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The 3rd Environmental Resources Management in Global Region IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 451 (2020) 012057 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/451/1/012057

Estimation of atmospheric carbon sequestration rate through

carbonate rock dissolution in Karst Jonggrangan, Java Island,
Indonesia (case study: the underground river of Anjani Cave)

D S Dwiputra1, T N Adji1*, A D Pratama1, E Haryono1

1
Karst Research Group, Faculty of Geography, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia

*Corresponding email: adji_tjahyo@ugm.ac.id

Abstract. Karst has an important role in atmospheric CO2 sequestration through the
karstification process. Through the karstification process, the total amount of carbon dioxide
absorbed in Indonesia is estimated to reach 13482 Gg CO2/year. This research was conducted
in the Karst Jonggrangan area, focused on the underground river of Anjani cave. The objectives
of this study were: (1) to determine how much the dissolution rate of CaCO3 minerals was, and
(2) to calculate the atmospheric carbon sequestration rate through the carbonate dissolution
process that occurred in the Anjani underground river. This research was carried out between
March 2018 and March 2019. The data used were time-series of discharge and hydrochemical
data, as well as discharge properties of the Anjani underground river. The entire data was
obtained through the installation of a water fluctuation recording device and field measurement
of hydrochemical parameters and the discharge characteristics. The results showed that the rate
of carbonate rock dissolution in Anjani underground river was 37.54 m3/year/km2, while the
sequestration rate of atmospheric carbon dioxide reached 97.43 tons/km2/year. The temporal
variation in carbon dioxide absorption and dissolution rates was influenced by total discharge,
dissolved CO2, and HCO3- content in the water, temperature, and pH.

1. Introduction
Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) has a major contribution to the occurrence of the climate change
phenomenon due to CO2 emissions that escalating by 70% during 1970-2004 [1]. Karst landform has
an important role in the sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) gas in the atmosphere that occurs
during the dissolution process. [2] states that the presence of carbonate rocks covers an area of 22
million km2 in the world. Meanwhile, according to [3], the existence of karst areas throughout the
Indonesian archipelago reached ± 140000 km² or 20% of the total area of Indonesia. Through this
denudation process, the amount of carbon dioxide sequestration is estimated to reach 13482 Gg
CO2/year [3]. [4] also states that for the dissolution of limestone, 1 mole of CO 2 is needed in
dissolving 1 mole of CaCO3, and for dissolution of dolomite, it takes 2 moles of CO2 from the
atmosphere to dissolve 1 mole of CaMg(CO3)2. In this case, globally, the area of karst in the world
(around 2.2 × 107 km2) or equivalent to 15% of the land area on the earth, has the potential to have
residual carbon absorption on land capable of reaching around 2.5 Pg C yr-1 [5], [6].

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The 3rd Environmental Resources Management in Global Region IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 451 (2020) 012057 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/451/1/012057

Anjani underground river is one of the rivers, which is fed by karst spring of the Jonggrangan
aquifer, so it has the potential to absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Sequestration of
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) in the karst region occurs during the karstification process, which
causes the dissolution process of carbonate rocks. Therefore, the calculation of the rate of atmospheric
carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration in the karst region cannot be separated from the process of
dissolving CaCO3 minerals in karst aquifers. Based on this background, it is important to know the
capability of karst aquifers in the Anjani underground river catchment to dissolve carbonate minerals
and absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Accordingly, this research aims to: (1) determine the
level of dissolution of CaCO3 minerals, and (2) determine the extent of atmospheric carbon dioxide
sequestration through the carbonate rocks dissolution.

2. Site Description
This research was conducted at Anjani underground river (Figure 1). Administratively, the research
area is located in Tlogoguwo Village, Kaligesing Sub-district, Purworejo Regency, Central Java.
Water from the Anjani underground river is used by the surrounding community to meet their daily
domestic needs. Anjani underground river is recharged by water storage from Jonggrangan karst
aquifer. Based on the recording of rainfall data from three rain stations (Girimulyo, Kaligesing, and
Samigaluh stations), the average annual rainfall in this area reaches 2546 mm/year. The Jonggrangan
Karst area experiences the dry season in April-October, and the rainy season is in November-March.
The air temperature in the Karst Jonggrangan area has an annual average of 26.0oC with a maximum
temperature of 27.00C and a minimum temperature of 24.30C.
Based on the division of the physiographic zone of Java Island [7], the study area is located in the
Central Java Depression Zone (Purworejo District), while the area that included in the Kulonprogo
Regency is located in the mountain zone (Dome Zone-Central Depression of Java Island). The
Kulonprogo Mountains are formed by the activities of the ancient Gadjah Volcano, the Idjo Volcano,
and the ancient Menoreh Volcano. This zone is also known as the Oblong Dome because of its dome
that extends from the Northeast to the Southwest. This Oblong Dome occupies an area of up to 32
kilometers long and 15-20 kilometers wide [8]. The lithology at the study site is strongly influenced by
the basaltic andesites breccia material originating from the ancient Volcano of Gadjah. Regionally, the
Kulonprogo Mountains stratigraphy is composed of Old Volcanic Areas, which include Sedimentary
Rocks of the Nanggulan Formation and volcanic rocks of the Old Andesite Formation, as well as
shallow marine deposits of the Jonggrangan (limestone) Formation and Sentolo Formation (marl-
limestone) [9].

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The 3rd Environmental Resources Management in Global Region IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 451 (2020) 012057 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/451/1/012057

Figure 1. Situation (inside) and location of the Anjani Cave

Land use in the Jonggrangan Karst area is quite varied. Some land-use can be found in the form of
settlements, mixed gardens, moor, rainfed rice fields, grass, and shrubs. Mixed gardens and shrubs are
land-uses that dominate in the research area. The types of agricultural commodities that can be found
in this area are bananas, coconuts, and coffee. Table 1 shows the types of land use and its extent in the
Jonggrangan Karst area.
Table 1. The type and extent of land use in the Jonggrangan karst area

No. Land use Area (ha) Percentage (%)

1 mixed gardens 36136 94.51
2 settlements 365 0.95
3 moor 125 0.33
4 rainfed rice fields 13 0.03
5 shrubs 1566 4.10
6 grass 28 0.07

3. The methods
3.1. Tools and materials
The material used in this study consisted of a 1: 25000 Peta Rupa Bumi Indonesia (RBI) map, a 1:
100000 geological map (Yogyakarta sheet), and Google Earth satellite imagery. These materials are
used to map the research location. The tools used are distinguished based on the stages of research,
namely the stages of preparation, data collection, and data processing stages. The preparation stage
uses a tool in the form of ArcGIS 10.3 software to process geospatial data so that the output is in the
form of a preliminary map for field observations. Stages of data collection use tools that include
measuring underground river discharge, physical characteristics of underground river flow, and
chemical characteristics of water. Flow velocity measurement using the current meter, yallon,
measuring tape, stopwatch, and HOBO Automatic Water Level Data Logger. The tool used to measure
the physical characteristics of the flow is a HANA water checker while to measure the chemical

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The 3rd Environmental Resources Management in Global Region IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 451 (2020) 012057 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/451/1/012057

characteristics of water using an alkalinity test kit. The stages of data processing use tools such as
Hoboware and Microsoft Excel software to process the data obtained when measuring in the field in
the form of underground river discharge data, flow physical characteristics, and chemical
characteristics of water.
3.2. Calculation of CaCO3 dissolution rate
Calculation of CaCO3 mineral dissolution rate was conducted by the calculation formula introduced by
Balazs (1968). The calculation of CaCO3 mineral dissolution rate is differentiated based on the
catchment area (DTA) component. Anjani underground river has a catchment area (DTA) that has
several allogenic rivers. Therefore, the formula used is:

Ks2 = ((Q2 . T2) – (Q1 . T1)) / f . t2 (1)

where:
Ks2 = CaCO3 dissolution rate (m3/year/km2)
Q2 = discharge in karst area (million m3)
T2 = dissolved of CaCO3 in karst area (mg/l)
Q1 = discharge in the non-karst area (million m3)
T1 = dissolved of CaCO3 in non-karst area (DTA) (mg/l)
f = average of the specific weight of carbonate rock (2,5)
t2 = area of karst (km2)

3.3. Estimation of catchment area

The catchment area was calculated using the topographic approach, water balance, and nomogram
method. The topography method was conducted by delineating catchments based on topography (with
the help of ArcGIS software), while the water balance method is done using the formula:

Q = P – E ± ΔS (2)
Keterangan:
Q : run-off discharge (m3/s or liter/sec)
P : precipitation (mm/year)
E : evapotranspiration (mm/year)
ΔS : change in storage (mm/year)

Meanwhile, the determination of the catchment area based on the Nomogram approach (Figure 2) is
carried out using the spring discharge, effective precipitation, and annual recharge.

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The 3rd Environmental Resources Management in Global Region IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 451 (2020) 012057 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/451/1/012057

Figure 2. Nomogram Todd [12]

3.4. Calculation of atmospheric CO2 sequestration rate through of dissolution process

The calculation of atmospheric CO2 sequestration rate through the dissolution process was conducted
by the formula:

F = 1/2 x HCO3 x Q x (M CO2 / M HCO3) (3)

where:
F = CO2 sequestration (ton/year)
HCO3 - = HCO3- constituent in water (g/l)
Q = discharge (l/tahun)
M CO2 = Mr CO2 (44)
M HCO3- = Mr HCO3- (61.02)

4. Result and discussion

4.1 The dissolution rate of CaCO3 minerals in the Anjani Cave underground river
Based on the results of the calculations shown in Table 1, Anjani underground river has a CaCO3
mineral dissolution rate of 37.54 m3/km2/year. Discharge and dissolved CaCO3 content, as a variable
in the calculation, are factors that influence the dissolution rate of CaCO3 minerals. The total
discharge at Anjani underground river for a year reached 4.82x106 m3/s, while the average dissolved
CaCO3 content for the year reached 169.7 mg/l. The higher the total flow rate and the average
dissolved CaCO3 content, the higher the dissolved mineral content of CaCO3 produced.

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The 3rd Environmental Resources Management in Global Region IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 451 (2020) 012057 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/451/1/012057

Table 2. CaCO3 mineral dissolution rate in Anjani underground river

Sinking Average
CaCO3
Monthly Stream of CaCO3
Discharg averag Area Dissolution
discharg total sinking
e (Q2) e in a karst rate of CaCO3
Month e discharge stream in f
(x106 year (t2) (Ks2)
average in a year a year
m3/year) (T2) (km2) (m3/year/km2)
(L/s) (x106 (T2)
(mg/l)
m3/year) (mg/l)
Mar-18 218.2
Apr-18 173.3
Mei-18 122.8
Jun-18 80.9
Jul-18 63.0
Aug-18 64.2
Sep-18 67.9 4.82 169.70 3.43 137.50 2.50 3.69 37.54
Oct-18 63.0
Nov-18 183.4
Des-18 232.3
Jan-19 333.6
Feb-19 194.2
Mar-19 218.9

Other factors that influence the dissolution rate of CaCO3 minerals in karst aquifers include
dissolved CO2, water temperature, and pH conditions (Table 3). The higher the dissolved CO2 content
or PCO2 in a karst aquifer, the higher the CaCO3 mineral dissolution rate will occur. Meanwhile, the
temperature has a relationship that is inversely proportional to the dissolution rate. The lower the
temperature, the higher the dissolution rate of CaCO3 minerals and vice versa. Anjani underground
river is known to have PCO2 values ranging from -2.53 to -1.29 and has an average annual
temperature of around 23.26oC. The pH condition also affects the dissolution rate in the karst aquifer,
i.e., the lower the pH or, the more acidic the flow conditions, the higher the dissolution rate of CaCO3
minerals and vice versa. This characteristic is consistent with [10] that the higher the dissolved CO2
content and the lower the pH, the higher the CaCO3 mineral dissolution rate. Anjani underground river
has a mean pH of around 7.42.

Table 3. Total of annual discharge and the annual average of log PCO2, temperature, and pH in Anjani
underground river

Total of annual
log Temperature
Parameters discharge-Q2 (x106 pH
PCO2 (oC)
m3/s)
Anjani Underground
4.82 -2.53 - -1.29 23.26 7.42
River

4.2. Atmospheric CO2 sequestration rate through of dissolution process

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The 3rd Environmental Resources Management in Global Region IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 451 (2020) 012057 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/451/1/012057

The Anjani underground river is recharged by several allogenic rivers or surface flows that enter the
karst aquifer system [15], through several swallow holes. The surface flows that recharge Anjani
underground river is Jumbleng Sawah, Kali Cebong, and Kali Setro (Figure 3).

(a) b) (c)

Figure 3. Allogenic river of Kali Cebong (a), Jumbleng Sawah (b), dan Kali Setro (c)

According to Table 4, the sequestration rate of atmospheric CO2 in Anjani underground river
reaches 97.43 tons/km2/year. Several factors may influence the value of the absorption rate of
atmospheric carbon dioxide at Anjani underground river. These factors include the magnitude of the
annual average discharge and also the concentration of HCO3-.

Table 4. Atmospheric CO2 sequestration rate in Anjani underground river

Monthly
HCO3 Atmospheric
discharg
average CO2
Month e Discharge (l/year) Mr CO2 Mr HCO3
in a year sequestration
average
(g/l) (tons/year/km2)
(l/s)

Mar-18 43.65
Apr-18 34.67
Mei-18 24.58
Jun-18 16.20
Jul-18 12.63
Aug-18 12.86
Sep-18 13.60 4818823835.75 0.21 2.72 137.50 97.43
Oct-18 12.60
Nov-18 36.68
Des-18 46.46
Jan-19 66.72
Feb-19 38.85
Mar-19 43.80

The average annual discharge at Anjani underground river reaches 4818823835.75 liters/year.
Based on the results of observations in the field, the Anjani aquifer system in the underground river
has a developed conduit system [16], [17]. The development of a karst aquifer can be assessed from
the degree of karstification in the karst aquifer system. According to [11], the degree of karstification
of Anjani Cave underground river includes class 8 (complex discharge regime), namely aquifers that
have experienced the development of voids formed by large conduit channels. The void system that
has developed characterizes that the karst aquifer system has developed considerably. The void system
that has developed also causes an underground river or spring to have a larger peak discharge.

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The 3rd Environmental Resources Management in Global Region IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 451 (2020) 012057 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/451/1/012057

However, despite having a large peak discharge because of the void system that has developed, the
annual average Anjani underground river has a much lower average discharge. Besides, several factors
possibly influence the small annual average flow rate at Anjani Cave underground water, of which the
catchment area and the allogenic rivers discharge that enter the Anjani groundwater river. Based on
the results of the determination of the catchment area using the water balance and topography
approach, the Anjani catchment area of the underground river is only about 3.69 km2 and 3.43 km2,
respectively. The difference in the catchment area through these two approaches is caused by
differences in the characteristics of the exokarst and endokarst conditions at the Anjani catchment
area. The development of the void system in endokarst causes the subsurface flow system to be much
more developed. The possibility of leakage in the karst aquifer system can also cause the flow to enter
or exit the system so that the catchment area is not limited to the topography above the karst surface,
but can also exceed the catchment area based on topography (exokarst).
The determination of the catchment area using the water balance and topography approach was
then re-confirmed using the nomogram approach belonging to [12] (Figure 4). Determination of
catchment area by using nomogram is conducted by identifying the relationship between the average
annual discharge, annual recharge (precipitation), and catchment area. The annual precipitation used as
input in the nomogram is only 40% because the research area is a karst area with a formation
dominated by limestone. The classification is following SNI 19-6728.1-2002 regarding annual
recharge based on the type of geological formation, as shown in Table 5. Based on the nomograms, it
is known that the catchment area of Anjani underground river is around 4 km2. This area is quite close
to the Anjani underground river catchment based on the water balance approach, which is about 4 km2.
References [13] state that catchment characteristics that affect the flow, including the area, shape,
topography, and land use. [14] also stated that the drainage characteristics of a catchment, such as
shape and extent of the catchment, drainage density, as well as the intensity of rainfall would affect the
discharge conditions on the spring or underground river.
Table 5. Percentage of recharge and average rainfall based on geological conditions by SNI 19-
6728.1-2002

Geological formation Recharge (%)

Volcanic regime 30 – 50
Old volcanic/sediment/or mixed regime 15 - 25
Sediment; mainly marl or indurated rocks 5
Limestone 30 - 50

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The 3rd Environmental Resources Management in Global Region IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 451 (2020) 012057 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/451/1/012057

Figure 4. Nomogram shows the relationship between discharge, recharge and catchment area of the
Anjani underground river
Allogenic river conditions or sinking streams (Figure 5) that recharge Anjani underground river
also affects the discharge conditions at the Anjani underground river. Allogenic rivers of Kali Cebong,
Jumbleng Sawah, and Kali Setro have low annual discharge rates, namely 2.08 x 10 6 m3/year, 0.67 x
106 m3/year, and 0.68 x 106 m3/year, respectively. Low discharge from the three sinking streams is
affected by the location of the three sinking streams. The locations of Jumbleng Sawah, Kali Cebong,
and Kali Setro are in the upstream of Anjani catchment underground river, and the distance is adjacent
to Anjani Cave, which is only about 650 meters This condition causing the three sinking streams to
quickly enter Anjani's underground river aquifer system without accumulating water in amounts
sufficient.

Figure 5. Some allogenic rivers that recharge Anjani underground river

Furthermore, in addition to discharge from the underground river, the concentration of HCO 3- also
greatly affects the ability of an aquifer system to absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide. The annual
average concentration of HCO3- dissolved in water in Anjani underground river has a value of 0.21
grams/liter. Dissolved HCO3- concentrations are strongly influenced by seasons, which cause
dynamics of flow conditions within the karst aquifer system. Based on Figure 6, the concentration of
HCO3- increases during the dry season compared to its concentration during the rainy season. The
condition occurred because the diffuse flow dominates during the dry season. The diffuse flow
originating from the epikarst layer will dissolve carbonate rock in the layer so that when the flow
recharges the underground river, the water flow is saturated and has a high level of HCO 3-
concentration [18]. Furthermore, the lack of conduit flow during the dry season also causes flow
conditions to become more saturated and the concentration of HCO3- tends to be more stable.

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The 3rd Environmental Resources Management in Global Region IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 451 (2020) 012057 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/451/1/012057

Figure 6. Chemograph of HCO3- in Anjani underground river (season division refers to [19])

The annual HCO3- concentration tends to be lower. This condition is probably caused by the
characteristics of Anjani underground river which includes the allogenic karst system. The allogenic
karst system gets input from allogenic streams from non-karst regions. The allogenic river that inputs a
karst aquifer is also commonly referred to as a sinking stream. The allogenic river tends to have a low
HCO3-concentration value due to the absence of contact with limestone so that it results in a low
annual mean value of HCO3-. The concentration of HCO3- from the sinking stream that inputs Anjani
underground river only has values ranging from 0.09 to 0.19 g/l.
5. Conclusion
Some findings from this study can be summarized as follows: (1) Anjani underground river has a
CaCO3 mineral dissolution rate of 37.54 m3/year/km2. Some influential factors include total
discharge, dissolved CO2 content, water temperature, and pH. Total discharge at Anjani underground
river reached 4.82 x106 m3/s. The discharge at Anjani underground river is influenced by the allogenic
rivers of Kali Cebong, Jumbleng Sawah, and Kali Setro, each of which is 2.08 x106 m3/s, 0.67 x106
m3/s, and 0.68 x106 m3/s, respectively. The dissolved CO2 content ranges from -2.53 to -1.29, the
water temperature is 23.26, and the pH tends to be alkaline, which is 7.42; (2) The rate of atmospheric
carbon dioxide sequestration at Anjani underground river reaches 97.43 tons/year/km2. The factors
that influence are discharge and HCO3- concentration in water. Discharge reaches 4818823835.75
l/year. The flow discharge at Anjani underground river is also influenced by the catchment area, which
is known to reach around 4 km2. The average concentration of HCO3- at Anjani underground river
reaches 0.21 g / l. The HCO3- concentration is strongly influenced temporally by season. During the
rainy season, the concentration of HCO3- tends to be lower, and during the dry season, it tends to be
higher. Besides the season, the existence of some allogenic rivers that recharge Anjani underground
river also affects the low concentration of HCO3- in the Anjani underground river. Based on the
results, it is known that Anjani underground river has a quite high potential of atmospheric carbon
dioxide sequestration, which means that Anjani underground river has an important role in decreasing
the climate change impact both locally and globally.
6. Acknowledgment
The finalization of the study was funded by the RTA Grant (contract number 3069/UN1/DITLIT/DIT-
LIT/ LT/2019). The authors also thanked the Faculty of Geography, Gadjah Mada University, for the
support of facilities to conduct this research both in the preparation, field and writing stages. Also, we
thank the residents of Tlogoguwo Village, Begelen sub-district, Purworejo for their support and
assistance during field data collection.

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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 451 (2020) 012057 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/451/1/012057

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