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Bab 2 Permintaan Dan Penawaran
Bab 2 Permintaan Dan Penawaran
1
OBJEKTIF
2
⚫ menilai implikasi perubahan beberapa
faktor penentu ke atas penawaran dan
kuantiti penawaran.
⚫ Melakar dan menjelaskan konsep
kesimbangan pasaran dan peranan
kerajaan dalam menentukan kewujudan
keseimbangan pasaran.
3
PENGENALAN
4
PASARAN
⚫ Terma DD dan SS - gelagat atau interaksi
antara satu sama lain dalam pasaran
5
Competition: Perfect or Otherwise
▪ Perfectly Competitive:
▪ Homogeneous Products
▪ Buyers and Sellers are Price Takers
▪ Monopoly:
▪ One Seller, controls price
▪ Oligopoly:
▪ Few Sellers, not aggressive competition
▪ Monopolistic Competition:
▪ Many Sellers, differentiated products
6
PERMINTAAN
7
Hukum Permintaan
8
Jadual dan Keluk Permintaan
9
Jadual 2.1: Permintaan Epal Azizah
Kuantiti Epal yang
Harga Epal (RM)
DD
0.00 12
0.50 10
1.00 8
1.50 6
2.00 4
2.50 2
3.00 0
Rajah 2.1: Keluk Permintaan Azizah
Harga Epal
$3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
Kuantiti Epal
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
11
Jadual Permintaan Pasaran
12
Jadual 2.2: Permintaan Individu dan
Pasaran ke atas Epal
Harga Epal (RM) Azizah Mokhtar Pasaran
0.00 12 + 7 = 19
0.50 10 6 16
1.00 8 5 13
1.50 6 4 10
2.00 4 3 7
2.50 2 2 4
3.00 0 1 1
13
Rajah 2.2: Keluk Permintaan Individu dan
Pasaran
Harga Epal
$3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 19
Kuantiti Epal
14
Perubahan Kuantiti Diminta versus
Perubahan Permintaan
⚫ Δ kuantiti diminta = Δ permintaan ?
⚫ Δ kuantiti diminta:
⚫ disebabkan Δ P (harga) barang itu
sendiri
⚫ P ↑ Q ↓, P ↓ Q ↑
Penguncupan
C Permintaan
$4.00
Pengembangan
B Permintaan
$2.00
A
$1.00
D1
0 12 15 20 Kuantiti Epal
16
Perubahan Kuantiti Diminta versus
Perubahan Permintaan
⚫ Δ permintaan:
⚫ disebabkan oleh faktor lain: Δ harga barang
lain, pendapatan pengguna, citarasa dll
⚫ Δ DD akan berlaku sama ada ke kiri atau
kanan = perpindahan keluk permintaan
17
Rajah 2.4 (a): Perpindahan Keluk
Permintaan
Harga Epal
Pengurangan Pertambahan
dalam dalam
Permintaan Permintaan
D2
D1
D3
Kuantiti Epal
18
Rajah 2.4 (b): Perpindahan Keluk
Permintaan
Harga
Petrol Pengurangan
dalam
D1 Permintaan
D
Pertambahan
D2 dalam
Permintaan
B A C
RM1.83
D1
D
D2
0 10 15 20 Kuantiti Petrol
19
PENENTUAN PERMINTAAN
2. Pendapatan
4. Cita rasa
5. Ramalan, dll
20
Harga
21
Pendapatan
22
Harga Barang Lain
⚫ Barang Penggenap
⚫ Contoh?
⚫ Bila P , Q ?
⚫ Barang Pengganti
⚫ Contoh?
⚫ Bila P , Q ?
23
Jadual 2.3: Penentuan Kuantiti yang
Diminta
24
PENAWARAN
25
Hukum Penawaran
26
Jadual Penawaran dan Keluk
Penawaran
⚫ Jadual penawaran menunjukkan
hubungan antara tingkat harga dan
kuantiti yang ditawarkan oleh firma.
⚫ Keluk penawaran ialah rajah yang
menunjukkan hubungan antara harga
dan kuantiti yang ditawarkan.
⚫ Ceteris Paribus: faktor-faktor lain tidak
berubah
27
Jadual 2.4: Jadual Penawaran Kicap
Sakinah
Kuantiti Kicap yang
Harga Kicap ($)
Ditawarkan
0.00 0
0.50 0
1.00 1
1.50 2
2.00 3
2.50 4
3.00 5
28
Rajah 2.5: Keluk Penawaran Kicap
Sakinah
Harga
Kicap
$3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
Kuantiti Kicap
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
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Jadual Penawaran Pasaran
30
Jadual 2.5: Penawaran firma dan
Pasaran Ke atas Kicap
Harga Kicap Sakinah Fuzaho Pasaran
(sebotol) Sdn. Bhd Holding Kicap
0.00 0 + 0 = 0
0.50 0 0 0
1.00 1 0 1
1.50 2 2 4
2.00 3 4 7
2.50 4 6 10
3.00 5 8 13
31
Rajah 2.6: Keluk Penawaran Pasaran
Harga
Kicap
$3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
Kuantiti Kicap
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
32
Perubahan Kuantiti Ditawarkan
versus Perubahan Penawaran
⚫ Δ kuantiti yang ditawarkan = Δ penawaran ?
⚫ Δ Q yang ditawarkan:
⚫ disebabkan Δ P (harga) barang itu sendiri
⚫ P ↑ Q ↑, P ↓ Q ↓
33
Rajah 2.3: Pergerakan di Sepanjang
Keluk Penawaran
Harga
Kicap
$3.00 B
Pengembangan
Penawaran
$2.00
A
Penguncupan
$1.00 Penawaran
C
Kuantiti
0 1 3 5 Kicap
34
Perubahan Kuantiti Ditawarkan
versus Perubahan Penawaran
⚫ Δ penawaran:
⚫ disebabkan oleh faktor lain: Δ harga
barang lain, harga faktor pengeluaran,
Tingkat teknologi dll
⚫ Δ SS akan berlaku sama ada ke kiri atau
kanan = perpindahan keluk penawaran
35
Rajah 2.4 (a): Perpindahan Keluk
Penawaran
Harga
S2 S S1
Pengurangan Pertambahan
dalam dalam
Penawaran Penawaran
S2 S S1
Kuantiti
36
Rajah 2.4 (b): Perpindahan Keluk
Penawaran
Harga
Pengurangan
dalam
Penawaran S2 S S1
Pertambahan
dalam Penawaran
S2 S S1
0 Q2 Q Q1 Kuantiti
37
Penentuan Penawaran
3. Tingkat teknologi
4. Jumlah pengeluaran
38
Jadual 2.6: Penentu Kuantiti yang
Ditawarkan
39
KESEIMBANGAN
40
⚫ Harga Keseimbangan
Harga yang dibeli (PD) atau harga yang
dijual (PS) pada tingkat keseimbangan
⚫ Kuantiti Keseimbangan
41
Equilibrium
Demand Schedule Supply Schedule
Roses QD Roses Qs
D
S
D
S
Equilibrium quantity
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Quantity of
Roses
43
Equilibrium vs. Inequilibrium
3.00 1 10 +9 Lebihan SS
2.50 4 10 +6 (surplus)
2.00 7 7 0 Keseimbangan
1.50 10 4 -6
1.00 13 1 -12
Lebihan DD
0.50 16 0 -16 (shortage)
0.00 19 0 -19
44
How does Adam Smith’s “Invisible
Hands” correct inequilibrium?
⚫ Surplus
⚫ When P > equilibrium P, then Qs > QD.
⚫ There is excess supply or a surplus.
⚫ Suppliers will lower the price (P) to increase sales,
thereby moving toward equilibrium.
⚫ Shortage
⚫ When P < equilibrium P, then QD > Qs.
⚫ There is excess demand or a shortage.
⚫ Suppliers will raise the price (P) due to too many buyers
chasing too few goods, thereby moving toward
equilibrium.
45
Figure 2.9 (a): Excess Supply
Price of
Roses
D Surplus
S
$2.50
$2.00
S
D
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Quantity of
Roses
Quantity Quantity
Demanded Supplied
46
Figure 2.9 (b): Excess Demand
Price of
Roses Supply
$2.00
$1.50
Shortage
Demand
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Quantity of
Roses
Quantity Quantity
Supplied Demanded
47
Three Steps To Analyzing
Changes in Equilibrium
1. D – No Change in S
2. S – No Change in D
3. D& S
$2.00
Initial D1
2. … equilibrium
resulting in
a higher
price …
D0
S0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 Quantity of
Roses
3. … and a higher quantity
sold.
49
Figure 2.11: How a Decrease in Supply
Affects the Equilibrium
S2
Price of
Roses 1. A dry season reduces the
supply of roses…
S1
$2.50 New equilibrium
2. …
resulting in
a higher
price …
D1
0 1 2 3 4 7 10 11 Quantity of
Roses
3. … and a lower quantity
sold.
50
Figure 2.12 (a): A Shift in Both Supply
and Demand
Price of
Large increase
Roses in demand
New
S2
equilibrium S1
P2
Small
decrease in
supply
P1 Initial equilibrium D2
D1
0 Q1 Q2 Quantity of
Roses
51
Figure 2.12 (b): A Shift in Both Supply
and Demand
Price of Small increase
Roses in demand
New S2
equilibrium
S1
P2
Large
decrease in
supply
P1 Initial equilibrium
D2
D1
0 Q2 Q1 Quantity of
Roses
52
Table 2.8: What Happens to Price and
Quantity when Supply or Demand Shifts
53
Government Policies: Price controls
54
Price controls
55
Price controls
1. Price Ceiling: a maximum price sellers are
allowed to charge for a good. It’s an upper limit for
the price.
Price Ceiling
57
Price controls
2. Price Floor: a minimum price buyers are required
to pay for a good. It’s a lower limit for the price.
Price Floor
59
Why Price controls?
1. During crisis times, emergencies or wars - the
government wants to protect the consumers from
rapidly increasing prices.
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Price controls
Ceiling Price Floor price
Price is not allowed to rise Price is not allowed to fall
Maximum price Minimum price
Shortage occured Surplus occured
Advantages: Advantages:
Consumer purchase products at a Protects producer’s income
lower price Higher wage rate
Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
Emergence of black market Consumer pay more
Reduce quantity produced Waste of resources of production
Producers tend to receive illegal Creates unemployment
payments from consumers
Government Policies: Tax Incidence
(Indirect Taxes)
64
Tax incidence: burden mainly on producers
65