International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks 10 (2022) 184–195

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks

journal homepage: http://www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/
international-journal-of-geoheritage-and-parks/

The perceived impact of tourism development and sustainable

strategies for residents of Varkala, South India
Vidhi Saluja a,⁎, Subhash Anand a, Harish Kumar a, Jian Peng b
a
Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
b
School of Management, Minzu University of China, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Tourism is an important business for contemporary society and is emerging as a major eco-
Received 24 June 2021 nomic activity globally. Technological expansion and economic divergence have created a tour-
Received in revised form 8 March 2022 ism friendly environment in the present age of globalization. India has a great geographical,
Accepted 21 March 2022
historical and cultural heritage that drives tourism in the country. The Varkala cliff is a
Available online 26 March 2022
geoheritge site and popular tourist destination in Kerala where inhabitants earn a means of liv-
ing by involving them in medical, pilgrim, beaches, and nature-based tourism. The tourist in-
Keywords: flow to Varkala has increased tremendously over time. This paper investigates the impact of
tourism
tourism the on the local community and alternative strategies of livelihood for residents in
cultural heritage
Varkala. The aims and objectives of the research are achieved through the use of a mixed
livelihood assessment
Department of International Development method approach (qualitative and quantitative). Semi-structured questionnaires were prepared
(DFID) for 100 households and detailed face to face interviews were conducted with the 13 chief in-
employment formers. Data were analyzed using correlation, regression analysis and ANOVA tests to examine
the relationship between tourism and income level of the local community. The major findings
of the paper show that tourism is the major source of livelihood for the local communities in
Varkala. While the tourism activities in the study area provide a meaningful source of liveli-
hood, it is imperative to find alternative strategies of producing income, due to the instability
and seasonality of the tourism industry. The investigation suggests managers within the
study area should formulate plans, policies and strategies that will improve the tourism indus-
try and involve local community members in the decision making process and management of
tourism activities.
© 2022 Beijing Normal University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi
Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Tourism is fast emerging as the world's largest industry and it is a wide-ranging industry. It includes the hospitality and trans-
port industry along with many small sector-related industries. It is a major economic activity globally and many nations' econo-
mies run on tourism alone. Tourism refers to the temporary movement of people to a particular place either for leisure or work
(Bhatia, 1982a, 1982b). Tourism is an ever expanding service industry that leads to employment generation, foreign exchange,
revenue and promotes better protection of the environment and natural resources. It also preserves local traditions and culture
leading to the overall development of the place (Farsani, Coelho, & Costa, 2012; Tichaawa, 2017). India has a great geographical,
historical and cultural heritage that drives tourism in the country. The tourism industry of India created revenue of 14.1 trillion
rupees in the year 2016. India is the 7th largest nation in the world and tourism contributes 9.6% to the gross domestic product.

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: vidhi.saluja@gmail.com (V. Saluja), sanandpv@yahoo.co.in (S. Anand), hkharishkumar.162@gmail.com (H. Kumar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgeop.2022.03.003
2577-4441/© 2022 Beijing Normal University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
V. Saluja, S. Anand, H. Kumar et al. International Journal of Geoheritage and Parks 10 (2022) 184–195

In 2016, this sector generated 40.3 million jobs (9.3%) of the nation's total jobs (Chaturvedi, 2017). Every state in India is promot-
ing its own destination places that are beautiful and highlight its rich heritage and diverse culture. In India, Kerala is called “God's
Own Country” and is truly a land of eternal bliss. Kerala mesmerizes with its beautiful sun-bathed golden seashores that are edged
with abundant coconut trees, rocky terrains of the Western Ghats, paddy fields, lagoons, rivers, and mighty waterfalls along with
the fascinating biodiversity of its flora and fauna (Singh & Anan, 2013). It is a well-established tourist destination for domestic and
international tourists (Saranya & Mariswamy, 2016). Tourism contributes 10% of the GDP in Kerala and generated 1.5 million ru-
pees revenue (Manikandan, 2018).
The red Varkala cliffs and beaches are popular tourist attractions in Kerala. They are adjacent to the Arabian Sea. The cliffs are a
paradise on earth, overlooking the beach of Thiruvananthapuram. They have a unique sedimentary geo-morphological structure
along their coastline. The Varkala cliffs and the surrounding area have been declared as “India's first national geopark” by the Geo-
logical Survey of India (GSI). This will lead to the preservation of its geologically important sites and further enhance them to fas-
cinate more tourists. The Geo heritage sites are basically places where respective governments preserve and develop the place in a
holistic way leading to the economic development of the local community. The places are maintained and protected for low-
impact recreational, scientific, and educational activities to be pursued. Varkala now stands to find a place in the UNESCO's
world map of Geo-Heritage sites.
Varkala registered a growth rate of 130.02% in its tourist arrivals between 2012-2017with the number of foreign tourist
reaching 33,658 in 2017 (The Hindu, 2018). The coastal land of Varkala is a renowned pilgrimage and a nature-based tourism des-
tination known for hospitality and its distinctive geological cliff. The study area is experiencing commercial tourism and is largely
supported by foreign remittance and foreign exchange earnings. The local population earns by involving themselves in the tour-
ism business. The seasonality of the tourism industry in Varkala compels the community members to look for an alternative live-
lihood strategy during the offseason.
The impact of tourism on the local community livelihood is investigated, as well as the degree to which tourism-related live-
lihood strategies contribute to community livelihood sustainability is examined. The research is driven in the context of sustain-
able livelihood opportunities. Gupta (1987) made a detailed study on the potential of tourism in Northern, Central, Southern,
Western, and Eastern India. It was found that India has been successful in developing its tourism sector after Independence. Ef-
forts were made to uphold the wellbeing of historical, cultural, and natural tourist destinations. Mishra (1991) assessed the im-
portance of tourism vis-à-vis economic expansion in India in relation to forty nations with diversified economies. The study
concluded that tourism is an important economic sector in India and suggested the government of India should take measures
to attract tourists to every corner of the country that will eventually benefit the Indian economy.
The benefits of tourism on the economy of local communities have been documented in other areas as well. Binns and Ne
(2002) studied the impacts of tourism in South Africa and found outstanding growth and positive effects on the economic pros-
perity of local communities. The study also revealed that tourism has also helped in the eradication of poverty and reducing in-
come inequalities among local community members in South Africa. According to Fennell (2003), significant economic benefits for
the local communities in mountain regions are generated from tourism. Goodwin (2009) also opines that there is optimism about
tourism in local communities adjacent to national parks in Indonesia and Zimbabwe. Anup and Resham (2014) in their study of
Manaslu conservation area, Nepal, discovered that tourism participation helps local people to earn more money and improve their
standard of living.
Fewer studies have focused specifically on the impacts of geotourism to local communities. Štrba, Kolačkovská, Kudelas, Kršák,
and Sidor (2020) stated that how geotourism related activities help to promote the protection of geosites in protected areas. Fur-
thermore, with a geo-tourism approach, geo-diversity can get public attention and favourably influence the state of protected
areas through its activities. Such initiatives can not only improve the conservation of geological sites, but they can also play an
important role in the development of sustainable tourism. The study was motivated by the need for a long-term source of income
(Su, Wall, & Xu, 2015). However, sometimes geotourism potential is not fully met. Bujdosó, Dávid, Wéber, and Tenk (2015) inves-
tigated and evaluated the geological and geographical attractions of the Pilis Mountains, Hungary. Data on private accommodation
facilities reveal that the Pilis region has been impacted by the recent economic downturn. The utilization of the Pilis Mountains'
natural, cultural, and tourist attractions lags behind the planned rate, despite possessing various geological sites that could be geo-
tourism attractions. This study then describes the demands and deficiencies of geotourism in the Pilis Mountains.
“Sustainable livelihood” is usually understood in the material terms – in terms of access to and sustainable management of
livelihood resources. However, in a broad sense, sustainable livelihood – especially in the context of marginalized groups including
the rural community – is perhaps more appropriately seen in terms of enhancement of capabilities. Ensuring a subsistence income
is not sufficient for this purpose. Rather, sustainability is a function of access to institutions and institutional resources in general
and to social and economic services in particular (Odero, 2006). Therefore, ‘mainstreaming’ of rural and marginal community
needs a broader approach, which effectively deals with their manifold vulnerabilities in a rather harsh physical environment.
The seasonal nature of tourism-based economies can leave local communities vulnerable and, therefore, a Sustainable Liveli-
hood Approach is desirable. The Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) was developed by the UK Department for International
Development and is widely used as an analytical tool (Carney, 2003). The index was developed which was based on the Sustain-
able Livelihood Analysis (SLA) framework, which predicts a decrease in community vulnerability (Chambers & Convoy, 1992).
Harilal and Tichaawa (2018) investigated the alternative livelihood methods that local residents use to protect themselves from
the erratic nature of the tourism sector. Thus, the available literature advocates that the tourism sector is very important for
attaining economic growth, has emerged as one of the fastest-growing sectors in the world. However, it is important to examine
the impact of tourism on local communities and find ways to ensure local sustainable livelihoods. The studies undertaken in

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different parts of India and abroad establish a rationale for studying the same in Varkala situated in Kerala, as the state is regarded
as one of the major tourist hubs of India.
There is a lack of research on tourism and its effects on the local economy in the study area. In particular, this paper tries to
examine key questions: (1) How does tourism affect the livelihood of local people involved in the tourism industry? (2) What are
the resources and strategies that are vital in supporting sustainable livelihood for a different diverse group of people? (3) What
are the practical implications of adopting a sustainable livelihood approach?
The research questions are important both academically and practically. The study also highlights the benefits of a sustainable
livelihood approach in overcoming the negative consequences of tourism. Thus, the present paper aims to review the scope of
these questions, using analytical and conceptual approaches, exploring multiple methodological tools, and discussing the practical
aspects of a sustainable livelihood approach. Therefore, the paper seeks to show the impact of tourism on the local community's
livelihood and alternative livelihood strategies that local community members can utilize to protect themselves from the seasonal
nature of the tourism industry in the study area. The paper is grounded within the sustainable livelihood framework (SLF) that
provides the theoretical base for the study.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Study area

In the present study, Varkala is well-known tourist spot in the Thiruvananthapuram district in a rural area of Kerala. In the
process, the tourism practices, the community involvement, and its opportunities and challenges are studied. The ecotourism ac-
tivities provide an opportunity for locals to participate, due to the industry's seasonality and consequent volatility of tourism in-
dustry. Varkala is a municipality and falls in Chirayinkeezhu Taluk of Thiruvananthapuram district situated in Kerala. The study
area lies between 8°44′ N latitude and 76°42′ E longitude (Census of India, 2011) (Fig. 1). It's a recognized tourist destination
known for its backwaters, health and religious tourism. According to the Census of India, 2011 Varkala municipality has a popu-
lation of 40,048 with 18,312 are males and 21,736 are females (Census of India, 2011). The region experiences a tropical climate
with more or less uniform temperature throughout the year.
Vertical movements along the west coast fault during the late Tertiary, promoted deposition of marine and continental sedi-
ments and resulted in the formation of spectacular geoheritage cliffs in Varkala. The Cenozoic sedimentary formations (cliffs)
are single unique geological formations found in the southern part of Kerala adjacent to Arabian Sea (Sajinkumar, Kannan,
Indu, Murlidhaaran, & Rani, 2017). The study area has two main cliffs (the north cliff and south cliff) with a maximum elevation
of 25–30 m edging the Arabian Sea and running parallel for about 6–7 km (Savitha, 2018). The cliffs declared as a national geo-
logical monument by the Geological Survey of India in 2015. The geological monument or geopark project at Varkala will help in
protecting the cliffs, which preserve the pages of Earth's history, nature's chemical lab, and storehouse of micro fossils.

2.2. Methods

The aims and objectives of the research are achieved through the use of mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative) which
helps in attaining holistic viewpoints of the persons involved, as well as measuring the perception of the local communities with
the help of primary survey (Choy, 2014). The primary data was collected through structured questionnaires and field observa-
tions. For the purpose of the primary survey, 100 local respondents involved in the tourism business were surveyed using a Strat-
ified Random Sampling (SRS) method. Out of 100 respondents, 50 respondents selected lived within a 2 km buffer region of the
Varkala cliffs and 50 respondents lived within the municipal region. The information for the village was gathered from Gram
Pradhan (Head of Village) and from well informed citizens of the municipal region. Information gathered about Varkala cliffs
park staff, the local community and the tourists.
The questionnaire measured key demographic variables like gender and socio-economic status of respondents, and asked
questions about the positive and negative effects of tourism, economic development and livelihood security through tourism, na-
ture of jobs, seasonal investment and temporal expansion of tourism related services. Along with the 100-household survey, in-
depth face to face interviews were conducted with 13 key informants, who were chosen based on their basic knowledge related
with tourism, experience of tourism and historical context of tourism. The study also includes meeting and consulting with stake-
holders, and personal field observations. The tour guides who were interviewed provided detailed information of the livelihood
strategies employed by the local people as well as the impact of tourism on livelihood.
Data and information were also obtained from published and unpublished secondary sources. The background information
about extent, area, demographic characteristics, urbanization and the population socioeconomic profile was taken from Census
Handbook of India. All information regarding geology, fossils and other geomorphological aspects was collected from the Geolog-
ical Survey of India. The data regarding tourist arrival was taken from Department of Tourism, Kerala and other information was
collected from the master plan of Varkala. Useful reports, feasibility studies, publications, journals, and books were also referred to
for the purpose of research. All the quantitative data collected from the questionnaire were analyzed using Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS). Demographic information was analyzed as age structure (%). In consideration to the Sustainable Livelihood
Framework (SLF), the impacts of tourism on livelihood were analyzed using a 5-point Likert scale (Kothari, 2004). The Karl Pear-
son Correlation Technique, linear regression and analysis of variance (ANOVA) test were used to examine whether the relation-
ship between tourism and income level of local community members was statistically significant. The ANOVA test checked the

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Fig. 1. Location of the study area.

Source: Census of India, 2011

bearing of one or more number of factors by comparing the means of different samples. This enabled us to perform better future
planning and forecasting. Finally, SLF recommendations were prepared to overcome the negative impacts of tourism by suggesting
alternative livelihood strategies for the local people.

2.3. Methodology of calculating score value

For measuring the indicators of the five capitals, the range equalisation method was used. Firstly, the values of each of the five
capitals' indicators are converted to age structure (%) values. Secondly, for each indicator of the five capitals, scale-free aggregate

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indices ranging from 0 to 1 are calculated, with higher values indicating greater strength. For each of the five capitals, this is done
by subtracting the minimum percentage value from each indicator and then dividing it by the indicator-range, i.e. maximum per-
centage value subtracted from minimum age structure (%) value (Kumar, Pandey, & Anand, 2019).
The formulae employed would be shown as follows:

Svi ¼ ðActual Xi– Min XiÞ=ð Max Xi– Min XiÞ ð1Þ

Where Xi is the indicator's age structure (%) value, Min is the minimum, Max is the maximum, and Svi is the scale free value.
The composite index is calculated by adding the scale free values of each indicator and dividing them by the overall strength of
the indicator (score value). Scale-free values are derived in this case so that the composite index is not biased toward the highest
indicator values when used.

Ci ¼ Svi EXi=NXi ð2Þ

where Svi EXi is added scale free values of various indicators, NXi represents the number of indicators, and Ci represents the composite
index. Scale free values of each indicator and score values of the five capitals are derived using the equations.

3. Results

3.1. Participation in and community perceptions of the tourism industry in Varkala

The local people in Varkala had been involved in the tourism business for a long time. 23% of respondents had been involved
in the tourism industry for more than 15 years, while another 25% of the respondents have been involved for 10–15 years
(Table 1). The survey revealed that approximately 33% of the respondents started taking part in the tourism business only in
the past 0–5 years and another 29% of the respondents have been involved since the last 5–10 years (Table 1). Local communities
had meaningfully engaged themselves in the tourism industry in restaurants, hotels, and bed and breakfast facilities. More people
had become involved in tourism in the past 10 years compared to those involved for 10 years or more suggesting tourism was a
growing business in Varkala (Table 1).
Community perception on the effects of tourism on livelihood of the local communities was measured with a five-point Likert
scale (Table 2). Most of the community members in Varkala agreed or strongly agreed that tourism has increased the employ-
ment opportunities for the locals in the communities concerned (mean = 4.70) has increased foreign exchange earnings
(mean = 4.65) has stimulated infrastructure investment by both the private and public sectors (mean = 4.50) has resulted in
an increase in recreational facilities (mean = 3.65) and has stimulated entrepreneurial development (mean = 4.04) (Table 2).
However, many respondents also agreed that the tourism opportunities are seasonal (mean = 3.89) and that tourism has resulted
in encroachment of the community by outsiders (mean = 3.54) has disrupted the life style and culture of locals and has increased
the cost of infrastructure (mean = 4.03) (Table 2). Nonetheless, most people disagreed or strongly disagreed that the local res-
idents have suffered as a result of the tourism industry (mean 2.61) (Table 2). Respondents that they slightly agreed that tourism
has increased prices (mean = 3.19) decreased the amount of agricultural land (mean = 3.14) increased revenues for the local
government (mean = 3.14), and that there had been an increase in the amount of enclave tourism (mean = 3.14).

3.2. Impact of tourism on income and tourist facilities

An increase in tourism in Varkala is positively correlated with an increase in local income level (0.65) expansion of hotels
(0.72) and Ayreveda/Naturopathy (0.67) facilities, and an increase in transportation infrastructure (0.41) (Table 3). The regression
model found that 54% of the variation in community income level could be attributed to tourism (Fig. 2) which was statistically
significant (p = 0.006) (Table 4).

Table 1
Length of time (years) that respondents have participated in a tourism-related business in Varkala.

Since when working in tourism industry Age structure (%) of respondents

0–5 years 33
5–10 years 29
10–15 years 25
More than 15 years 23
Total 100

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Table 2
Community participation on impacts of tourism on livelihood.

Sources Mean Standard deviation

The local residents have suffered from Tourism in Destination area 2.61 1.540
Stimulation of investment by public and private organizations in infrastructural development 4.50 1.035
Increased foreign exchange earnings 4.65 1.015
Increased employment opportunities for local people 4.70 1.000
Entrepreneurial development 4.04 1.072
Increased revenues 3.14 1.767
Recreational facilities 3.65 1.610
Tourism has resulted in shrinking of agricultural land 3.14 1.769
Tourism has led to disruption of local people life style and existing culture 3.70 1.590
Increased infrastructure cost 4.03 1.071
Increased enclave tourism 3.14 1.768
Encroachment by outsiders 3.54 1.610
Increased prices 3.19 1.611
Seasonal character of jobs 3.89 1.108

Note: Five-point Likert scale was employed, where 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree.

Table 3
Correlation between increase in income and tourist demand of basic facilities.

Category Increase in income Expansion of hotels Expansion of Ayurveda & naturopathy Increase in transportation

Increase in Tourism 0.65 0.72 0.67 0.41

3.3. Sustainable livelihood assets

The sustainable livelihoods asset analysis determined index scores of moderate sustainability for all five capital assets (Table 5,
Fig. 3). The highest scores were for natural capital (0.47), human capital (0.43), and financial capital (0.42). Nonetheless, all of
these scores were well below the cut-off of 0.66 for highly sustainable.

4. Discussion

In particular, this paper tries to examine these key questions: (1) how does tourism affect the livelihood of local people in-
volved in the tourism industry? (2) What are the resources and strategies that are vital in supporting a sustainable livelihood
for a different diverse group of people? (3) What are the practical implications of adopting a sustainable livelihood approach?

4.1. Positive and negative impacts of tourism in Varkala

This study supports that tourism has mostly had a positive impact on the livelihoods of Varkala residents. Increasing tourism is
positively correlated with increasing local income levels, and the regression model suggests a causal relationship. Sustainable tour-
ism can make an essential contribution toward the economic development of local communities. There are no qualms that tour-
ism has strong economic effects on destination areas (Mathieson & Wall, 1990). The study area of Varkala has an unusually
complex economy. Noted from the gross domestic product, it is a poorer area with no financial assurance. Some of the residents
are involved in agriculture and a few are engaged in cottage industries like coconut processing, coir making, and traditional hand-

Fig. 2. Regression analysis between tourism and income level of local community.

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Table 4
ANOVA test showing statistical significance of correlation.

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 0.757 1 0.757 11.900 0.006a,b

Residual 0.636 10 0.064
Total 1.392 11
a
Predictors: (Constant), VAR00001.
b
Dependent Variable: VAR00001.

icrafts including soaps and readymade garments, spices, and other traditional industries. The business of fishing is seasonal and
largely practiced on a small level. A good number of educated and technically skilled youths have migrated to the Middle East
due to chronic unemployment in Varkala (Savitha, 2018). The current study found that tourism is a growing industry with an in-
creasing number of residents participating in the tourism economy, which may help alleviate local unemployment.
As per the primary survey results, it is clear that 65% of the respondents argued that tourism is a great source of economic
development and livelihood security for the local population. Respondents largely are of the view that tourism has positive eco-
nomic impacts including increasing local employment, income, production, diversification of the economy and improvement in

Table 5
Sustainable livelihood assets of local community members at Varkala.

Parameters of development Varkala (N = 100) (values in %)

Human capital Working population 39.9

Literacy rate 93.4
Health facilities 42.3
Traditional skills 29.6
Modern skills 81.2
Human capital index (score value) 0.43
Natural capital Land/farm size (in ha.)
0–5 46.0
5–10 23.6
10–15 16.3
15–20 3.8
> 20 2.3
Landholding 92.0
Agricultural land 23.3
Housing status 76.2
Pucca 59.9
Semi-Pucca 48.3
Kutcha 18.3
Natural capital index (score value) 0.47
Physical capital Electricity 98.3
Sanitation 46.3
Drinking water and sanitation 48.2
Communication 44.5
Post offices and banks 47.3
Schools 53.2
Blacktop road 53.3
Physical capital index (score value) 0.33
Financial capital Monthly income
25,000–50,000 52.6
50,000–75,000 42.3
75,000–100,000 10.9
100,000–125,000 5.7
>125,000 2.8
Sources of livelihood
Primary sources 36.4
Secondary sources 48.9
Other sources 79.2
Financial capital index(score value) 0.42
Social capital Local development institutions 37.3
Cooperative organizations 29.4
Self-help groups (SHGs) 29.5
Social capital index (score value) 0.34

Note: Score values were computed by the researcher based on primary survey. Figures in parentheses indicate the hypothetical scores of sustainability of the assets.
Accordingly, 1 represents 0.67–1 score value (highly sustainable), 2 represents 0.34–0.66 score value (moderately sustainable) and 3 represents 0–0.33 score value
(unsustainable).

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Fig. 3. Livelihood assets of local community.

infrastructure. These effects occur mainly as a consequence of the expenditures undertaken by tourists during their visit to a des-
tination and the additional demand for goods and services which stimulates the whole economy. These effects begin when tour-
ists start spending money on tourism activities (e.g., accommodation, restaurants, transport and museums). The money
recirculates to local economy through both formal and informal employment and has a multiplier effect as it is consumed over
and over again (Baaijens, Nijkamp, & Monfort, 1998). Tourism provides a prospect for local economic progress through the expan-
sion of restaurants, shops, travel agencies, tour guide businesses. The young population studying in schools is also involved in part
time jobs such as guides for tourists which improves their expertise in tourism and language skills (Sagala, Rosyidie, Sasongko, &
Syahbid, 2018).
Foreign tourist arrivals have increased tremendously over the past five years from 47,659 in 2012 to 1, 33,658 in 2017 in the
study area (Kerala Tourism Statistics, 2017). Respondents agreed that an increase in tourism has resulted in an increase in foreign
exchange earnings. Expenditures by tourists on the various products of tourism generate income for the host economy and en-
courage the investment in development of infrastructure that is essential to finance growth in other economic sectors (Leu,
2019). The infrastructural development includes improved water supply and waste disposal systems, electricity and public trans-
port networks. The improved public-private partnerships may provide better promotion of tourist facilities like water sports, rope-
ways, boating, construction of cultural complexes, sewage treatment plants and biogas plants to treat waste in the study area.
Direct assistances are produced by levies on incomes from tourism occupations, trades, and direct levies such as property tax, im-
port duty, sales tax, income tax, hotel tax, transport tax, entertainment tax etc. Secondary revenues are produced from taxes and
duties imposed on goods and services delivered to visitors (Singh, 2010). In this way, increased tourism has boosted the source of
government revenues. Respondents agreed that tourism has not only benefitted the business owners but has increased the rev-
enues earned by the government and 20% of the respondents thought that tourism ensures a moderate level of economic growth
for Varkala.
However, 15% of the respondents reported that tourism does not benefit the local population as growing tourism will lead to
higher infrastructure costs paid by the local population through taxation. Even respondents that thought tourism has provides
benefits to the local community argued that increased infrastructure costs was argued as one of the most negative impacts of
tourism in Varkala. People said that tourism development was expensive for government and taxpayers and that public assets
spent on subsidized infrastructure may divert government investment from other fields such as education and health care. One
of the most destructive infrastructure investments is associated with the expansion of enclave tourism. The respondents argued
that local businesses often see their chances to earn income from tourist severely affected by the creation of “all- inclusive” va-
cation packages.
The Varkala Cliffs are a major geotourism attraction in this area and much of the tourism activities are located near these cliffs.
Many of the local residents involved in tourism-related employment own property on the cliff, close to Varkala beach or rent land
on the cliff for their businesses. It is a very common observation that wealthy business owners manage to get land on lease and
provide different types of food and beverages to the restaurants, catering to the needs and requirements of the tourists. The av-
erage investment ranges from 0.5–1.0 million rupees in 3 months from November to January, but a few invest as much as 3 mil-
lion rupees during the tourist season. During the tourist season, outsiders create a minimum of 40–50 restaurants on the cliffs and
local people cater to those restaurants by providing traditional foods (south Indian) and multinational cuisines like Chinese, Italian
and north Indian delicacies. Almost 70% of these shops are run by natives from Varkala, Trivandrum and Kollam city while re-
maining 30% of these shops are operated by people belonging from Karnataka, Kashmir and Bhutan (ViVID Corporation (Vision
Varkala Infrastructure Development Corporation Limited), 2013). Most of the people working in these businesses dwell close to
the cliff or travel from nearby towns to the cliff by two-wheeler vehicles (Saluja & Anand, 2017). Although the economy of
Varkala largely depends on agriculture, these activities cannot bring as much money to the landowners as tourism leases. Most

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of the respondents feel that income earned by the property holders is due to their property being situated near the Varkala cliffs.
It is also interesting to find that the prices of the property have increased due to large scale tourism and commercialization in the
study area.
This repurposing of agricultural land for tourism activities is one of the negative impacts found. There is a positive cor-
relation between increasing tourism and expansion of hotels and Ayurveda/Naturopathic facilities. Respondents agreed that
the increase in tourism has resulted in shrinking of agriculture land and the built-up area is expanding at the cost of sur-
rounding agricultural land. The perceptions of the respondents is supported by (Saluja & Anand, 2017) who found that
the area planted with crops decreased from 3.49 km2 to 2.71 km 2 between 2000 and 2017, a reduction of −0.78 km 2
over the past 17 years. The built-up area has increased from 1.61 km2 in 2000 to 2.28 km2 in 2017 and the paddy fields un-
derwent drastic changes from 1.43 km2 to 0.91 km2. The area under paddy has reduced by 1.04 km2 (Saluja & Anand, 2017).
The paddy fields are reclaimed as fallow land and converted to built-up area. The stretch of paddy field from the junction of
the temple to edge of the cliff along the right side of the road connecting the beach has almost disappeared now and is re-
placed by huge multi-storey hotels along the road. Most of the shops located on the cliff come to life during the tourist sea-
son and close when the season ends while very few operate all-round the year. Respondents to the survey agreed that
tourism in Varkala tends to be seasonal. This is supported by (Eshun, 2014) who states that the nature of jobs in the tourism
industry, in general, is primarily seasonal; therefore, it doesn't serve as a dependable primary livelihood strategy. The pop-
ulation engaged with tourism work only during the season and remains idle till next season, spending the profit made from
tourism. This might motivate locals to engage in alternative strategies of livelihood. The respondents interviewed also
opined that tourism development has supported entrepreneurial development that helps in decreasing the rate of unem-
ployment, especially among educated youths.
The respondents also said that the growth in tourism has caused increases in the prices of products. Tourism can attract more
people than the carrying capacity of a destination, leading to adverse effects on the local communities and environment. As the
opinions of respondents, increasing demand from tourists for basic services and goods causes price hikes that negatively affect
the residents whose incomes are not enhanced proportionately. Prices for goods like aerated drinks, bread and other grocery
items of daily use have increased the cost of living. Some suppliers of the goods and services, including food and beverages, hand-
icrafts and accommodation, are outsiders to the community, which can disrupt local lifestyles and existing culture. Local people
argue that tourism has led to commercialization of culture, imitation of perceived lifestyle, changes in individual behaviour,
and increases in prostitution, drug use and drinking. Therefore, sustainable livelihood approaches are required to guide further
expansion of tourism in Varkala that could benefit all the people in the community.

4.2. Sustainable livelihood strategies

Unsustainable tourism and commercialization can have a devastating effect on the environment and economy in the
study area. Therefore, action needs to be taken to make tourism sustainable and explore alternative livelihood strategies
for the local communities of the study area. Sustainable tourism endeavours need to consider key concerns of the local com-
munity of Varkala for example, promotion of local economy, obligation to socio-cultural importance and traditions, and pro-
tection of environment and biodiversity. The Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) was spearheaded by the Department
of International Development (DIFD) to provide a clear understanding of the livelihoods of poor people. The approach con-
sists of strategies to support the poor and policies to improve the livelihoods of the local population (Solesbury, 2003; Tao &
Wall, 2009). The concept of sustainable livelihood includes the capabilities, assets and activities that are vital for earning and
securing the basic necessities of life. The sustainable approach involves examining the main factors affecting the lives of
those involved and providing “an actionable framework for designing and implementing the plan” (Agarwala et al., 2014).
The SLF model consists of 5 capital assets (financial, natural, human, social and physical) that describe the community's abil-
ity to sustain livelihoods in Varkala.
The interaction and access to these assets determine the livelihood of the people involved (Allison & Ellis, 2001). The
human capital assets include features such as skills and indigenous knowledge of people (Agarwala et al., 2014). It also
includes the local people's ability to work, literacy level, experiences, social conduct, health, and nutritional conditions.
Natural capital is the most important of all assets as it supports the existence of all living beings. It takes account of natural
resources (e.g., land, air, water, plants, forests, etc.) and ecosystem services (Agarwala et al., 2014). Financial capital refers
to the money available to those involved; it includes savings, credit facilities, and pensions. Financial capital is considered
as important as any other capital because all the necessary resources can be purchased through money (Morton &
Meadows, 2000). The livelihood of the people is directly affected through access to this capital. The physical capital assets
include infrastructural facilities like roads, access to safe drinking water, a proper sewage system, electricity, transport, and
communication facilities that are essential for people's livelihood and also affect their participation in activities related to
tourism. It also contains tools and technology required by people to perform their daily activities, including the agricultural
equipment that is required for the growth of crops. Those community members involved in the tourism business will be
unable to access any other type of capital without physical capital (Ellis, 2000). Social capital incorporates networks, insti-
tutions, and principles that shape societal connections (Agarwala et al., 2014). As stated above, the SLF is based on the as-
sets of the poor people within a community. The prime focus is on how the management of these five capital assets can
affect the nature of the community's reaction to shocks (Allison & Ellis, 2001). The context of vulnerability in SLF in this
study can lead to policies, organizations, and processes that are introduced to aid people who are involved in the tourism

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business (Speranza, Wiesmann, & Rist, 2014). The strategies related to sustainability take assets into consideration on
which local communities have access in the context of vulnerability. The outcome of different livelihood strategies is
known as “livelihood income” which involves those who are concerned and their SLF capital assets (Morton &
Meadows, 2000). The SLF is important to the current study as it helps in explaining the impacts of tourism on the liveli-
hood of local people living within or in close proximity to the Varkala cliffs (Bennet, Bennet & Dearden, 2014; Wu &
Peace, 2014).
The core of the SLF within the context of vulnerability is shown as a pentagon of assets. The pentagon is a visual representa-
tion of local community assets and their inter-relationship (Iorio & Corsale, 2010). With the help of livelihood pentagon, we can
understand the strengths, weaknesses and associated score values of all the five capitals in the study area. In this study, the nat-
ural capital of the surveyed respondents lies in the category of moderate sustainability (0.47) due to the fact that landholdings
owned by the local people are marginal and small. As we have already noted above the area planted with crops and paddy fields
has been reduced and reclaimed as built-up areas for tourism. The physical capital also lies in the category of moderately sustain-
able but scored lowest in the livelihood assessment (0.33) and was barely above the cut-off for the unsustainable category due to
inadequate infrastructural facilities (lack of safe drinking water, inadequate waste disposal system, the right way on roads is also
very less, lack of transportation facilities) for the tourists and local people in the study area. Immediate attention should be given
to the up gradation of infrastructural facilities as tourism development depends on these facilities. The financial score value for
households (0.42) was found to be moderately sustainable. Taking the income of the respondents under consideration, most of
the respondents earned more than 50,000 rupees per month, from agriculture, the tourism business and other sources like gro-
cery and handicraft shops, and working as drivers and in other services. Diversification of the economy in terms of developing
an agricultural farm, improving the professional qualification of local community members and diversification of the economy
could be an additional source of earning livelihood for the people in Varkala. The score value of the respondents in the social cap-
ital category (0.34) is moderately sustainable and suggests this is another area for improvement. The human capital has score
value of 0.43 that again lies in the category of moderately sustainable due to high literacy rates, traditional skills and access to
health facilities.

5. Conclusion

This study reveals that Varkala is becoming a well-established tourist destination among domestic and international travelers,
centred on the Varkala cliffs, India's first National Geopark. While tourism has had a positive impact on the community in terms of
incomes and creating employment, some impacts, such as increased costs of infrastructure and products, have been negative. The
sustainable livelihoods analysis completed for this study found that the community achieved only moderate sustainability in
terms of the five capital assets. Policies that promote sustainable tourism can improve this situation. Of upmost importance is in-
frastructure improvement (physical capital), such as improved water treatment plants and waste disposal, which will benefit both
the tourism industry and the local community. Ensuring that foreign-owned tourist operations pay their fair share of the taxes or
participating in public-private partnerships to build this infrastructure will reduce the added burden to the community members
of Varkala. Enclave tourism should be strongly discouraged as this type of tourism puts little money, given the importance of the
Varkala cliffs in attracting tourists to the area, it is important to ensure in the hands of the average community member. Reward-
ing tourism operators for sourcing goods locally can help diversify employment in Varkala by creating demand for locally grown
food and locally produced goods, thus improving the financial asset score. Economic diversification is also needed to offset the
seasonality of the tourism industry. Investment in the tourism industry should not be at the expense of education or health
care, two cornerstones of human capital assets. Finally this geoheritage site is protected and not impacted by tourism develop-
ment.

Ethical approval

This study was approved by the University of Delhi, Department of Geography, University of Delhi Departmental Research
ethics committee and all procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical stan-
dards of the institutional and/or national research committee and UGC research norms.

Author contributions

Vidhi Saluja: Conceptualisation, Data analysis, Methodology and writing- Original Draft .
Prof. Subhash Anand: Supervision, Validation, Review and Editing.
Jian Peng: Visualisation, Editing and Reviewing.
Harish Kumar: Data analysis, Formal Analysis Software Validation and Editing.
All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was partially supported by the Non-NET fellowship by University of Delhi.

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Declaration of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgement

We express the sincere thanks to Professor R. B. Singh Secretary General and Treasurer, International Geographical Union
(IGU) for his good advice and suggestions. Authors are also thankful to Ratan Tata Library for providing frequent references
and to various organization and institution for lending their expertise and providing relevant data.

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