Pearson

Higher Nationals in
Computing
Unit 6: Planning a Successful Computing
Project

Chapter 01: Conduct Small-Scale Research, Information

Gathering and Data Collection to Generate
Knowledge on An Identified Subject
 Preface

In continuing our trend of providing high quality study support, we are proud to present
this textbook to you. This text is meant to be used as a reference for the BTEC Higher
National Diploma in Computing.

It has been prepared by our experienced panel of lecturers with reference to

recommended study material and web resources taking in to consideration the content
of the syllabus.

This study guide is provided for the purpose of knowledge sharing only and is strictly
not for sale.

The panel of lecturers

HND Division
ESOFT Metro Campus

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Unit 6: Planning a Successful Computing Project
Contents
Preface....................................................................................................................................................... 2
Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 4
Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................................................... 5
Assessment Criteria ................................................................................................................................... 6
Additional Evidence Requirements ........................................................................................................... 7
Links ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
1 Conduct small-scale research, information gathering and data collection to generate knowledge on
an identified subject .................................................................................................................................. 8
1.1 Project execution phase ............................................................................................................... 8
1.1.1 Concept and Methods of data collection ............................................................................ 8
1.1.2 Qualitative and Quantitative data collection ...................................................................... 8
1.1.3 Primary Data and Secondary Data Collection...................................................................... 9
1.2 Analytical Techniques................................................................................................................. 12
1.2.1 Descriptive analytics .......................................................................................................... 13
1.2.2 Diagnostic analytics ........................................................................................................... 13
1.2.3 Predictive analytics ............................................................................................................ 13
1.2.4 Prescriptive analytics ......................................................................................................... 14
1.3 Data collection tools: interviews, questionnaires ...................................................................... 14
1.3.1 Interviews .......................................................................................................................... 15
1.3.2 Questionnaires .................................................................................................................. 16
1.3.3 Observation ....................................................................................................................... 22
1.4 Data Presentation....................................................................................................................... 23
1.5 Qualitative and Quantitative Risk Analysis and Modelling Techniques ..................................... 26
1.6 Sampling approaches and techniques - probability and nonprobability sampling .................... 27
1.6.1 Simple Random Sampling .................................................................................................. 29
1.6.2 Stratified Sampling ............................................................................................................ 29
1.6.3 Cluster Sampling ................................................................................................................ 30
1.6.4 Systematic Clustering ........................................................................................................ 30
1.6.5 Convenience Sampling....................................................................................................... 32
1.6.6 Purposive Sampling ........................................................................................................... 32
1.6.7 Quota Sampling ................................................................................................................. 32
1.6.8 Referral /Snowball Sampling ............................................................................................. 32
1.7 Ethics, reliability and validity:..................................................................................................... 33
1.7.1 All research should be conducted ethically − how is this achieved and reported? .......... 33
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 1.7.2 Research should also be reliable (similar results achieved from a similar sample) and valid
(the research should measure what it aimed to measure). ............................................................ 35
Recommended Resources ....................................................................................................................... 37

Introduction
The aim of this unit is to offer an opportunity to demonstrate the skills required for
managing and implementing a project. They will undertake independent research and
investigation for carrying out and executing a computing project which meets
appropriate aims and objectives.
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Unit 6: Planning a Successful Computing Project
 This unit is assessed by a Pearson-set assignment. The project brief will be set by the
centre, based on a theme provided by Pearson (this will change annually). The theme
and chosen project within the theme will enable to explore and examine a relevant and
current topical aspect of computing in the context of a business environment. In order
to ensure that client expectations are met in terms of requirements, deadlines and the
estimated cost, the work to deliver new computer systems or services to business
organizations, or to revamp the existing ones, is always organized in projects. Therefore,
skillful, knowledgeable and experienced project managers have always been in demand.
On successful completion of this unit, the confidence built to engage in decision-making,
problem-solving and research activities using project management skills. The
fundamental knowledge and skills will enable to investigate and examine relevant
computing concepts within a work-related context, determine appropriate outcomes,
decisions or solutions and present evidence to various stakeholders in an acceptable
and understandable format.

Learning Outcomes

LO1 Conduct small-scale research, information gathering and data collection to

generate knowledge on an identified subject
LO2 Explore the features and business requirements of organisations in an identified
sector
LO3 Produce project plans based on research of the chosen theme for an identified
organisation
LO4 Present your project recommendations and justifications of decisions made, based
on research of the identified theme and sector

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Assessment Criteria
Pass Merit Distinction
LO1 Conduct small-scale research, information gathering and data
collection to generate knowledge on an identified subject

P1 Demonstrate qualitative andM1 Analyse data and D1 Interpret findings to

quantitative research methods to information from primary generate knowledge on
generate relevant primary data for an
and secondary sources to how the research theme
identified theme.
generate knowledge on an supports business
P2 Examine secondary sources to collect
relevant secondary data and identified theme. requirements in the
information for an identified theme. identified sector.
LO2 Explore the features and business requirements of
organisations in an identified sector
P3 Discuss the features and operational M2 Analyse the challenges
areas of a businesses in an identified to the success of a business in
sector. an identified sector.
P4 Discuss the role of stakeholders and
their impact on the success of a business.
LO3 Produce project plans based on research of the chosen theme for
an identified organisation
P5 Devise comprehensive M3 Produce comprehensive
project plans for a chosen scenario,project plans that effectively
including a work and resource allocation consider aims, objectives and
breakdown using appropriate tools. risks/benefits for an
D2 Evaluate the project
identified organization. planning
LO4 Present your project recommendations and justifications of recommendations
decisions made, based on research of the identified theme and sector made in relation to the
P6 Communicate appropriate projectM4 Assess the extent to needs of the identified
organisation and the
recommendations for technical and which the project
accuracy and reliability
nontechnical audiences. recommendations meet the of the research carried
needs of the identified out.
P7 Present arguments for the planning
decisions made when developing organisation, including fully
the project plans. supported rationales for
planning decisions made.
P8 Discuss accuracy and
reliability of the different
research methods applied

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 Additional Evidence Requirements
In addition to the above assessment criteria, complete a project logbook to record
ideas, changes and developments as progress and complete the project.

Links
This unit links to the following related units:

 Unit 3: Professional Practice

 Unit 13: Computing Research Project

 Unit 14: Business Intelligence

 Unit 34: Systems Analysis & Design

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1 Conduct small-scale research, information
gathering and data collection to generate knowledge
on an identified subject
1.1 Project execution phase

1.1.1 Concept and Methods of data collection

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of

interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research
questions. The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that then translates
to rich data analysis and allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to
questions that have been posed. Regardless of the field of study or preference for
defining data (quantitative, qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to
maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of appropriate data collection
instruments and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood
of errors occurring. Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a
research. You can have the best research design in the world but if you cannot collect the
required data you will be not be able to complete your project. Data collection starts with
determining what kind of data required followed by the selection of a sample from a
certain population. After that, you need to use a certain instrument to collect the data
from the selected sample.
Data are organized into two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative.

1.1.2 Qualitative and Quantitative data collection

Qualitative Data: Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive or
nominal in nature. This means the data collected are in the form of words and sentences.
Often (not always), such data captures feelings, emotions, or subjective perceptions
of something. Qualitative approaches aim to address the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a program
and tend to use unstructured methods of data collection to fully explore the topic.
Qualitative questions are open-ended. Qualitative methods include focus groups, group
discussions and interviews. Qualitative approaches are good for further exploring the
effects and unintended consequences of a program. They are, however, expensive and
time consuming to implement. Additionally, the findings cannot be generalized to
participants outside of the program and are only indicative of the group involved.
Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by
providing information useful to understand the processes behind observed results
and assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-being. Furthermore
qualitative methods can be used to improve the quality of survey-based quantitative
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 evaluations by helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design of
survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings.
Generally, their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather each case
study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek general patterns
among different studies of the same issue. Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data
collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal of time. The researcher needs to
record any potentially useful data thoroughly, accurately, and systematically, using
field notes, sketches, audiotapes, photographs and other suitable means. The data
collection methods must observe the ethical principles of research. The qualitative
methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad categories –
In-depth interview, Observation methods, Document review
Quantitative Data: Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically
computed. Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’ of the program. They use a
systematic standardized approach and employ methods such as surveys and ask
questions. Quantitative approaches have the advantage that they are cheaper to
implement, are standardized so comparisons can be easily made and the size of the
effect can usually be measured. Quantitative approaches however are limited in their
capacity for the investigation and explanation of similarities and unexpected differences.
It is important to note that for peer-based programs quantitative data collection
approaches often prove to be difficult to implement for agencies as lack of necessary
resources to ensure rigorous implementation of surveys and frequently experienced
low participation and loss to follow up rates are commonly experienced factors. The
Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data
collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response
categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.
If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the
researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants. Typical quantitative
data gathering strategy –
Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone
interviews, questionnaires etc). Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large
number of people and saves the researcher time and money. People are more truthful
while responding to the questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due
to the fact that their responses are anonymous.
There are many ways of classifying data. A common classification is based upon who
collected the data. Primary Data and Secondary Data
1.1.3 Primary Data and Secondary Data Collection

Primary Data : Data that has been collected from first-hand-experience is known as
primary data. Primary data has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic
and objective. Primary data has not been changed or altered by human beings;
therefore its validity is greater than secondary data. Importance of Primary Data: In
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 statistical surveys it is necessary to get information from primary sources and work on
primary data.
Sources of Primary Data:

 Survey: Survey is most commonly used method in sciences, management, computing

. Surveys can be conducted in different methods. Questionnaire: It is the most
commonly used method in survey. Questionnaires are a list of questions either open-
ended or close-ended for which the respondents give answers. Questionnaire can be
conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an institute, through electronic
mail or through fax and other methods.

 Interview: Interview is a face-to-face conversation with the respondent. In

interview the main problem arises when the respondent deliberately hides
information otherwise it is an in depth source of information. The interviewer can
not only record the statements the interviewee speaks but he can observe the body
language, expressions and other reactions to the questions too. This enables the
interviewer to draw conclusions easily.

 Observations: Observation can be done while letting the observing person know that
s/he is being observed or without letting him know. Observations can also be made in
natural settings as well as in artificially created environment.
Advantages of Using Primary Data

 The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.

 There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).

 If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period.
Disadvantages of Using Primary Data

 The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection- deciding why,
what, how, when to collect; getting the data collected (personally or through others);
getting funding and dealing with funding agencies; ethical considerations (consent,
permissions, etc.).

 Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard- all desired data is obtained accurately,
and in th
useless data has not been included.

 Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies.

In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using qualitative and
quantitative methods. The key point here is that the data you collect is unique to you
and your research and, until you publish, no one else has access to it. There are many
methods of collecting primary data.
The main methods include
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 Questionnaires

 Interviews

 Focus Group Interviews

 Observation

 Survey

 Case-studies

 Diaries

 Activity Sampling Technique

 Memo Motion Study

 Process Analysis

 Link Analysis

 Time and Motion Study

 Experimental Method

 Statistical Method

Secondary Data : Data collected from a source that has already been published in
any form is called as secondary data. The review of literature in any research is based
on secondary data. It is collected by someone else for some other purpose (but being
utilized by the investigator for another purpose). Secondary data is essential, since
it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change
and/or developments.
Sources of Secondary Data: The following are some ways of collecting secondary data

 Books

 Records

 Biographies

 Newspapers Published censuses or other statistical data

 Data archives

 Internet articles

 Research articles by other researchers (journals)

 Databases, etc.

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 Advantages of Using Secondary Data

 No hassles of data collection.

 It is less expensive.

 The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (‘I didn’t do it’).
Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data

 The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability
and accuracy of data go down.

 Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable
environmental factor.

 With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old.

 Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using
secondary data a special care is required to amend or modify for use.

 Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright. Keeping in view
the advantages and disadvantages of sources of data requirement of the research
study and time factor, both sources of data i.e. primary and secondary data have
been selected. These are used in combination to give proper coverage to the topic.

1.2 Analytical Techniques

Project managers organize different resources like people, time, and money to create
projects. In order to meet the requirements of the project management blueprint and the
clients, they need the right skills, techniques, and even data to understand and visualize
that they are on the right track. As such, they need to be analytical.
Analytical techniques are methods that analyze problems, fact or status in order to
accurately forecast potential outcomes while factoring in project variables. They are used
to solve specific issues in a particular task. Unlike management methods that affect the
organization as a whole, analytical techniques are both task- and time-limited thus they
only affect a particular project in question.
There are different types of analytical techniques used by project managers and these
include simple profiling, cross tabulation, and regression analysis. Different analytical
techniques are used depending on the analysis goal that project managers need. Moreover,
the experience of the project manager, as well as the type of data, problems, and
variables involved can also affect the type of techniques used to analyze the data.

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 Project managers may handle simple to complex organizational structure and using
different analysis methods are important so that they can use the forecasted results for
spot-on decision-making practices.
There are 4 different types of analytics start with the simplest one and go further to
more the sophisticated. As it happens, the more complex an analysis is, the more value
it brings.

1.2.1 Descriptive analytics

Descriptive analytics answers the question of what happened. For instance, a
healthcare provider will learn how many patients were hospitalized last month through
web portal ; a retailer – the average weekly sales volume; a manufacturer – a rate of
the products returned for a past month, etc. Let us also bring an example from our
practice: a manufacturer was able to decide on focus product categories based on the
analysis of revenue, monthly revenue per product group, income by product group,
total quality of metal parts produced per month.
Descriptive analytics juggles raw data from multiple data sources to give valuable
insights into the past. However, these findings simply signal that something is wrong or
right, without explaining why. For this reason, highly data-driven companies do not
content themselves with descriptive analytics only and prefer combining it with other
types of data analytics.

1.2.2 Diagnostic analytics

At this stage, historical data can be measured against other data to answer the question
of why something happened. Thanks to diagnostic analytics, there is a possibility to drill
down, find out dependencies and identify patterns. Companies go for diagnostic
analytics as it gives in-depth insights into a particular problem. At the same time, a
company should have detailed information at their disposal otherwise data collection
may turn out to be individual for every issue and time-consuming.
Examine how a retailer can drill the sales and gross profit down to categories to find out
why they missed their net profit target. Another would be in the healthcare industry,
customer segmentation coupled with several filters applied through Artificial
Intelligence elements (like diagnoses and prescribed medications) allowed measuring
the risk of hospitalization.

1.2.3 Predictive analytics

Predictive analytics tells what is likely to happen. It uses the findings of descriptive and
diagnostic analytics to detect tendencies, clusters and exceptions, and to predict future
trends, which makes it a valuable tool for forecasting. Despite numerous advantages
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 that predictive analytics brings, it is essential to understand that forecasting is just an
estimate, the accuracy of which highly depends on data quality and stability of the
situation, so it requires careful treatment and continuous optimization. Predictive
analytics - proactive approach it enables, a telecom company, for instance, can identify
the subscribers who are most likely to reduce their spend and trigger targeted
marketing activities to remediate; a management team can weigh the risks of investing
in their company’s expansion based on cash flow analysis and forecasting. Also
advanced data analytics allows a leading company to predict what they could expect
after changing brand positioning through embedding Artificial intelligence in to
business processes.

1.2.4 Prescriptive analytics

The purpose of prescriptive analytics is to literally prescribe what action to take to
eliminate a future problem or take full advantage of a promising trend. An example of
prescriptive analytics from our project portfolio: a multinational company was able to
identify opportunities for repeat purchases based on customer analytics and sales
history.
This state-of-the-art type of data analytics requires not only historical data but also
external information due to the nature of statistical algorithms. Besides, prescriptive
analytics uses advanced tools and technologies, like machine learning, business rules
and algorithms, which makes it sophisticated to implement and manage. That is why,
before deciding to adopt prescriptive analytics, a company should compare required
efforts vs. an expected added value.

1.3 Data collection tools: interviews, questionnaires

Data is necessary for project management. It serves as the backbone for all types of
decisions to be made by the project manager. It is, therefore, important to collect,
organize and present data clearly so that all stakeholders will understand the status of
the project. This is the reason why it is so important for good project managers to not
only know and understand but also utilize data gathering and representation
techniques. These techniques are used to collect, organize and present data and other
information involved in the project life cycle.
There are three types of data gathering techniques used in project management and
these include (1) interviewing and (2) Questionnaires (3) Observation.

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 1.3.1 Interviews
Interviews can be performed during a number of stages. For example, from the
preliminary requirements gathering stages of a software development-type project, to
the evaluation of a product developed. Interviews are undertaken in either a structured
or unstructured way. Structured interviews involve a series of preset questions that you
go through with the interviewee. Unstructured (or open) interviews, on the other hand,
are less formal and you will ask open-ended questions that allow the interviewee to give
extended answers without constraint. In unstructured interviews, you may find that the
interviewee is moving away from the agenda you have in mind and you will need to
draw them back towards the purpose of the interview. Be aware that unstructured
interviews may provide some very interesting data but you may well have to ‘dig deeply’
through the responses you receive to get to the useful information you require.
You need to put a lot of thought and preparation into your interviews. The interviewee
is probably giving up valuable time to help you out so be well prepared and professional
in your approach. Before you conduct an interview be clear in your own mind what you
hope to achieve from it. If you lack confidence, or are new to interviewing, then a
structured interview with specific questions is probably an appropriate way to start. For
more experienced interviewers, unstructured interviews can provide lots of useful data.
Points for preparing and conducting interviews:

 Selecting interviewees. If you are performing a case study within a company, you
might not be able to interview the people you really need to. Be aware that people are
usually very busy and might not always be available when you need them. Try to be
flexible in your approach and consider alternative interviewees who might provide you
with the same information

 Preparation. Don’t just expect to interview somebody ‘off the top of your head’.
Have some opening questions to ‘get the ball rolling’ in an unstructured interview or
carefully prepare a set of questions for a structured interview.

 Questionnaires. You could prepare a questionnaire and use this as a basis for your
interviews. This would ensure consistency when interviewing a number of people

 Have an agenda for the interview. You will have in your mind an idea of what you
hope to achieve from the interview so keep this in mind as the interview progresses and
pull the interviewee back on track if they start to move away from the intended topic.

 Structured replies. In some cases, you might wish to quantify an answer from the
interviewee (for example, On a scale of 1 to 5,).

 Note taking. Consider how you will make notes during the interview. If you have
some pre-defined, structured questions, can you simply note the response on your
questionnaire? Would it be appropriate to record the interview? Sometimes recording
an interview can stifle the openness of the interviewee. You will need to get their
permission to do this.
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  Confidentiality. Not only must you guarantee the interviewee’s confidentiality if
appropriate, but you may also need to consider whether the information they are
providing is confidential to their company too. In this case you may need to arrange
some sort of confidentiality clause or disclosure agreement with the company
beforehand.

 Logistics of the session. You will need to arrange the interview; the time, location
and duration. Be aware that this can take time to organise as people are very busy so
leave plenty of time in your project to arrange your interviews.

 Characterisation. You might be interviewing several people during the course of

your study and they may have different backgrounds (technical, personal, etc.). You
should consider how their background might influence their responses and take this
into account when reporting your findings.
 Ethical issues. Sometimes you may need to arrange ethical clearance for interviews.
Interviewees need to be able to trust you and you should not betray the trust they have
in you. Without trust your interviewee may not provide you with the depth or breadth
of detail you hope to achieve.

1.3.2 Questionnaires

Questionnaires are useful means of obtaining data from a large (possible cross section)
number of subjects. Like interviews they can also be undertaken at different stages of
your project and can also be used for case studies. Before you undertake a
questionnaire, however, you should consider what you hope to achieve from it and
whether it is an appropriate technique to use.
The target audience - Who are you intending to send your questionnaire to?
How will you target them?
What format will your questionnaire take? Will you send out postal questionnaires? Will
you send the questionnaire through email (embedded within the email or as an
attachment)? Will you establish the questionnaire as a page (or series of pages) on a
web site? Some websites that you can use to set up questionnaires for you include:

 Survey Monkey: http://www.surveymonkey.com/

 UCCASS: http://www.bigredspark.com/survey.html

 Thesis Tools: http://www.thesistools.com/

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 The advantages of sending out questionnaires via email can be as follows

 Quick and free to send out

 Large populations can be targeted easily

 Respondents can reply relatively easily by returning an email. Unfortunately,

email questionnaires do have some disadvantages.

 They may be filtered as spam and easily deleted.

 If the questionnaire is sent as an attachment, it may not be readable or take too

long to download.

 If the questionnaire is embedded in the email it may not appear clearly as formats
might change from one system to another. n It can be difficult for respondents to reply
anonymously which may put them off.

Response rate : How will you persuade your subjects to complete and return the
questionnaire? You could offer a prize to a randomly selected respondent to encourage
people to complete the questionnaire. You could contact your subjects beforehand (by
telephone for example) to get their agreement to respond. This may encourage more
people to complete your questionnaire but this is difficult if the target audience is large.
Another way of improving your response rate is to offer to send any respondents a
summary of the results. For example, if you are evaluating different companies’
approaches to software development, they all may be interested in a summary of your
findings. Including a covering letter is also a good way of introducing yourself, the
purpose of the questionnaire and any benefits the respondent might gain if they
complete it. You can also include a reply-paid envelope with the questionnaire – this
often persuades people to reply as they feel they are wasting your time and money if
they do not.
Layout and size: For paper-based questionnaires the layout is important as it can put
people off completing the questionnaire if it appears too long or complex. Try to keep
your questionnaire as short and as simple as possible. One way to achieve this is to
consider carefully every question you are putting into the questionnaire. Only include
those questions that will provide you with something you can use and cut out those
questions that will not provide anything useful. In terms of layout, try to keep the
questionnaire uncluttered and make sure that the questions are unambiguous. If you
have a series of closed, ordinal scale questions (for example, Rate this on a scale of 1 to
10), consider how you might lay these out so that the respondent can easily move from
one question to the next.
Question types: Consider the type of questions you will include. Open questions require
extended answers from the respondent (for example, What do you think about the user
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 interface?). Closed questions provide specific answers to questions that the respondent
can select from (for example, Do you feel the interface was poor, satisfactory or good?).
Respondents are usually quite happy to tick some boxes within a series of closed
questions but are more reluctant to complete open questions. Try to mix your use of
open and closed questions so the respondent does not become bored ticking boxes or
put off by a number of long, open questions. In addition, try to keep the style of
questions consistent. For example, don’t swap from asking respondents to tick boxes in
one question to underlining or circling answers in another.
For closed questions, consider the type of scale you will use. For example, do you want
the respondent to have a ‘don’t care’ or ‘average’ option? For example, ‘rate the
software system on a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 is poor, 3 is average, 5 is excellent’. If you
made this a 1 to 4 scale there would be no ‘average’ and the respondent would be
forced to select either above average (3 or 4) or below average (1 or 2).
While questions can, on one hand, be classified as open or closed, another way of
viewing question types is whether they are recall or thought questions. Recall questions
simply require the respondent to remember a fact, some information, perhaps
explaining the way something was tackled, programmed, etc; thought questions require
some consideration and perhaps involve opinions, points of view and political
interpretations. While respondents might answer recall questions quickly and easily,
thought questions may take longer to answer as the respondent weighs up their ideas
and interpretations. It might be a good idea to mix recall and thought questions in a
questionnaire as the respondent could soon get bogged down with several thought
questions following one another.
Types of questions that you might use in a questionnaire.
Quantity or information. Used to gather specific data that can be quantified or classified
(as opposed to qualitative, open-ended questions).
1. When did you join the company? _________________
Although this could cause confusion – are we expecting a date (and if so, in what
format?) or a time frame (for example, five years ago)? It might be useful to provide an
example to show the respondent what we are expecting (for example, October 2021).
1. Classification. Used to categorise responses into two or more groups. The categories
have no ordering to them – i.e., one category is no ‘better’ than the next.
Are you male or female (please tick)?

When asking people what age group they fall into it is common to group the ages across
decadal boundaries. For example, 18–24, 25–34, 35–44, etc. rather than 20–29, 30–39,
40–49, etc. People sometimes feel bad about being classed in an ‘upper’ age group
when they just fall into that group. For example, 30-year-olds do not like to think of
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 themselves as being their thirties and being grouped with 30- to 39-year-olds. By the
time they reach the middle of the decadal range they are resigned to the fact that they
are in that group (for example, 35-year-olds know they are in their thirties) and are
happy to tick that box. Also make sure that categories are mutually exclusive to avoid
confusion. For example, age ranges of 20–25, 25–35, 35–45, etc. would be confusing for
those aged 25, 35, 45, etc.

2. List or multiple choice. Provides the respondent with a number of options to choose
from (they can select more than one).
What sources of literature have you used for you literature review (please tick all that
apply)?

3. Scale. Used to rate the respondent’s feelings towards something.

How easy do think the software is to install?

4. Ranking. Used to order a series of options. You should not provide too many options for
the respondent to rank (ten is probably an upper limit) as this can make it difficult to
complete accurately and honestly.
What did you spend the most time on during your software development? Please rank
the following in order from 1 (spent most time on) to 7 (spent least time on).

5. Complex grid or table. Used to gather similar responses on a range of questions.

Please complete the following table (enter ticks where appropriate) with your views on
different aspects of the completed software system.

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Unit 6: Planning a Successful Computing Project
6. Open-ended. Used to obtain extended, qualitative answers.
Do you have any further comments you would like to
make?_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________

Question order : The order you place your questions in a questionnaire can influence
respondents and affect your response rate.
Place the important questions in the first half of the questionnaire. Respondents do not
always complete questionnaires so if there are some important questions you would
like answered, make sure that these come early on.
Don’t put awkward, difficult or embarrassing questions at the start of the questionnaire.
This may put people off completing the questionnaire. This implies that you should put
easy, non-threatening questions at the start to draw the respondent in.
Go from general to specific questions.
Go from factual to abstract questions.
Go from closed to open questions.
Leave questions regarding personal information until the end.

Anonymity: Do you wish the respondent to remain anonymous or do you wish (need)
to know who they are? If they are anonymous you may not be able to contact them for
clarification or to provide them with a prize for completing the questionnaire. If they
are asked to supply their name they may be reluctant to complete the questionnaire.
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 You should always assure respondents of confidentiality and explain how the data you
gather will be used.
Respondent details: In addition to their contact details would it be appropriate to ask
the respondent information about themselves – for example, their age, professional
standing, qualifications, position within the company, etc.? Gather these data only if
you are going to do something with them. For example, you may need to know how
different levels or experience of employee within a company react to a software system,
so knowing their job title and/or when they started working for the company is
important.
Draft and redraft : Don’t expect to get your questionnaire right at the first attempt. You
might want to develop a questionnaire, check it with your supervisor, and send it out to
a limited number of respondents to see what feedback you receive. You might then
redraft the questionnaire in light of these responses – rephrase questions, restructure
the layout, and so on. Let’s look how a question might evolve over a period of time into
something that provides a response that can be analysed (in this case it took eight
attempts to reach the final version of the question):
First attempt: ‘How much time have you been trained here?’
Eighth attempt: ‘I think the amount of training given here is (1) too much; (2) quite a
lot; (3) just right; (4) not much; (5) too little.’
Practices when preparing questionnaire design and deployment

 ‘Avoid leading questions.’ Avoid questions that can lead the respondent to a particular
answer – for example; “Wouldn’t you agree that...?” or “Is it fair to say that...?”

 ‘Be specific.’ Try to avoid words that could be interpreted by people in different ways
such as often, locally, etc.

 ‘Avoid jargon.’ The respondent may not understand what you mean or have a different
interpretation to you.

 ‘Avoid double-barrelled questions.’ Avoid asking questions that could be difficult to

answer, interpreted in different ways or try to elicit two or more answers at a time. For
example, “Did you like the system’s interface and its functionality?”.

 ‘Avoid double negatives.’ For example, “Do you agree that the system was not designed
badly?” would be better phrased as “Do you agree that the system was designed well?”.

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 1.3.3 Observation

Another research technique often used for case studies is observation. Observation
‘involves the researcher in watching, recording and analysing events of interest’. It can,
for example, involve you entering an organisation and observing the workings of that
organisation within the area of interest. There are clearly a lot of issues surrounding
observational research. The more important points that you should consider include
 Arrangements. How will you go about arranging an observation? What permission will
you need to obtain? Are there any ethical issues that you will need to address (for
example, if you were observing children)? When will the observation take place and
how long will you be there for? Is there a good time for undertaking the observation
when certain events may be happening?
 Recording the observation. How will you record the situation or event that you are
studying? You might record your observations in real time – by tape recording, videoing
or making notes. Alternatively, you may simply observe the situation and record what
you remember of that situation later.
 Participation. Will you actually get involved in the situation you are studying or will you
act as a ‘disinterested’ observer . If you are involved in the situation, how involved will
you be – will you ‘work shadow’ or actively participate? Will you need any training or
health and safety instruction beforehand? If you are actively involved this may be part
of a larger action research method that you are undertaking.

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 1.4 Data Presentation

Data obtain from questionnaires or surveys, software test results, will have to present
in one format or another. While textual presentation of numeric results can often
provide a rather ‘dry’ interpretation of the information gathered, pictures in the form
of graphs and charts provide a far more pleasing, intuitive and holistic idea of what is
going on. A ‘diagram can often simplify quite complex data which could take a
paragraph or more to explain’
This following table presents the final degree classifications of 100 students who
completed their Computer Science course in 2015. The following table presents these
data in a much clearer way than could achieve using text alone.
Seven students obtained first class degrees, twenty-three obtained an upper second,
thirty-eight achieved a lower second, seventeen received third class degrees, ten
achieved only a pass degree, and five students failed.

Although Table is easier to follow than the text presented above, it is not necessarily
the best way of presenting these data. The following bar chart (graph) present a way of
interpreting these results and it provides a more ‘holistic’ view of the spread, pattern,
or distribution of degree grades.

For continuous data an alternative to the bar chart is required as the data are not
arranged in distinct categories but can take any real value (for example, age, size,
weight, etc.). In these cases, a histogram is used. The following histogram presents the
age of the 100 Computer Science students at graduation where the age of graduates
has been split into ten unique categories; 18 to 20, 20 to 22, 22 to 24, 24 to 26 years old
and so on.

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Unit 6: Planning a Successful Computing Project
 The final simplified results in the histogram which emphasises the importance of
carefully selecting appropriate categories for presenting continuous data in histograms.
Splitting your data into too many categories can lead to a number of gaps, while splitting
your data into too few categories can lead to broad, ‘high’ bars that provide little
indication of the underlying distribution

Another form of chart which is used in your report is a pie chart. Pie charts are used to
show proportions of categories within your data. The following pie chart shows the
proportion of students with particular degree classifications.

Another graph to compare proportions between two or more subjects, a combined bar
chart, such as that shown below, can be used to present this comparison more clearly.
Cpmparison of pass rates at four universities (A, B, C and D) is presented below.

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Unit 6: Planning a Successful Computing Project
 The following chart is for the number of students graduating in Computer Science
categorised according to their gender. The bars are arranged in degree classification
order and split according to gender. There are three-dimensional plots, colours and
shading used to enhance the attractiveness of such charts.

In following graph, the bars have been split into degree classification and these grades
grouped by gender.

Another form of chart useful is a line chart. These figures are generally used to show
trends over periods of time. The below graph shows the trend of Firsts and Upper
Seconds awarded between 1980 and 1999. This is a visual interpretation of these data.

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Unit 6: Planning a Successful Computing Project
 The last form of ‘popular’ chart is the scatter diagram. Scatter diagrams are used to
show the relationship between two variables. For example, the below graph plots the
assignment grades of 30 information systems students against the number of hours
each student worked on their assignment. The chart shows a general upward trend,
perhaps indicating that there is a relationship between these two variables.

1.5 Qualitative and Quantitative Risk Analysis and Modelling Techniques

The Quantitative Risk Analysis

and Modelling Techniques are
used to help identify which risks
have the most influence on the
project and organization. It does
this by assigned a projected
value to the risks that have been
ranked already by the previous
process such as the Perform
Qualitative Risk Analysis.
Qualitative Risk Analysis is the
process of assessing the impact and likelihood of identified risks. This process prioritizes
risks according to their potential impact on project objectives. The analysis helps to
provide the project team good insight in to various risks that are likely to affect the
project and the ones that requires further assessment and controlling.

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 There are five inputs to perform this particular project management tool and these
include the risk register, risk management plan, schedule management plan, cost
management plan, and risk register updates. These inputs are necessary to create the
quantitative risk analysis to determine the level or degree on how a particular risk can
affect a particular process, product or service.
On the other hand, there are also
Quantitative Risk Analysis and Modelling
Techniques used by project managers to
determine the level of influence of the risks
identified. These techniques include the
probability distribution, data gathering and
representation techniques, sensitivity
analysis, expected monetary value analysis,
decision tree analysis, and expert judgment.
Quantitative Risk Analysis is the process of
analyzing numerically the probability of each
risk event and its impact on the project
objectives. The quantitative risk analysis can
identify realistic and achievable schedule and cost targets and establish the contingency
required for the total project as well as for each schedule and cost element and can
form the basis of the risk mitigation plan

Quantitative Risk Analysis Scenarios : A decision tree is a simple way to get a visual
display of the uncertainty and the various decision options for project risks

1.6 Sampling approaches and techniques - probability and nonprobability

sampling

Select a sample of the consumer market, businesses or individuals (those who meet
certain characteristics relevant to the research theme) is used to gather data
(qualitative or quantitative).

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Unit 6: Planning a Successful Computing Project
 Sampling helps a lot in research. It is one of the most important factors which
determines the accuracy of your research/survey result. If anything goes wrong with
your sample then it will be directly reflected in the final result. There are lot of
techniques which help
us to gather sample
depending upon the
need and situation.
let’s have a look on
some basic terminology

 Population

 Sample

 Sampling
Population is the collection of the elements which has some or the other characteristic
in common. Number of elements in the population is the size of the population.
Sample is the subset of the population. The process of selecting a sample is known as
sampling. Number of elements in the sample is the sample size.

There are lot of sampling techniques which are grouped into two categories as

 Probability
Sampling

 Non- Probability
Sampling

The difference lies

between the above two
is whether the sample selection is based on randomization or not. With randomization,
every element gets equal chance to be picked up and to be part of sample for study.
Probability Sampling
This Sampling technique uses randomization to make sure that every element of the
population gets an equal chance to be part of the selected sample. It’s alternatively
known as random sampling.

 Simple Random Sampling

 Stratified sampling

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  Systematic sampling

 Cluster sampling

 Multi stage Sampling

1.6.1 Simple Random Sampling

Every element has an equal chance of getting selected to be the part sample. It is used
when we don’t have any kind of prior information about the target population.
For example: Random selection of 20 students from class of 50 student. Each student
has equal chance of getting selected. Here probability of selection is 1/50

1.6.2 Stratified Sampling

This technique divides the elements of the population into small subgroups (strata) based
on the similarity in such a way that the elements within the group are homogeneous and
heterogeneous among the other subgroups formed. And then the elements are randomly
selected from each of these strata. We need to have prior information about the population
to create subgroups.

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 1.6.3 Cluster Sampling
Our entire population is divided into clusters or sections and then the clusters are randomly
selected. All the elements of the cluster are used
for sampling. Clusters are identified using details
such as age, sex, location etc.
Cluster sampling can be done in following ways:

 Single Stage Cluster Sampling

 Entire cluster is selected randomly for sampling.

Single Stage Cluster Sampling

Two Stage Cluster Sampling
Here first we randomly select clusters and
then from those selected clusters we
randomly select elements for sampling

Two Stage Cluster Sampling

1.6.4 Systematic Clustering
Here the selection of elements is systematic and not random except the first element.
Elements of a sample are chosen at regular intervals of population. All the elements are
put together in a sequence first where each element has the equal chance of being
selected.
For a sample of size n, we divide our population of size N into subgroups of k elements.
We select our first element randomly from the first subgroup of k elements.
To select other elements of sample, perform following:
We know number of elements in each group is k i.e N/n
So if our first element is n1 then
Second element is n1+k i.e n2
Third element n2+k i.e n3 and so on..
Taking an example of N=20, n=5
No of elements in each of the subgroups is N/n i.e 20/5 =4= k
Now, randomly select first element from the first subgroup.

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 If we select n1= 3
n2 = n1+k = 3+4 = 7
n3 = n2+k = 7+4 = 11

Systematic Clustering
Multi-Stage Sampling
It is the combination of one or more
methods described above.
Population is divided into multiple
clusters and then these clusters are
further divided and grouped into
various sub groups (strata) based on
similarity. One or more clusters can be
randomly selected from each stratum.
This process continues until the cluster
can’t be divided anymore. For example country can be divided into states, cities, urban and
rural and all the areas with similar characteristics can be merged together to form a strata.

Non-Probability Sampling
It does not rely on randomization. This technique is more reliant on the researcher’s ability
to select elements for a sample. Outcome of sampling might be biased and makes difficult
for all the elements of population to be part of the sample equally. This type of sampling is
also known as non-random sampling.

 Convenience Sampling

 Purposive Sampling

 Quota Sampling

 Referral /Snowball Sampling

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 1.6.5 Convenience Sampling
Here the samples are selected based on the availability. This method is used when the
availability of sample is rare and also costly. So based on the convenience samples are
selected.
For example: Researchers prefer this during the initial stages of survey research, as it’s quick
and easy to deliver results.
1.6.6 Purposive Sampling
This is based on the intention or the purpose of study. Only those elements will be
selected from the population which suits the best for the purpose of our study.
For Example: If we want to understand the thought process of the people who are
interested in pursuing master’s degree then the selection criteria would be “Are you
interested for Masters in..?”
All the people who respond with a “No” will be excluded from our sample.
1.6.7 Quota Sampling
This type of sampling depends of some pre-set standard. It selects the representative
sample from the population. Proportion of characteristics/ trait in sample should be
same as population. Elements are selected until exact proportions of certain types of
data is obtained or sufficient data in different categories is collected.
For example: If our population has 45% females and 55% males then our sample should
reflect the same percentage of males and females.
1.6.8 Referral /Snowball Sampling

This technique is used in the situations where the population is completely unknown
and rare.
Therefore, we will take the help from the first element which we select for the
population and ask him to recommend other elements who will fit the description of
the sample needed. So this referral technique goes on, increasing the size of population
like a snowball.

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 Referral /Snowball Sampling
For example: It’s used in situations of highly sensitive
topics like HIV Aids where people will not openly discuss
and participate in surveys to share information about
HIV Aids.
Not all the victims will respond to the questions asked so
researchers can contact people they know or volunteers
to get in touch with the victims and collect information
Helps in situations where we do not have the access to sufficient people with the
characteristics we are seeking. It starts with finding people to study.

1.7Ethics, reliability and validity:

1.7.1 All research should be conducted ethically − how is this achieved and
reported?

Ethics – the right and wrong

Ethics. What is right? What is wrong?
Why is it important to consider research ethics?
The following are ensuring ethical research:
Accurate, thorough and accurately represented data it is immoral to misrepresent data
or skew things towards a particular finding. There is no value in such research and it
literally undermines the whole purpose of conducting research. It is our responsibility
as researchers to produce valid and accurate results. This is especially the case where
our research involves people as it would be abhorrent to misrepresent them, their
viewpoints or opinions.
No harm
Research should do no harm to the participants. This is an obvious one. Sometimes a
difficult one. Imagine this applied to medical research? Sometimes it is about
having processes lined up in case things do go wrong just as much as it is in trying to
prevent it from happening. In the same way, people should not be put in any
unnecessary risk.
Consider anonymity and confidentiality
Often we can offer anonymity or confidentiality to our participants. In doing so it is
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 vital we handle the data carefully and sensitively. If a participant believes what they
say is confidential, they may be more open. If a researcher went on to name and
shame them it would a violation of research principles and even the data protection
act.
Consent
In some contexts, participants (or their guardians) should know who we are and what
we are doing. This is particularly the case with involved methods such as interviews and
focus groups. Participants have a right to know what we are collecting and how we will
use that data. There are cases where consent isn’t possible as it will affect the study
outcome (psychologists observing behaviour) or sometimes it is outside
our ability (participant observation of a food court at lunch). It is these cases where
ethical considerations need to be carefully considered.
Is the person giving consent in a position to give consent? Are they old enough? Do they
understand what it means?
Data access
How do you store your data? Who has access to this? If you have a file of participants
names and addresses are you storing it securely? Do you have permission to share raw
data?
Researcher safety
How can we keep ourselves safe? Are we off to go speak to participants down dark
alleys where no one can hear us scream? Unlikely… What about someone’s home? For
my undergraduate I interviewed people at home. For my safety someone needed to
know where I was. For my participants safety, they needed confidentiality. Dilemma.
To solve this I had to pass sealed details to a colleague and they would
be instructed to open it should I not check in at a specified time. Perhaps it seems a
little overkill but it was something that kept us both safe.
Plagiarism
Stealing is wrong and that is what plagiarism is at the heart. It is unethical to plagiarise
work. Enough said.
Equality
It is important to comply to the Equality Act 2010. This is particularly important to
consider as no language should be used that would bias anyone for any of the protected
characteristics in the act.
Respect
I think it is sometimes easy to forget this. As social researchers we are often invading
someone else’s world. Their community, their school, their place of work or even their
home. We need to remember this as researchers and respect their territory.
Legal, health and safety, safeguarding
While all the above is important, criminal, safeguarding and health and safety issues

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 must come first. If any participant indicated something falling into this area, the
researcher may have an obligation to reveal this to the relevant authorities.
1.7.2 Research should also be reliable (similar results achieved from a similar
sample) and valid (the research should measure what it aimed to measure).

Reliability and validity are essential elements in any quantitative research project.
Reliability refers to the consistency of the results and how sure readers can be of the
replicability of the research. That is, similar results would be obtained if the research
were conducted again in similar circumstances. Reliability is calculated for the research
instruments – most frequently questionnaires and tests. It is important to note that
reliability is not the inherent property of the research instrument (questionnaire,
language test) but of the data obtained from a particular administration of this
instrument. So a researcher needs to calculate and report reliability each time an
instrument is used. The most frequently reported statistic used for reliability is
Cronbach’s alpha (α). This reflects a correlational type analysis and indicates the shared
variance of the items on an instrument (questionnaire or test). So if the instrument has
a large number of items, the coefficient is likely to be higher than an instrument with a
small number. For this reason, it is very important to calculate and report the α
coefficients for all subscales in a measurement instrument. Cronbach’s alpha (α) is very
easily computed using statistical software such as Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS). Another similar statistic is Kuder–Richardson Formula 20 (KR20) which is used to
calculate the reliability of dichotomous items rather than just continuous variables. The
higher the coefficient, the more reliable an instrument is.
Validity refers to the overall quality of the project. It reflects whether the research can
be reasonably believed and to what extent generalisations can be made. Validity
reflects how sure a researcher is that instrument measures what it claims to measure.
Validity is often described as internal or external. Internal validity refers to how sure the
researcher is that the variables in the study are responsible for the results reported. If
the results are thought to be influenced by something other than the variables, this is
referred to as a threat to internal validity. External validity refers to the generalisability
of the results to a wider population. If the results only refer to the current sample, this
is referred to as a threat to external validity. Researchers may refer to content validity.
This reflects the extent to which items in a test measure the construct in question.
Criterion validity refers to whether the instrument measures what the researcher claims
it measures and factorial validity refers to the underlying components that make up the
construct in question.

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 Activity

Conduct small-scale research, information gathering and data collection to generate

knowledge on an identified subject

 Demonstrate qualitative and quantitative research methods to generate

relevant primary data for an identified theme.
 Examine secondary sources to collect relevant secondary data and
information for an identified theme.
 Analyze data and information from primary and secondary sources to
generate knowledge on an identified theme.
 Interpret findings to generate knowledge on how the research theme
supports business requirements in the identified sector.
Identified Research Theme for the 2022 / 2023 academic year
The environmental impact of digital transformation
Research Topic: The impact of digital endpoint devices and ways to reduce
environmental damage.

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 Recommended Resources
 Costley, C., Elliot, G. and Gibbs, P. (2010) Doing Work Based Research: Approaches
to Enquiry for Insider-researchers. London: SAGE.

 Dawson, C. (2016) Projects in Computing and Information Systems: A Student's

Guide. UK: Pearson Education.

 Gray, D. (2009) Doing Research in the Real World. 2nd Ed. London: SAGE.

 Guay, M., Schreiber, D. and Briones, S. (2016) The Ultimate Guide to Project
Management: Learn everything you need to successfully manage projects and get
them done. Free Kindle Edition. US: Zapier Inc.

 Lock, D. (2013) Project Management 8th Edition. UK: Routledge.

 Pinto, J.K. (2015) Project Management: Achieving Competitive Advantage 4th Ed.
Pearson.

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