Vargas
Sabadías (1995) focus on inferential statistics and classify methods according to
their purpose, which may be (i) estimation of the values of the parameters of
a population, (ii) determination of a set of values with a given high probability of
containing the true value of the parameter, or (iii) evaluation of certain results
when we know certain values of the parameters of a population. Shankar and
Singh (2014) propose various types of analysis, based on researcher aims. These
aims may be (a) describe a variable, (b) compare/find an association between two
variables, (c) predict one variable from other variables, (d) calculate time between
events and contrast them or (e) compare a test to a gold standard. Marusteri and
Bacarea (2010) classified it according to its goal, as comparing, correlating and
associating techniques. Finally, Martin (2012) classified mathematical tools accord
ing to their aim, as those useful (a) to describe and summarize data acquired, (b)
to provide methods to model response and (c) to help in decision-making, focus
ing on the last one through experimental design.
With this purpose, we propose that researchers classify their expected results
according to the aim of the paradigm and its qualitative and quantitative methods
(Shankar & Singh, 2014), as results of interpretation or description, classification,
inference, optimization, regression and design of experiments.
Data analysis. As Miles and Huberman (1994) did for the qualitative research, we
propose that the researchers split data analysis techniques into two categories. (1)
First, we consider those analysis techniques used in the early stages to organize the
data. Here we can include descriptive statistics for the quantitative approach, and
summary forms of documents, codes, thoughtful commentary, marginal observa
tions, memos, expanding prepositions, among others, for the qualitative approach.
Finally, we consider in the (2) second category those qualitative and quantitative
techniques for a more in-depth analysis, even specific techniques for a knowledge
field. With this purpose, we suggest that once the data are organized, the
researcher reviews the used qualitative and quantitative techniques in his or her
knowledge field, and with those fields related or near, to create a list of different
46 M. Escobar-Sierra et al.
data analysis techniques that may be useful. Then we suggest that the researcher
defines and classifies each technique in the repository, according to its expected
result, as we previously proposed, and finally screens those suitable techniques for
his or her research problem and select those that are more suitable.
Ethical aspects and considerations. The researcher must bear in mind that usually,
humans are part of the resources of our field. Furthermore, our research is a cause
or motion, the voice of the underrepresented and a question of personal ethics
(Stake, 2010). In this sense, we must guarantee the protection of human beings. It
means that we expect objectivity without losing flexibility and avoiding the expo
sure of people as objects of study (Hollway & Jefferson, 2000; Stake, 2010). For
this step, we suggest that researchers explicitly identify the risks and consequently
define a contingency plan. In this contingency plan, we can include for qualitative
and quantitative research tools like informed consent (participants are fully
informed about the research procedure and give their consent to participate in
the research before data collection), debriefing (participants are informed about
the aims of the research and can access any publications), confidentiality
(researchers should maintain the confidentiality of information acquired during
the research process) (Darlington & Scott, 2002), no deception (the researcher
must avoid the deception of participants) and the right to withdraw (participants
should feel free to withdraw from participation in the study without fear of being
penalized) (Willig, 2008).
Step 6
Reporting results
The information collected is interpreted and organized in its final form. This
organization process refers to not only the importance of synthesizing the infor
mation but also the need to characterize it, categorize it and, finally, group it to
achieve greater comprehension and interpretation of the ideas (Wolcott, 2003).
With this purpose, the researcher can summarize results in tables, portray vari
ables and their relationships in figures or shapes and provide detailed explanations
in the results report (Cresswell, 2012). This section should respond to each
research question. And it may be useful to answer each question one by one in
the order in which they were introduced earlier in the study (Cresswell, 2012).
Step 7
Discussion with other authors
The purpose of this step is to support result interpretation, trying to ask questions
like what meaning do these findings have for the organization, for professional
practice, for the development of theory. This step will benefit from a consideration
of the implications of the results for theories that the researcher detailed in the
literature review (M. Saunders et al., 2009), in step 1 and step 4. It means that we
should discuss each result in terms of its relation to the problem and its agreement
‘Step-by-step’ method for research in organizations / ‘Paso a paso’ para realizar investigaciones en la organización 47
Step 8
Conclusions and recommendations
After reporting and explaining the results, the researcher must conclude by: (1)
summarizing key findings (general conclusion and implications for stakeholders);
(2) developing explanations for results (explain why their results turned out the
way they did); (3) suggesting limitations in the research (potential weaknesses or
problems with the study); (4) making recommendations for future inquiries (addi
tional studies that need to be conducted based on the results of the present
research; these are linked with limitations) (Cresswell, 2012); and (5) clarifying
the scope of the research (as ‘analytic generalization’ for interpretative studies
(Yin, 2002) or ‘statistical generalization’ for deductive ones (Mariotto et al., 2014)
for those cases where the researcher wants to apply the study’s findings in another
case (Hoon, 2013)).
Step 9
Triangulation and checklist
Once our new research method used in the organizational engineering environ
ment is proposed, and bearing in mind the proposal implemented by authors such
as Flick (1992) and Pozzebon (2004), we suggest a triangulation analysis and 10-
criteria check to guarantee the quality of the conducted research. Also, if the
researcher wants to improve this process, it will be useful to include a classmate
or another researcher to conduct the triangulation and quality check.
First, when referring to triangulation analysis, it is essential to emphasize its
pertinence and usefulness, advocating synergy between the different perspectives
and supporting the generalization of discoveries (Flick et al., 2004). Further, it
provides a more robust substantiation of constructs and hypotheses (Eisenhardt,
1989), without delegitimizing the quality of information collected and seeking to
bring rigour, breadth and depth (Flick, 1992) from a positivist perspective
(González Rey, 2006). We can perform this triangulation by comparing our find
ings with others obtained when considering new data or materials (different
sources of information), new theories (multiple perspectives to support the same
group of data), new methodologies (different methods of studying the same
problem), new observers, researchers or evaluators (intervention of different inves
tigators in the field or involvement of natural participants) (Denzin & Lincoln,
2008; Flick, 1992). Also, new disciplines through an interdisciplinary triangulation
(relates to the inclusion of more than one disciplinary perspective) (Briller et al.,
2008; Halcomb & Andrew, 2005).
Next, we present the 10 criteria to check in the checklist, looking for their compli
ance through an affirmative answer for each question:
48 M. Escobar-Sierra et al.
Step 10
References
Finally, it is essential to highlight the importance of an accurate quotation of the
reviewed authors that respects the authority and property of others’ ideas and shows
the knowledge-building process.
does not focus on specific stages, like project idea identification, despite the suggestion
of Memon et al. (2014), nor specific research strategies like case studies — as Fiegen
(2010) did — because we tried to include different approaches.
We proposed a step-by-step method to conduct applied research in organiza
tional engineering and business management with an eclectic perspective that
incorporates the findings of different disciplines and allows a mixed-method
approach. In this context, we believe that research methods are tools that must
serve and support researchers in their decision-making process. Thus we recognize
that it can exist, and in fact, there are many other research proposals, due to its
cognitive nature. However, our proposal offers a comprehensible sequence that can
quickly be followed and may support researchers’ learning and teaching processes.
Once our literature review about research methods applied in organizational
engineering and business management was conducted, we confirmed what we had
noticed. There are not enough procedures that support researchers’ training in this
field. Moreover, the available procedures only focus on specific strategies like case
studies, avoid mixed-method approaches and are usually applied to developing
countries.
Among the limitations of our ‘step-by-step’ method, we include its dependence
on the situation or context selected for study; it means that if the researcher does
not pay attention to this choice, he or she will lose their time and effort. We also
recognize the importance of a more in-depth explanation for the choice of the
theoretical framework in our research field, and for the election of data analysis
techniques for both approaches — qualitative and quantitative. Consequently, we
suggest future studies related to the election of the research context. Moreover, we
suggest specific reviews about data analysis techniques and theoretical frameworks
useful in business and organizational studies.
50 M. Escobar-Sierra et al.
Fiegen (2010) reconoció los estudios de caso como la estrategia más popular en la
literatura de la enseñanza en este ámbito.
Por otro lado, algunos autores se centran en las características del contexto organi
zacional y empresarial. Por ejemplo, Chetty (1996) y Perren y Ram (2004) examinaron
el método del estudio de caso en el contexto de las pequeñas y medianas empresas
como una herramienta para la toma de decisiones. Shi y Dow (2019) aplicaron
su método de método de aprendizaje del caso crudo en un espacio abierto de
información en tiempo real. De hecho, De Massis y Kotlar (2014) proporcionan unas
directrices útiles a los investigadores en el contexto de una empresa familiar. Buhmann
et al. (2018) ilustraron los retos metodológicas que se plantean en el contexto de la
investigación sobre empresas y derechos humanos. Además, Michailova y Liuhto (2000)
determinaron ciertos aspectos de la investigación organizacional y de gestión en los
antiguos países socialistas, como un contexto de investigación peculiar pero al mismo
tiempo muy atractivo.
Por último, diversos autores se ocupan principalmente de los detonantes
o motivadores de la investigación aplicada en la ingeniería organizacional y en la
gestión empresarial. Por ejemplo, Perren y Ram (2004) estudian las implicaciones
y las consecuencias de los modelos filosóficos adoptados en el estudio de pequeñas
y medianas empresas. Además, Koltai et al. (2014) describieron una metodología de
casos ampliada para revelar como los factores culturales, organizativos y de
automatización que influyen en el desarrollo de la confianza entre las personas y el
proceso de automatización.
El contexto teórico que se mencionan en las líneas anteriores confirman que la
investigación en el ámbito de la empresa y de las organizaciones es una disciplina
joven. De hecho, tras nuestra revisión observamos que no existen suficientes métodos
de investigación específicos para estas disciplinas. Muchos expertos se centran exclusi
vamente en ‘estudios de caso’ como estrategia de investigación dirigida a empresas
y organizaciones, a pesar de las dificultades del contexto y de las recomendaciones
recientes de estudiosos y expertos del sector.
Contextoy partesinteresadas
Paso 2
Justificación
Paso 8 Conclusiones y
recomendaciones
Paso 10 Referencias
nueva versión más comprensible para los estudiantes. Esta nueva versión de la
‘espiral metodológica’ se renombró como método ‘paso a paso’ para la
investigación aplicada en el ámbito de la ingeniería organizacional y la gestión
empresarial. Con esta nueva versión, llevamos a cabo tres estudios piloto con 86
estudiantes de pregrado y posgrado. Una vez finalizada su investigación,
‘Step-by-step’ method for research in organizations / ‘Paso a paso’ para realizar investigaciones en la organización 55
desarrollar ciertas competencias específicas, (3) una idea de negocio y (4) un tema de su
elección. Luego, los investigadores pueden definir una lista de posibles situaciones,
a modo de una lluvia de ideas, que podrían ser objeto de estudio. A partir de esta
lista, el investigador debe seleccionar aquella o aquellas ideas que considere más
apropiada(s) para estudiar. Para llevar a cabo esta selección, el investigador puede
verificar los recursos disponibles en términos de tiempo, esfuerzo y dinero. Por ejemplo,
el investigador puede dar una puntuación positiva a aquellas ideas que pueden ejecu
tarse con el tiempo, el esfuerzo y el dinero disponible, y una puntuación negativa
o neutral para aquellas ideas que exceden los recursos de tiempo, esfuerzo y dinero
disponibles.
Una vez seleccionada la situación o el contexto de estudio, el investigador debe
aplicar el siguiente método en el marco del contexto seleccionado y de las partes
interesadas o involucradas en él. Esos interesados pueden ser proveedores, clientes,
empleados, socios, el Estado, la comunidad o las instituciones académicas. El método
consta de 10 pasos o etapas. A continuación se describe cada uno de los 10 pasos del
modelo.
Paso 1
Conocimiento empírico o teórico
Estos dos tipos de conocimiento constituyen el punto de partida del proyecto de
investigación. En esta fase, el investigador toma conciencia de la situación
problemática que quiere estudiar a través del conocimiento empírico o de las teorías
previas. Es esencial señalar que el investigador debe aclarar ambos tipos de conoci
mientos, independientemente de cuál sea el punto de partida. Para ello, puede ayudar si
el investigador define algunas palabras clave específicas que contengan los principales
temas de la situación problemática.
sujeto, generalmente la experiencia de los profesionales del área. En este caso, nos
referimos a la experiencia en torno a los temas principales de la situación problemática.
Podemos obtener este tipo de conocimeintos a través de entrevistas u otras herramien
tas de investigación oral (Kozinets, 2007), mediantes las que estudiamos, por ejemplo,
una situación social, una historia de vida, un trabajo biográfico o un acontecimiento
histórico (Kvale, 2007). O, también, a través de literatura no indexada como periódicos,
blogs, podcasts, revistas, programas de radio y opiniones de expertos, entre otros.
Conocimiento teórico
Por su parte, el conocimiento teórico creado en las instituciones académicas (Kouritzin
et al., 2009) y disponible en la literatura (Flick, 2009; Joedodibroto, 1991) constituye la
base del proyecto de investigación. Por lo tanto, en este paso es necesario llevar a cabo
una revisión de la literatura relevante sobre el tema de interés para tratar de identificar:
(a) las recomendaciones futuras sugeridas por los investigadores en sus estudios, (b)
sugerencias documentadas sobre las implicaciones prácticas consideradas en su
investigación y (c) nuevos enfoques sobre un tema que susciten investigaciones adicio
nales (Webster & Watson, 2002). En este paso, los investigadores pueden revisar fuentes
indexadas, revisadas por pares, y publicadas en los últimos cuatro a seis años, espe
cialmente sus recomendaciones futuras y conclusiones. Para obtener más información
sobre esta estrategia, véase la Figura 3. En esta figura, el conocimeinto se representa en
forma de árbol, denominado el árbol del conocimeinto. En este árbol, las hojas externas
equivalen a los estudios más recientes, asociados a recomendaciones, sugerencias
o nuevas formas de abordar el tema que alientan y promueven estudios posteriores.
Estas revisiones, tanto la del conocimiento empírico como la del conocimiento
teórico, pueden completarse cronológicamente, conceptualmente, metodológicamente
o en formato de tabla o matriz (Webster & Watson, 2002). Algunos expertos reco
miendan que puede resultar útil que el investigador busque propuestas — indexadas
o no, en función del tipo de conocimiento — que sugieran el estudio (tanto la
intersección como su conjunción) de las palabras clave o los temas previamente
seleccionados. A continuación, en la Figura 4 se presentan dos representaciones posi
bles del conocimiento empírico y teórico. Los investigadores pueden hacer uso del
diagrama de Venn cuando los expertos sugieren la intersección de los temas o, alter
nativamente, pueden usar los conjuntos cuando los expertos sugieren su conjunción.
Una vez que se hayan referenciado ambos tipos de conocimeinto, el empírico y el
teórico, sugerimos proceder al segundo paso, que se describe a continuación.
Paso 2
Justificación
Este paso es especialmente importante cuando el estudio requiere la aprobación de otras
personas o entidades, porque aquí ubicamos el problema en función de las necesidades
de la comunidad, el Estado y otras partes interesadas. La justificación busca contextua
lizar el problema identificado y aclarar las situaciones que llevaron a su surgimiento
(Hernández Sampieri et al., 2006). Para este paso, sugerimos comenzar buscando datos
primarios y secundarios (e.g., hechos, cifras y estadísticas indexadas o no) sobre la
58 M. Escobar-Sierra et al.
situación conómica, política, social, tecnológica y cultural a nivel macro (e.g., a nivel
global o nacional) hasta desarrollarlos en un contexto micro (un entorno específico).
Este enfoque consolida la justificación del estudio.
Paso 3
Contexto del problema, pregunta de investigación y objetivo general
Una vez completadas las etapas anteriores, debemos especificar el contexto del
problema, la pregunta de investigación y el objetivo general. Dicho esto, no
importa por cuál de los dos puntos inicie el estudio el investigador, ambos
deben completarse de manera clara y concluyente, como se indica a continuación.
corroboradas por otros autores, y (3) señalando los vacíos teóricos y otras cues
tiones pendientes. También recomendamos desarrollar una construcción teórica
vinculada con las necesidades de las principales partes interesadas (Stake, 2010).
Hasta consolidar el contexto del problema con una pregunta abierta (e.g., qué,
cómo, cuáles, cuándo, por qué, etc.) que (a) fomente la discusión, (b) evite una
redacción farragosa, (c) prevenga el uso de palabras que designen valor, y (d)
especifique su alcance (ni muy amplio ni muy restringido). Por último, propone
mos crear una representación gráfica para organizar y estructurar las ideas
y mostrar, por ejemplo, los temas asociados y las relaciones verificadas entre
ellos (mediante líneas continuas), los autores que las han demostrado y los
vacíos teóricos (mediante líneas discontinuas) en las que se centrará el
investigador.
Objetivo general
El objetivo general debe responder a la pregunta ‘¿Qué estamos estudiando?’ para
resolver o responder la pregunta de investigación propuesta. Dicho de otro modo, el
objetivo general debe responder directamente a la pregunta de investigación, utilizando
incluso las mismas palabras. Su formato debe ser simple, medible, alcanzable, motiva
dor y viable en el tiempo para evitar posibles desviaciones en el proceso de investigación
(Hernández Sampieri et al., 2006). Para enunciar el objetivo general, se recomienda
utilizar un verbo en infinitivo para iniciar la frase. Algunos expertos sugieren utilizar
uno de los siguientes verbos (su selección debe ser acorde a la pregunta): desarrollar,
diseñar, producir, modificar, integrar, crear, ampliar, extender, construir, elaborar,
comprender, proponer, combinar, extender, establecer, evaluar o especificar. Otros
clasifican el propósito de la investigación como exploratorio, descriptivo o explicativo
(Yin, 1981) y proponen el uso de algunos verbos para cada uno de los propósito. Por
ejemplo, verbos como definir, detectar, explorar, indagar y probar pueden ser adecua
dos para una investigación exploratoria. Otros verbos que podemos utilizar en la
investigación descriptiva son: analizar, calcular, caracterizar, clasificar, comparar, cuan
tificar, definir, describir, diagnosticar, examinar, identificar y medir. Por otro lado, en la
investigación explicativa utilizaremos verbos como comprobar, demostrar, determinar,
establecer, evaluar, explicar, relatar y verificar. Finalmente, otros autores como
Anderson et al. (2001), proponen el uso de algunos verbos de la taxonomía de Bloom
(1956).
Paso 4
Marco teórico
Todos los estudios nuevos deben basarse en los conocimientos existentes, y el
investigador debe tomar una postura con respecto a estos conocimeintos. En este
sentido, todas las investigaciones deben realizarse dentro de un marco de referencia
o de conocimiento previo de modo que el investigador pueda relacionar su proyecto
con la teorías, escuelas o enfoques previos (Bernal, 2010). Para ello, la revisión de la
literatura se convierte en un elemento útil en la construcción del marco teórico.
60 M. Escobar-Sierra et al.
Paso 5
Objetivos específicos y metodología
Tras completar las fases anteriores, es necesario definir los objetivos específicos y la
metodología concreta del proyecto de investigación. No importa por cuál de estos dos
aspectos se inicie el estudio, deberán completarse ambos, como se indica
a continuación.
Objetivos específicos
Los objetivos específicos guiarán el estudio. Por lo tanto, debe existir un vínculo entre
ellos durante todo el desarrollo de la investigación (Hernández Sampieri et al., 2006).
‘Step-by-step’ method for research in organizations / ‘Paso a paso’ para realizar investigaciones en la organización 61
En algunos casos, estos objetivos específicos pueden seguir una secuencia basada en el
marco teórico. Esto significa que el investigador define las etapas del estudio en función
de la propuesta seleccionada a como lentes teóricos. Mientras que en otros casos, los
investigadores definen los objetivos específicos en función de los resultados o productos
esperados. Por ejemplo, se puede relacionar cada objetivo específico con artículos
científicos, patentes, estatutos, libros, etc. Por último, recomendamos que su
redacción comience utilizando alguno de los siguientes verbos en infinitivo, de manera
que cada una de las acciones ayuda a responder la pregunta de investigación formulada
y contribuya al objetivo general del estudio: adaptar, agrupar, asociar, resaltar, cambiar,
categorizar, clasificar, combinar, comentar, comprender, concluir, confirmar, elaborar,
contrastar, convertir, crear, criticar, debatir, decidir, deducir, demostrar, desarrollar,
describir, determinar, diferenciar, discriminar, discernir, designar, distinguir, ejempli
ficar, elaborar, escoger, ennumerar, esbozar, especificar, establecer, evaluar, expresar,
ampliar, formar, generalizar, delinear, identificar, equiparar, inferir, integrar, interpre
tar, juzgar, señalar, modificar, ordenar, organizar, emparejar, planificar, predecir, pro
poner, reconocer, reconstruir, registrar, relatar, reproducir, resolver, resumir, etiquetar,
seleccionar, estructurar, solucionar, subrayar, sostener, transformar, situar, valorar
o verificar.
Metodología
Este paso es uno de los más delicados de la propuesta de investigación porque no hay
acuerdo entre los diferentes enfoques. Revisamos algunas de estas propuestas escla
reciendo definiciones y decisiones que el investigador debe tomar durante el diseño de
la propuesta. Por lo tanto, sugerimos la revisión de cada criterio, teniendo especial
cuidado con las decisiones del investigador y sus implicaciones. Por ejemplo, puede ser
una buena idea especificar estos criterios en una tabla, a modo de lista de chequeo o de
verificación, que detalle las decisiones o elecciones realizadas para cada uno de los
criterios. A continuación, en la Tabla 1, proponemos una lista de chequeo o verificación
para esta fase metodológica y luego describimos cada uno de los criterios, detallando las
decisiones requeridas.
variables; por ejemplo, una variable puede ser categórica o cuantitativa, dependiente
o independiente (Mills & Gay, 2016). Por último, es necesario mencionar que existen
diferentes niveles de medición para estas variables. Las variables pueden ser (1) nomi
nales (o categóricas), (2) ordinales (que pueden ser ordenadas), (3) de intérvalo (que
tienen características ordinales y la distancia entre ellas es significativa), y (4) de
relación (que tienen características de intérvalo y con un punto cero válido) (Schwab,
2013).
Técnicas para la recolección de datos. Tras definir las variables, el investigador necesita
identificar los tipos de datos que medirán dichas variables. Recopilamos los datos
a través de instrumentos. Y un instrumento sirve para medir, observar o documentar
(Cresswell, 2012). Algunos autores definen estos instrumentos o técnicas de recolección
de datos al principio de la propuesta de investigación (Johnson & Christensen, 2016),
mientras que otros lo hacen en función de la estrategia de investigación (Mills & Gay,
2016) o incluso en función del paradigma de investigación (Cresswell, 2012). Por
ejemplo, Johnson y Christensen (2016) ofrecen una propuesta general que incluye
pruebas, cuestionarios, entrevistas, grupos focales, observaciones y datos elaborados
y secundarios o existentes. Cresswell (2012), por su parte, propuso observaciones,
entrevistas, cuestionarios, documentos, materiales audiovisuales, narrativas personales
y reflexivas (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003), grupos focales, noticias publicadas los medios de
comunicación, datos visuales y de internet (Crowley et al., 2010) como opciones para
reunir datos en estudios cualitativos. Y para los estudios cuantitativos, propuso la
prueba de rendimiento individual, la medida de actitudes individuales, la observación
del comportamiento individual y la infromación fáctica (Cresswell, 2012). Así mismo,
Mills y Gay (2016), plantearon técnicas ya definidas como las re-narraciones, la historia
oral, el reconocimiento de artefactos, la narración, la escritura de cartas, el relato
autobiográfico y biográfico para la investigación narrativa, y otras técnicas adicionales
tales como la observación de los participantes, las notas de campo, las entrevistas, el
examen de artefactos para la investigación etnográfica. También existe la recolección de
datos que ocurren de manera natural, es decir, datos que se derivan de ‘situaciones que
existen independientemente de la intervención del investigador’, tales como los resul
tados de pruebas, registros de asistencia, portafolios, registros anecdóticos, entrevistas,
encuestas, cuestionarios, registros audiovisuales, mapas, fotos y observaciones para la
investigación-acción. Y, por último, técnicas como las encuestas y cuestionarios para
investigación con encuestas, entre otras (Mills & Gay, 2016).
A continuación, una vez realizada la selección de los instrumentos o técnicas para la
recolección de los datos, el investigador tiene que seleccionar, entre los instrumentos
existentes y disponibles en la literatura (Cresswell, 2012, p. 157) o diseñar el contenido
específico del instrumento que se va a utilizar. Crocker y Algina (2008) sugieren
un método ‘paso a paso’ para el diseño de los instrumentos, que incluye (1) definir el
propósito de la prueba, (2) identificar las conductas o comportameintos que revelan el
constructo, (3) caracterizar estas conductas o comportamientos, (4) construir un repo
sitorio inicial de preguntas, (5) definir una versión previa de las preguntas, (6) revalidar
cada una de las preguntas, (7) llevar a cabo una prueba de campo, (8) revaluar la
versión inicial de las preguntas, (9) verificar la confiabilidad y validez del instrumento
(Willimack, 2013), además de (10) estandarizarlo. Para el quinto paso, es importante
‘Step-by-step’ method for research in organizations / ‘Paso a paso’ para realizar investigaciones en la organización 67
tener en cuenta que existen diferentes tipos de preguntas. Algunas de ellas tratan de
medir asuntos cognitivos — por ejemplo, ítems objetivos (de respuesta múltiple, ver
dadero/falso, emparejamiento, respuesta corta o de completar la frase) e indicadores de
desempeño (tareas de redacción y desempeño) — mientras que otras miden aspectos no
cognitivos — por ejemplo, las escalas de Thurstone, Likert, Guttman, Osgood o las
escalas de actitudes (Bandalos, 2018). Por último, hay que señalar que las respuestas
resultantes no se corresponden directamente con las conductas o comportamientos
caracterizados, son medidas o variables observables que recogen directamente y que
necesitan una ‘transformación’ matemática en variables latentes — mediante, por
ejemplo, un análisis factorial (L. A. Clark & Watson, 1995) — que representan com
portamientos o constructos (DeVellis, 2017).
(2014) proponen varios tipos de análisis basados en el objetivo del investigador. Este
objetivo puede ser (a) describir una variable, (b) comparar o identificar la relación entre
dos variables, (c) predecir una variable a partir de otras variables, (d) calcular el tiempo
entre ciertos eventos y contrastarlos y (e) comparar una prueba frente a un patrón de
referencia (gold standard). Marusteri y Bacarea (2010) proponen una clasificación en
función de su objetivo, como técnicas de comparación, correlación y asociación. Y por
último, Martin (2012) clasifica las herramientas matemáticas en función de su objetivo
como aquellas (a) útiles para describir y resumir los datos obtenidos, (b)
proporcionar métodos para modelar la respuesta y (c) ayudar en el proceso de toma
de decisiones, centrándose en esta última en el diseño de experimentos.
Con este propósito, sugerimos que los investigadores clasifiquen sus resultados
esperados en función del objetivo de su paradigma de investigación y sus métodos
cualitativos y cuantitativos (Shankar & Singh, 2014) como resultados de interpretación
o descripción, clasificación, inferencia, optimización, regresión y diseño de
experimentos.
Paso 6
Reporte de resultados
La información recolectada se interpreta y organiza en su formato final. En este proceso
de organización no solo es importante sintetizar la información sino que además es
necesario caracerizarla, categorizarla y, por último, agruparla para facilitar su
comprensión y la interpretación de las ideas (Wolcott, 2003). Para ello, el investigador
puede resumir los resultados en tablas, representar las variables y sus relaciones en
figuras o gráficos y dar explicaciones detalladas en el informe de los resultados
(Cresswell, 2012). Esta sección se debe responder con detalle a cada una de las
preguntas de la investigación. Y podría ser útil responder a cada una en el orden en
que fueron introducidas en el estudio (Cresswell, 2012).
Paso 7
Discusión con otros autores
El objetivo de esta fase es apoyar la interpretación de los resultados, tratando de hacer
preguntas sobre ¿qué significado tienen estos hallazgos?; ¿para la organización?; ¿para la
práctica de los profesionales?; ¿para el desarrollo de la teoría? Este paso se beneficiará de
la reflexión sobre las implicaciones de los resultados para las teorías que el investigador
detalló en la revisión de la literatura (M. Saunders et al., 2009), en el paso 1 y 4. Esto
significa, que debemos discutir cada resultado en términos de su relación con el
problema y su nivel de acuerdo o desacuerdo con los resultados previos obtenidos en
otros estudios o por otros investigadores (Mills & Gay, 2016). Además, podemos
discutirlo con las partes interesadas de todos los grupos involucrados (House &
Howe, 1999; Leavy, 2014).
Paso 8
Conclusiones y recomendaciones
Después de reportar y explicar los resultados obtenidos, el investigador debe concluir:
(1) resumiendo los hallazgos principales (una conclusión general y sus implicaciones
para las partes interesadas), (2) desarrollando explicaciones para los resultados obte
nidos (explicar por qué sus hallazgos resultaron de la manera en que lo hicieron), (3)
sugiriendo las limitaciones de la investigación (posibles puntos débiles o problemas
identificados con el estudio), (4) formulando recomendaciones para futuras
70 M. Escobar-Sierra et al.
investigaciones (estudios adicionales que deben llevarse a cabo sobre la base de los
resultados obtenidos, incluso podrían estar relacionados con las limitaciones)
(Cresswell, 2012), y (5) aclarando el alcance de la investigación (como una
‘generalización analítica’ para los estudios interpretativos (Yin, 2002) o como una
‘generalización estadística’ para los estudios los deductivos (Mariotto et al., 2014)
para aquellos casos en los que el investigador quiera aplicar los resultados del estudio
en otro caso (Hoon, 2013)).
Paso 9
Triangulación y lista de chequeo o verificación
Una vez propuesto nuestro nuevo método para la investigación aplicada en el contexto
de la ingeniería organizacional, y teniendo en cuenta la propuesta de autores como Flick
(1992) y Pozzebon (2004), sugerimos un análisis de triangulación y la verificación de 10
criterios para garantizar la calidad de la investigación realizada. Además, si el investi
gador quiere mejorar este proceso, sería conveniente incluir un compañero de clase
u otro investigador para llevar a cabo la triangulación y el control de calidad.
En primer lugar, cuando hacemos referencia al análisis de triangulación, es impor
tante resaltar su pertinencia y utilidad, fomentando la signergia entre las diferentes
perspectivas, y apoyando la generalización de los hallazgos (Flick et al., 2004). Además,
la triangulación propicia una fundamentación más robusta de los constructos y las
hipótesis (Eisenhardt, 1989), sin deslegitimar la calidad de la información recolectada
y tratando de aportar rigor, amplitud y profundidad (Flick, 1992) desde una perspec
tiva positivista (González Rey, 2006). Podemos realizar esta triangulación comparando
los hallasgos de nuestro estudio con otros obtenidos al considerar nuevos datos
o materiales (distintas fuentes de información), nuevas teorías (múltiples perspectivas
para corroborar un mismo grupo de datos), nuevas metodologías (disintos métodos de
estudio de un mismo problema), nuevos observadores, investigadores o evaluadores
(la intervención de distintos investigadores en el campo o la participación de los
participantes propios del estudio) (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Flick, 1992). E incluso,
nuevas disciplinas a través de una triangulación multidisciplinar (relacionada con la
inclusión de más de una perspectiva disciplinar) (Briller et al., 2008; Halcomb &
Andrew, 2005).
A continuación presentamos los 10 criterios a comprobar en la lista de chequeo
o verificación, buscando su cumplimiento a través de una respuesta afirmativa para
cada pregunta:
¿La formulación del problema considera a los profesionales, a la comunidad, a los
investigadores y el gobierno como partes interesadas?
¿El objetivo general responde a la pregunta de investigación?
¿El objetivo general es simple, medible, alcanzable, motivador y viable en el tiempo?
¿La formulación del problema resuelve una cuestión relevante a nivel nacional,
sectorial, regional u organizacional?
¿Los objetivos específicos siguen el marco teórico o corresponden con los productos
o resultados esperados?
¿La metodología propuesta responde a la pregunta de investigación?
‘Step-by-step’ method for research in organizations / ‘Paso a paso’ para realizar investigaciones en la organización 71
Paso 10
Referencias
Por último, es necesario señalar la importancia de citar de manera apropiada a los
autores revisados, respetando la autoría y propiedad de sus ideas y mostrando el
proceso de construcción de conocimiento.
ORCID
Manuela Escobar-Sierra http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1865-6238
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