PY - The - M.kekkonen L.holapp - 2000 - Comparison of Different Coal Based Direct Reduction Processes

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COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT COAL BASED DIRECT REDUCTION PROCESSES
Technical Report · August 2000
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Helsinki University of Technology Publications in Materials Science and Metallurgy
Teknillisen korkeakoulun materiaalitekniikan ja metallurgian julkaisuja
Espoo 2000 TKK-MK-99
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT COAL BASED DIRECT REDUCTION

PROCESSES
Marko Kekkonen Lauri Holappa
TEKNILLINEN KORKEAKOULU
TEKNISKA HÖGSKOLAN
HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
TECHNISCHE UNIVERSITÄT HELSINKI
UNIVERSITÉ DE TECHNOLOGIE D’HELSINKI
Helsinki University of Technology Publications in Materials Science and Metallurgy
Teknillisen korkeakoulun materiaalitekniikan ja metallurgian julkaisuja
Espoo 2000 TKK-MK-99
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT COAL BASED DIRECT REDUCTION

PROCESSES
Marko Kekkonen Lauri Holappa
Helsinki University of Technology

Department of Materials Science and Rock Engineering
Laboratory of Metallurgy
Project Iron & Steel MMX
Keywords Direct reduction, DRI, Coal
Financier TEKES, Rautaruukki Oyj
Collaboration partner University of Oulu, Rautaruukki Oyj, Fundia Wire Oy Ab
Distribution:
Helsinki University of Technology
Laboratory of Metallurgy
P.O.Box 6200
FIN-02015 HUT
Tel. +358-9-451 2756
Fax. +358-9-451 2798
E-mail: marja-liisa.kivikangas@hut.fi
© Marko Kekkonen
ISBN 951-22-5134-5
ISSN 1455-2329
PicaSet Oy
Espoo 2000
1
ABSTRACT
In this report coal-based direct reduction processes that are currently in commercial
operation or under development are discussed and compared.
The coal-based processes can be grouped into four categories according to their
reduction reactors. The rotary kiln processes include ACCAR/OSIL, DRC, Krupp-
CODIR and SL/RN processes. Kinglor Metor is a shaft furnace process, Circofer is a
fluidized bed process and, further, rotary hearth processes include COMET, FASTMET
and Inmetco processes.
The Circofer, FASTMET, Inmetco and COMET processes seemed to be more attractive
to produce DRI than the old rotary kiln processes. In the case of rotary hearth processes
the reduction temperature is higher and thus retention time much lower compared to the
other coal-based direct reduction processes. Also the production and investment costs of
Circofer, FASTMET, Inmetco and COMET processes were found to be lower compared
to the rotary kiln processes. The production costs of Circofer, FASTMET and Inmetco
processes were quite close to each other, in the case of COMET process it was a little
higher. The investment cost of the FASTMET, Inmetco and COMET processes were
quite similar.
A further advantage of rotary hearth processes is that mill dust and other by-products
can be recycled easily back to the process, which can reduce dust disposal. Such
processes like FASTMET, Inmetco and COMET can fit as a steel mill waste processor
that offers a significant environmental benefit. The undesirable gangue can also be
removed from the DRI in a subsequent melter before charging further.
Several methods to produce liquid iron are proven or under development such as
REDSMELT, FASTMELT and SIDCOMET processes. In these processes liquid iron,
equivalent to blast furnace quality hot metal, can be produced. The production cost for
FASTMELT and REDSMELT processes was found to be quite close of each other.
The desired DRI product quality features a high total iron and carbon content in
addition to a low gangue and sulfur content. COMET rotary hearth process, Circofer
process and kiln-type reactors provide some separation between the DRI and carbon
char at the discharge of the reactor resulting to lower carbon and sulfur content and in
the case of Circofer and COMET processes also lower gangue content compared to
FASTMET and Inmetco processes.
Most of the DRI is used in electric steelmaking, but it is also used in blast furnaces and
in converters. The demand for direct reduced iron as a charge material of EAF has
increased due to DRI offers numerous advantages such as boosting productivity,
consistent, stable and high quality steelmaking, and use of a higher quantity of lower
grade scrap. Hot metal charging, which has been successfully demonstrated at several
melting shops around the world, reduces the requirement for electrical energy,
contributes virgin iron units to the charge to improve or maintain specific quality
requirements, extends foaming slag conditions for improved heat transfer, reduce
refractory loss and better nitrogen control and helps to reduce electrode consumption.
There is also an increasing trend in blending molten iron into EAF because its proper
blending ratio ensures higher productivity and lower energy consumption at EAF.
2
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 4
2 TECHNOLOGIES ............................................................................................................................................ 5
2.1 ROTARY KILN PROCESSES ............................................................................................................................. 7
2.1.1 SL/RN process ..................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1.1.1 Raw materials............................................................................................................................... 7
2.1.1.2 Operating procedure .................................................................................................................... 7
2.1.1.3 Current status............................................................................................................................... 8
2.1.2 Krupp-CODIR...................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.2.1 Raw materials............................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.2.2 Operating procedure .................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.2.3 Current status............................................................................................................................. 10
2.1.3 DRC ................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.3.1 Raw materials............................................................................................................................. 10
2.1.3.2 Operating procedure .................................................................................................................. 11
2.1.3.3 Current status............................................................................................................................. 12
2.1.4 ACCAR/OSIL.................................................................................................................................... 13
2.1.4.1 Raw materials............................................................................................................................. 13
2.1.4.3 Current status............................................................................................................................. 13
2.2 SHAFT (RETORT) PROCESS ........................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.1 Kinglor Metor .................................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.1.1 Raw materials............................................................................................................................. 14
2.2.1.3 Current status............................................................................................................................. 15
2.3 FLUIDIZED BED ........................................................................................................................................... 15
2.3.1 Circofer .............................................................................................................................................. 15
2.3.1.1 Raw materials............................................................................................................................. 15
2.3.1.3 Current status............................................................................................................................. 16
2.4 ROTARY HEARTH PROCESSES ...................................................................................................................... 16
2.4.1 FASTMET/FASTMELT.................................................................................................................... 16
2.4.1.1 Raw materials............................................................................................................................. 17
2.4.1.3 Product applications .................................................................................................................. 19
2.4.1.4 Current status............................................................................................................................. 20
2.4.2 Inmetco/REDSMELT ........................................................................................................................ 20
2.4.2.1 Raw materials and Operating procedure ................................................................................... 21
2.4.2.2 Application scenarios................................................................................................................. 23
2.4.2.3 Current status............................................................................................................................. 25
2.4.3 COMET ............................................................................................................................................. 25
2.4.3.1 Raw materials............................................................................................................................. 25
2.4.3.3 Current status............................................................................................................................. 27
2.4.4 SIDCOMET ....................................................................................................................................... 27
3 REDUCTION TEMPERATURE AND RETENTION TIME..................................................................... 29
4 PRODUCT QUALITY.................................................................................................................................... 30
5 CONSUMPTION RATES AND ECONOMY............................................................................................... 32
6 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS.................................................................................................................... 36
7 THE USE OF DRI........................................................................................................................................... 37
8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................. 40
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................... 42
3
1 Introduction
All over the world, and since many years, steelmakers have been looking for new
processes to produce steel through the direct reduction of iron ores. The ultimate goal of
this intensive research has been to substitute the traditional blast furnace route, the
investment cost of which has made the construction of new plants too expensive.
Moreover, the burden preparation, consisting of coking of coal, and sintering or
pelletizing of iron ores, not only requires high capital expenditures, but is also very
demanding as to the environmental protection.
Also the demand for direct reduced iron as a charge material of EAF has increased
because it has a low content of tramp elements, which leads to stable production of
clean steel, and because of the high price of low residual steel scrap. On the other hand,
DRI has a higher content of gangue compared with scrap. Therefore power consumption
at EAF tends to increase as the blending ratio of DRI in charge material increases.
Although direct reduction was the first ironmaking method and has been practiced for
several thousand years, the economic conditions required for the modern
commercialization of the technology did not occur until the late 1950s. Since 1970,
world direct reduced iron production has grown tremendously. In 1999 the production
was 38.6 Mt and it has been forecast that world DRI production will expand to 45 Mt in
2000, 60 Mt in 2005 and 75 Mt in 2010 (Fig. 1).[1]
80 80
70 70
60 60
Total Production, Mt
Total Production, Mt
50 50
38.6 Mt in 1999
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
Fig. 1. World DRI production by year [1].
The evolution of DR technology to its present status has included more than a hundred
different DR process concepts, many of which have been operated experimentally. Most
were found to be economically or technically unfavorable and abandoned. However,
several were successful and subsequently improved to develop into full-scale
commercial operations. In some instances, the best features from different processes
were combined to develop improved processes to eventually supplant the older ones.[2]
4
The processes for direct reduction are basically divided according to the reducing agent
(gas or coal). Fig. 2 show the world DRI production by process in 1999.
HYL I
2.2 %
Other gas SL/RN
2.3 % 3.0 %
HYL III
20.6 % Other coal
4.6 %
MIDREX
67.3 %
Fig. 2. World DRI production by process in 1999.[1]
Of the various direct reduction processes converting iron ores to sponge iron, the
Midrex and HYL processes are generally used for gas based reduction and SL/RN
process is the most common coal based technology. The gas based technologies
dominate DRI production, accounting for about 92 % in 1999. Coal-based technology
accounted for 7.6 % of DRI production. DRI represented 84 % of output, HBI 16 %.
DRI means direct reduced product based on oxide pellets or lumpy ore as raw material,
whereas HBI means hot briquetted iron fines.
In this work coal-based direct reduction processes that are currently in commercial
operation or under development are discussed and compared. Coal-based processes are
very attractive to countries with limited scrap supply, little access to cheap natural gas
and an extensive supply of cheap coal.
2 Technologies
Direct reduction is defined as a process in which metallic iron is produced by reducing

iron ore or other iron oxide material below the melting temperature of any of the
material involved. Reducing element in processes is either coal or natural gas (CH4).
The coal-based processes can be grouped into four categories according to their
reduction reactors: rotary kiln, shaft furnace, fluidized bed and rotary hearth furnace.
Fig. 3 shows different process principles for coal-based direct reduction processes.
5
coal
desulfurizing
agent
lumpy ore/pellet fine ore
Shaft furnace
Fluidized bed pelletizing *
Rotary kiln
Rotary hearth furnace
ACCAR/OSIL Kinglor Metor Circofer FASTMET *

DRC Inmetco *
Krupp-CODIR COMET
SL/N
SAF2
EIF1 BAF3
Fastmelt1
Redsmelt2
Solid Liquid
Sidcomet3
BF EAF BOF
Fig. 3. Principles of coal-based direct reduction processes.
The rotary kiln processes include ACCAR/OSIL, DRC, Krupp-CODIR and SL/RN
processes. Kinglor Metor is a shaft furnace process, Circofer is a fluidized bed process
and, further, rotary hearth processes include COMET, FASTMET and Inmetco
processes. The FASTMELT, REDSMELT and SIDCOMET processes employ the
individual processes of direct reduction of iron ore into DRI in a rotary reduction
furnace and final smelting of the hot sponge iron into hot metal in a melter. DRI can be
charged in Blast Furnace (BF), in Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) or in Basic Oxygen
Furnace (BOF).
6
2.1 Rotary kiln processes
2.1.1 SL/RN process
This process combined the Republic Steel-National Lead (RN) process developed in
1920s for beneficiating low grade ores, and the Stelco-Lurgi (SL) process conceived in
the early 1960s for producing high-grade Direct Reduced Iron (DRI).[2]
2.1.1.1 Raw materials
The principal burden material used for production of DRI in the SL/RN process is iron
oxide, either as sintered pellets or lump iron ore. A wide range of fuels and reductants
such as lignitite, char, low temperature coke, coke breeze and anthracite coal have been
used satisfactorily. The desulfurizing agent is limestone or dolomite.[2]
Smooth kiln operation is achieved when operating with a relatively high volatile coal
charged with the iron burden. For very low volatile coals, a supplementary fuel such as
natural gas or fuel oil is fed through the central burner or through the air tubes to
maintain the proper temperature profile in the kiln. The coal ash composition is also
important as a siliceous ash might react with ferrous oxide to form low melting ferrous
silicate and interface with the reduction to metallic iron.[2]
2.1.1.2 Operating procedure
The SL/RN process flow sheet is shown in Fig. 4. The charge consists of a mixture of
pellets and/or lump ore, fluxes such as limestone and/or dolomite (amount depending on
the sulfur content of the coal) and high volatile coal or lignite.[2]
In the process, reduction is conducted in a refractory-lined rotary kiln. There are two
major temperature zones in the kiln. The first is the preheating zone where the charge is
heated to 900-1100°C. The second metallization zone is held fairly constant at 1050-
1100°C. Temperature and process control in the kiln are carried out by a series of air
pipes spaced evenly along the kiln length.[2]
7
Fig. 4. Schematic arrangement of SL/RN direct reduction kiln.[2]
DRI is discharged from the rotary kiln at about 1000°C. Solids discharged to the cooler
through an enclosed chute are cooled indirectly to about 100°C by water sprayed on the
cooler upper surface. A grizzly in the chute removes accretions that are large enough to
plug up or damage the cooler discharge mechanism. The product is screened to remove
the >30-mm DRI. The undersize – a mixture of DRI, calcined flux, char and coal ash –
is screened into ±3-mm fractions. Each fraction passes through a separate magnetic
separator. The nonmagnetic portion of >3-mm fraction is mostly char and is recycled to
the kiln. The nonmagnetic portion of <3-mm fraction, mostly calcined flux, ash and fine
char, is discarded. The magnetic portion of each fraction is DRI. The >3-mm fraction
can be used directly for steelmaking and the fine fraction is briquetted.[2] Table 1 shows
chemical composition of sponge iron.
Table 1. Typical composition of DRI from SL/RN process.[3]

Fe, % Metallization, % C, % P, % SiO2, % CaO, % MgO, %
90.6 91.7 0.06 0.061 3.2 0.35 0.02
The kiln exit gases (900-1000°C) pass through a settling chamber for coarse dust
removal and then through a two-stage afterburner. Combustible gases are burned in the
first stage followed by the fine carbon particles in the second stage. In some plants the
gas emerging from the afterburner passes through waste heat boilers, is scrubbed and
then discharged through the stack. The steam generated in the boilers, is used for
production of electricity.[2]
2.1.1.3 Current status
In 1999, 10 modules produced together 1.16 Mt of DRI by SL/RN process in India and
South Africa.[1]
8
2.1.2 Krupp-CODIR
The development of the CODIR (Coal-Ore-Direct-Iron-Reduction) process started in

1960. It is based on the Krupp-Renn process from 1930s for recovering iron from low-
iron and high-silica iron ore. Initial CODIR trials were made at an existing Krupp-Renn
plant in Germany. The DRI was subsequently used in steelmaking.[2]
CODIR plants currently in operation use iron ore, 5-25 mm, and with an Fe content
between 66 and 68 %. Reductant coal has a normal size range of <10 mm. Coal with a
typical analysis of 79 % fixed carbon, 10 % volatile matter and 10 % ash has been used.
Pulverized coal is used as burner fuel, with a typical analysis of 57 % fixed carbon, 26.5
% volatile matter and 16.5 % ash. Fuel oil and natural gas have also been used as burner
fuel. The desulfurizing agent is raw limestone or raw dolomite.[2]
Fig. 5 shows the flow sheet of Krupp-CODIR process. A mixture of sized ore, reductant
and desulfurizing agent is charged through feed end of the kiln. The kiln is heated by a
burner at the discharge end. The burner fuel is combusted with a deficiency of air so
that a reducing atmosphere in maintained. The proportion of fuel fired through the
burner and that charged with the ore depends on the volatile content of the fuel.[2]
The airflow through the inlet tubes spaced along the length of the kiln is adjusted to
control the combustion of the CO formed from the reduction zone and volatile matter in
the coal. A temperature of 950-1050°C is maintained over 60 % of the kiln length
starting from the discharge end. Metallization of the product occurs in the discharge half
of the kiln and DRI discharged at 1050°C. Direct and indirect water sprays cool the DRI
to 150°C, with the cooling proceeding very rapidly through a particular temperature
range to avoid reoxidation. The discharge from the cooler is screened into four
fractions[2]:
1. >5-mm fraction, DRI, goes to product storage.

2. Magnetic fraction of 3–5 mm is DRI and goes to product storage. The
nonmagnetic fraction, char, is returned to the char bins for recycle.
3. Magnetic fraction of 1-3 mm DRI and goes to product storage. The nonmagnetic
fraction of char and coal ash mixture is treated by air jigging to separate char
from ash.
4. Magnetic fraction of <1 mm is also DRI and is generally briquetted. The
nonmagnetic fraction consists mainly of ash and is discarded.
At Dunswart plant in South Africa, the metallization of the DRI is between 90 and 94
percent, the sulfur content averages 0.03 percent, and the carbon averages 0.10
percent.[4]
9
Fig. 5. Krupp-CODIR process.[2]
The gas is discharged from the kiln feed end at 800°C. The process can use different
non-coking coals, such as bituminous, subbituminous and anthracite. When using only
high volatile coals, the waste gas contains larger amounts of latent heat that cannot be
entirely combusted in the rotary kiln. As a result, the heat consumption per tonne of
DRI increases. The volatiles are burned outside the kiln before the gas enters the
precipitator. Waste heat recovery from the off gas by a waste heat boiler has been
adopted.[2]
In 1999, together 0.15 Mt of DRI was produced by CODIR process in India and South
Africa.[1]
2.1.3 DRC
The Davy Direct Reduction Corporation (DRC) process had its origin in the early
efforts of Western Titanium Limited of Australia to develop a method for producing
rutile by reducing the iron oxide in ilmenite with coal and leaching the metallized iron
away from the titanium dioxide. The technology was later used for producing DRI.[2]
The first requirement is a high quality iron ore or pellet with total iron content of 64-
67%. This is because all the gangue remains in the DRI and high quantities will slow
the resulting electric arc operation. Typically an ore size of 3–20 mm is used in the
process. Sulfur content should be low.[5]
The second requirement is readily available coal with high fixed carbon as coal
consumption decreases with rising fixed carbon content. High ash tends to decrease the
kiln output but is otherwise acceptable. A high ash-fusion- temperature permits high
operating temperatures and therefore greater specific output. A wide range of coal
reactivity can be accepted with higher values being preferred.[5]
10
Limestone is used as the desulfurizing agent. In order for the limestone to mix
intimately with the raw materials in the kiln, it must be crushed to yield a small particle
size (less that 4 mm) with high surface area. However, excessive levels of –0.5 mm
fines should be avoided as this material is simply lost to the waste gas steam. As an
alternative to limestone, dolomite can be used if it is more readily available in the
required size range.[5]
The equipment for the DRC process is similar to other rotary kiln reduction processes
(Fig. 6). Lump ore or pellets, coal and limestone are charged in controlled quantities to
the feed and of a refractory-lined kiln sealed at both ends. In the first section of the kiln,
the preheat zone, a mixture of raw materials is heated to the reduction temperature by
combustion of coal volatiles. In the second section of the kiln, the reduction zone,
combustion of coal provides heat for the endothermic reduction reactions. Coal is also
injected from the discharge end of the kiln thereby eliminating the need for any
hydrocarbon fuel such as natural gas or oil. The air for the combustion reactions is
added axially to the kiln via air tubes which are mounted at various positions along the
length of the kiln. The kinetics of the kiln reactions and thus the required kiln residence
time to achieve the target metallization are strongly dependent on the temperature.
Excess heat at any given location with overheating of the bed will cause accretion
formation.[2]
Stack Blown Coal

Waste Gas Energy
Bag Filter
WG
Shell Air Air
Waste Dust Cooler
Water
Ore Coal Limestone
Reduction Kiln
Rotary Cooler
Air
Iron Product
Separation Surge
ore PCC WG Cooler WGBF Product Separation
Bin
Stack
Coal Kiln
Stockhouse Waste
Lime Cooler Course DRI
stone DRI
Fine DRI
[5]
Fig. 6. Flow sheet for the DRC process.
The kiln product is discharged directly through a transfer chute into a rotary cooler.
After the cooler there is a product screening station where the product is screened to
separate out the residual carbon, ash and gangue waste. In order to achieve a maximum
yield the material obtained from the cooler will first be grated into 3 size ranges: (a)
plus 8.0 mm, (b) 4.0-8.0 mm and (c) minus 4.0 mm. Each size range will then follow
different separation routes, each route being designed specifically for its respective size
range.
The plus 8.0 mm material will be essentially all DRI. Any large lumps of waste material
will be removed by passing the stream over a magnetic head pulley. The remaining
material will be passed straight to the outgoing product conveyors.
11
The 4.0-8.0 mm material will be passed to a magnetic separation unit. The separation
unit will be set up in such a way as to minimize the iron losses with the non-magnetic
material. Magnetic material from the separation unit will be sent directly to the outgoing
product conveyors. Non-magnetic material from the separation unit will be considered
to contain negligible quantities of DRI and will be discharged as waste.
The minus 4.0 mm stream will pass through elutriators which will remove low density
waste and a single stage magnetic separation unit. The magnetic product will then be
sent to a briquetting unit for further treatment. The non magnetic material will be
discharged as waste.[5] Table 2 shows typical analysis of DRI.
Table 2. Typical composition of DRI from DRC process.[5]

Fe, % Metallization, % C, % S, % P, % SiO2, % CaO+MgO %
84.2 91.4 0.05 0.012 0.048 2.08 3.29
The gases produced in the rotary kiln flow counter-current to the bed of solids and exit
the kiln at the feed-end. The post combustion chamber completes the combustion of the
volatiles in exhaust gases via the controlled addition of air. Once all the volatiles in the
gas have been combusted, the gas is cooled to a temperature suitable for waste gas
cleaning. The cooled gas is cleaned in a bag filter unit before passing through the waste
gas fan and being exhausted to atmosphere via a chimney.[5]
Alternatively, the sensible heat of the gas can be used to generate steam. If this steam is
used for power generation, the process is a net exporter of electricity with consequent
economic benefits to the overall steelmaking facility. A typical waste heat energy
balance is shown in Table 3.[6]
Table 3. Waste heat recovery.[6]

Total energy to kiln 87.7 Gcal/h
Total energy to kiln waste gases 57.5 %
Heat content of gas stream 50.4 Gcal/h
Heat recovery in boiler 65.0 %
Heat as steam formed 32.8 Gcal/h
Turbine efficiency 30.0 %
Power recovered 9.8 Gcal/h
Power recovered 11.4 MW
DRI production 18.8 tonnes/h
Power production 609 kWh/tonne DRI
DR plant consumption 100 kWh/tonne DRI
Power for export 509 kWh/tonne DRI
Net power out/energy in 11 %
In 1999, five modules produced together 0.36 Mt of DRI by DRC process in China and
South Africa.[1]
12
2.1.4 ACCAR/OSIL
The Allis-Chalmers ACCAR process was developed by the Allis-Chalmers

Corporation, Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1960. The process, renamed the “OSIL process”,
is now marketed by Orissa Sponge Iron Limited.[2]
The characteristics of raw materials required for the OSIL process are similar to those of
other coal-based rotary kiln processes.[2]
Schematically the OSIL process is similar to the other coal-based rotary kiln processes
except that it is a ported rotary kiln. The kiln is refractory lined and has a two percent
slope from the charge to the discharge end. The charge materials are screened and
charged into the kiln. In the first third of the kiln, the charge is preheated to 1000°C.
The ports are located in the reduction zone. When the ports rotate above the bed,
combustion air is introduced. The fuel rising through the bed of iron-bearing materials
is reformed into hydrogen and carbon monoxide; these gases reduce the iron oxide. The
gas leaving the bed is burned in the freeboard by the air introduced through the ports
above the bed supplying the heat to sustain the process.[2]
The carbon content of the DRI can be controlled at any desired level up to about 2.5 %
by adjusting the ratio of air to fuel along the length of the kiln. The DRI product is
cooled to 100°C in a rotary cooler. The cooler is an unlined rotating steel cylinder with
external water sprays. Following the cooler, there are screens and a magnetic
separator.[2]
In 1999, two modules produced together 0.23 Mt of DRI by OSIL process in India.[1]
2.2 Shaft (retort) process
2.2.1 Kinglor Metor
The development of the Kinglor Metor process began in 1971 at the Buttrio Plant of
Danieli & Company S.p.A. in northern Italy.[2]
13
The Kinglor Metor process uses screened lump ore or iron pellets, 6-25 mm. Fine coal
and recycled char are the reductant. A desulfurizing agent such as limestone may be
used.[2]
The Kinglor Metor process employs a furnace (or retort) in which the reduction section
is a vertical rectangular shaft of silicon carbide with six reactors in parallel. Weighed
batches of ore or pellets are mixed with reductant and limestone and charged through a
feed bin to the top of the shaft. The charge is heated to 350°C in the preheating section
of the shaft. The reduction section is heated by the combustion of natural gas (or oil) in
several rows of burners located in the annular space between the shaft and outer shell.
The temperature in the reduction section is controlled at about 1050°C. Fig. 7 shows the
flow sheet of the process.[2]
Fig. 7. Flow sheet of the Kinglor Metor process.[2]
The process is continuous but the product discharge is batch due to the design of the
cooling system. The product cooling system is below the reduction section; inert gas
from the reduction section is cooled and then cycled through the cooling section. The
material requires about 13h for preheating and reduction and about 10h for cooling.[2]
The product is discharged from the cooling section at 50°C and is screened. The
oversize is magnetically separated into DRI product and the char is recycled. The
undersize is magnetically separated into DRI fines that can be briquetted for use in the
electric arc furnace; the nonmagnetic fines are discarded.[2]
14
In 1999, 2 modules produced together 0.03 Mt of DRI by Kinglor Metor process in

Burma.[1]
2.3 Fluidized bed
2.3.1 Circofer
The Circofer process is developed by Lurgi. It reduces fine ores with coal in a
circulating fluidized bed, in which the reducing gas is produced by gasification of coal.
Coal, char and iron ore fines (0.1-1.0 mm) are the primary raw materials which are
charged directly to the process. Any variety of coal can be used having an ash melting
temperature of > 1050°C and a volatile content of 10-40 %. It is desirable to have a coal
with a low ash content (< 15%) in order to keep the circulating load in the reactors, and
in the case of direct charging into a smelter the slag volume, to a minimum.[7]
The Circofer process (Fig. 8) is a coal-based process, which utilizes a combination of

circulating and stationary fluidized beds. The fine ores are preheated in a two-stage
integrated preheating unit before being admitted to the first reduction stage. The fist
reduction stage is a CFB reactor, with an integrated heat generator in which the
necessary energy is supplied to the system by partial oxidation of coal with oxygen.
This partial coal combustion integrated with the CFB system not only produces the heat
required for the process but, specifically, supplies the char needed as reducing carbon
and anti-sticking agent. With this constellation it is possible to conduct the CFB
prereduction at high temperatures of about 950°C without prompting a sticking of the
fine ores.[8]
In view of the high reduction temperature, the material is premetallized in the first stage
up to 80 % before being finally reduced in the second stage, a bubbling fluidized bed
(FB), to a degree of metallization of 93 %. Table 4 shows typical analysis of DRI.[8]
Table 4. Typical composition of DRI from Circofer process.[8]

Fetot, % Metallic iron Metallization, % C, % SiO2, % Al2O3, % CaO, %
92.7 85.8 92.6 1.32 1.25 2.62 0.06
After final reduction, the product is magnetically separated in hot conditions and can be
processed further in different ways. One option consists in recycling most of the
separated char (which means the nonmetallic fraction) and to briquette the high
metallized product in hot condition in order to sell it as hot briquetted iron (HBI) on the
world market. Another option consists in the immediate melting of the hot DRI. This
15
route has an advantage in that it allows substantial energy savings by operating “in one
heat”, furthermore the excess carbon can be used as an energy source for melting.[8]
Fig. 8. Flow sheet of Circofer process.[7]
The Circofer process is characterized by a closed gas circuit. The gas generated by coal
gasification and ore reduction is first cooled, then dedusted before the reduction
products water and CO2 can be scrubbed out. The gas with a high reduction potential
thus obtained is compressed and heated before it is finally recycled to the process. The
high reduction temperatures and the Boudouard reaction taking place allow a high gas
utilization and thus, a mode operation without producing export gas.[8]
A pilot plant for the Circofer process, with a capacity of 5t/d, has recently been
commissioned in Frankfurt, Germany. The pilot plant provides a means of testing
various iron ores and coals and allows simulation of process conditions to assist in
developing design parameters for industrial scale operations. The sponge iron produced
by Circofer process (>93 % metallization) is primarily considered for use in small-scale
steelworks for the production of high-grade steels, however it can also be used in
integrated steel works.[7]
2.4 Rotary hearth processes
2.4.1 FASTMET/FASTMELT
FASTMET converts iron ore fines and/or steel mill wastes into metallic iron in a rotary
hearth furnace using carbon as the reductant. The FASTMELT process is the
combination of the FASTMET process and a specially designed DRI melter known as
an Electic Ironmaking Furnace (EIF) which melts continuously fed DRI and produces
hot metal with a controlled carbon content. The FASTMET/FASTMELT process was
developed jointly by Kobe Steel and Midrex Direct Reduction Corporation. The current
16
FASTMET technology is a direct descendant of the Heat-Fast process. The Heat-Fast
process was a natural gas/air fired rotary-hearth-based DRI process originally developed
in 1965 as a joint venture of Midland Ross Corporation, National Steel Corporation and
Hanna Mining. This method processed dried carbon-containing magnetite pellets.[9]
The raw materials for the process can be classified into three categories: iron oxides (i.e.
virgin materials or iron bearing materials), reductants (i.e. carbon source), and a binder.
An extensive group of raw material combinations (i.e. iron bearing waste materials and
different reductants) have been evaluated in laboratory scale testing, pilot plant work
and/or testwork at Kakogawa. A partial list of evaluated raw materials is given below:
- blast furnace filter cake

- BOF filter cake
- EAF baghouse dust
- mill scale
- pellet fines
- iron ore concentrates
- blast furnace dust and sludge
- coke breeze
- low/medium/high volatile coals
- petroleum coke
High volatile coals tend to be less suitable for processing as they characteristically have
lower calorific heating values, higher ash contents and higher levels of sulfur.[29] If blast
furnace dust or sludge is used, there may be sufficient carbon in the feed to accomplish
reduction without an additional reductant source.[9]
In operations where the primary feed is virgin ore, concentrates and ground reductants
are pelletized and dried before being sent to the RHF. Here the materials are fed to the
furnace in a single layer. In cases in which steel mill wastes are the primary feed
material, the wastes are briquetted. Briquetting provides more flexibility in utilizing the
waste materials, and eliminates the necessity of grinding the feed materials. The
briquettes are also placed on the hearth in a single layer.[9]
Burners located above the hearth provide most of the heat required to raise the pellets to
the reduction temperature (1250-1350°C). The burners are fired with natural gas, fuel
oil, or pulverized coal. The remainder of the heat is supplied by combustion of volatiles,
which are liberated from the reductant as the pellets are heated. The pellet residence
time in the rotary hearth furnace is typically 6 to 12 minutes.[10] Fig. 9 shows the
FASTMET/FASTMELT flowsheet.
17
Fig. 9. Flowsheet of the FASTMET/FASTMELT process.[9]
FASTMET DRI is continuously discharged from the rotary hearth furnace at

approximately 1000°C. One of the product options is cooled direct reduced iron in the
form of pellets or briquettes (DRI or HBI), which can be stored, transported and charged
as a metallic iron source into blast furnace, basic oxygen furnaces or electric arc
furnaces. Another option is hot DRI that is loaded from the RHF into a refractory-lined
DRI container and transported to an adjacent meltshop. The hot DRI can also be melted
to produce hot metal via the FASTMELT process, which combines a RHF with a
premelter to produce molten iron directly from the hot DRI.[11]
In Kakogawa demonstration plant DRI metallization levels of greater than 85 % were

routinely obtained from April 1996 to October 1996 at a production rate of 1.5 to 2
metric tons of DRI/hour, while processing either magnetite or hematite concentrates.
Most recent KDP operation has been oriented at processing hematite pellet concentrates.
DRI metallization levels of greater than 90 % have been routinely achieved at a
production rate of 1.5 to 2.2 metric tons of DRI/hour. Sulfur contained in the dried feed
pellets is removed partially during reduction in the RHF. Product DRI contains less than
0.1 % sulfur.[12] Table 5 shows analyses of HBI expected from the first commercial
FASTMET plant.
Table 5. Typical HBI analysis from the FASTMET process.[13]

Fetot, % Metallic iron Metallization, % C, % S, % P, % Gangue
88.9 82.6 92.9 2.0 0.10 0.02 6.5
The off-gas from the rotary hearth furnace is first treated, by the injection of excess air,
to remove any residual combustibles, cooled to 1000°C in a waste heat boiler, which
may be combined with a system to produce electricity, and then passed through a heat
exchanger to produce hot air (~650°C) for combustion in the RHF and for pellet dryer.
The off-gas is further cleaned in an SO2 scrubber and particulate baghouse, as
determined by the environmental regulations. Baghouse dust will be recovered and
possibly sold for reclamation of zinc and other valuable by-products.[9]
18
In the FASTMELT process, the sensible heat of the DRI is used. The DRI is
continuously discharged from the rotary hearth furnace via an inerted tube at about
1000°C and fed by gravity to the Electric Ironmaking Furnace (EIF).[14]
Energy is supplied to the premelter by an electric arc and molten iron is tapped on a
regular basis to feed the steelmaking furnace (EAF, BOF). A molten metal hot heel is
left in the furnace.[14]
Major functions of the premelter are[14]:

- Melting of DRI;
- Removal of gangue;
- Reduction of residual FeO to Fe;
- Desulfurization (if necessary);
- Adjustment of carbon content in the molten iron.
The molten iron produced in the premelter is tapped at 1450-1550°C, depending on the
carbon content. Table 6 shows typical analysis of FASTMELT molten iron. Off-gas
from the Electric Ironmaking Furnace (EIF), primarily CO, is recycled to the RHF
where it is used as fuel.[14]
Table 6. Typical chemical composition of FASTMELT molten iron.[15]

Temperature, °C Fe, % C, % S, % P, % Si, % Mn, %
1500-1550 96-97 2.0-4.5 < 0.05 < 0.04 0.3-0.5 0.1-0.2
2.4.1.3 Product applications
A wide variety of options for production selections are available to meet the specific
needs of each steelmaker.
FASTMET DRI is used hot to melt in adjacent electric arc furnaces, oxygen
steelmaking furnaces or to put into a torpedo car while transporting hot metal from blast
furnaces. Cold DRI is used in electric arc furnaces, oxygen steelmaking furnaces and
blast furnaces.[16]
EAF based steelmakers will benefit from using FASTMET iron as a supplement to
scrap because of its low metallic residual levels which permits production of higher
quality steels more economically than with an all-scrap charge, allows less costly, lower
grades of scrap to be used to produce traditional types of products and helps eliminate
off-grade heats.[10]
A hot briquetting system can be directly connected to the rotary hearth furnace to
produce FASTMET HBI. The density and size of hot briquetted iron make it compatible
with normal scrap handling equipment and techniques, and it melts in a similar way to
scrap because of its high thermal conductivity. Therefore, the mini-mill operator can
charge the material without major investment or changes in melting practice. About 20-
30 % Fastmet iron is expected to be a typical charge ratio. Because of its density, a
charge containing 20-30 % iron briquettes during a heat can decrease the number of
furnace charges required when operating with low density scrap which results in
decreased tap-to-tap times, reduced energy costs, and improved melt shop
productivity.[10]
19
Blast furnace operators will be attracted to Fastmet iron for:
- short-term use to maintain productivity while another blast furnace or a coke oven is
out-of-service,
- short-term use to increase hot metal production to meet market demands, or
- long-term use to increase hot metal production and allow blast furnace/cokemaking
capacity to be reduced, especially when a furnace needs relining or a coke battery
needs rebuilding.
The iron is of a size and shape comparable to standard blast furnace charge materials
and can be added using existing handling and charging systems. Typical proportions of
Fastmet iron in the blast furnace is expected to be about 15 % of the charge but it could
be higher that 30 %.[10]
FASTMELT offers liquid FASTIRON, which is used in an electric arc furnace as a

clean metallic charge with numerous advantages such as boosting productivity,
grade scrap. Liquid FASTIRON is also used in oxygen steelmaking just like hot metal
produced from a blast furnace.[16]
Since 1992 Midrex has operated a 150 kg/h FASTMET Process Simulator at the Midrex
Technical Centre. This unit is used for testing potential raw materials, confirming
operating parameters and gathering environmental data.[9]
In 1995, Kobe Steel and Midrex began operation of a 2.5 t/h semi-commercial scale
demonstration plant at Kobe Steel’s Kakogawa Works in Japan. Since April 1996 the
FASTMET demonstration plant has been running on a 24-hour-per-day schedule.[9]
In 1998, Midrex commissioned a one-half ton electric melter at the Midrex Technical
Centre to provide the capability for testing the FASTMELT process. A number of
successful campaigns have been conducted, confirming the ability to produce high
quality liquid FASTIRON.[9]
As a result of the successful operation of the Kakogawa plant, the first FASTMET
commercial facility was sold to Nippon Steel Corporation in early 1999. The facility is
located at the Hirohata Works in Himeji, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan. The first product
from the plant was produced on March 21, 2000. The plant will process 210,000 tons
per year of BOF waste materials into 90 % plus metallized product using a 28 meter
diameter RHF. The hot DRI will be charged to the BOF.[9]
2.4.2 Inmetco/REDSMELT
The Inmetco process has been developed by International Metals Reclamation Company
(Inmetco) and it is licensed by Mannesmann Demag Hüttentechnik (MDH). The process
uses a rotary hearth furnace in order to metallize self-reducing pellets.
20
The REDSMELT process is based on the combination of two industrially well proven
technologies: the rotary hearth furnace for coal based direct reduction and the
submerged arc furnace for hot metal production by DRI smelting/melting.
2.4.2.1 Raw materials and Operating procedure
The iron bearing feed materials, which might include iron ore, steel mill residues etc.,
and reductant, including coal, coke, petroleum coke etc., are ground to pellet fines,
mixed and manufactured into ‘green’ pellets which are directly charged onto the rotary
hearth furnace (Fig. 10). Pellets are charged in a layer ~3 pellet deep, equating to a
depth of ~20 mm, to give a hearth load of ~30 kg/m2 and an optimum layer thickness in
terms of heat penetration and reduction time for a high metallization.[17]
Fig. 10. Schematic representation of the Inmetco process.[17]
The temperature in the main reduction zone approaches 1300°C, which is maintained
into the final reduction zone, with the combustion of the process gas (CO) and coal
volatiles with preheated combustion air supplying up to 75 % of the total energy to the
process. In the final reduction zone the generation of CO weakens and, to this end, an
auxiliary fuel is burned to balance the local energy requirements.[17]
The hot gas flows through the furnace chamber countercurrent to pellet transportation,
thus providing preheating to the cold pellets. Dependent on the residence time of the off
gas inside the furnace, the total combustion of CO and volatiles may not be achieved
and combustion may need to take place outside the furnace in a post combustion
chamber. The sensible heat of the waste gas is partially recovered by preheating the
combustion air and the remainder may be recovered as hot air for the drying of raw
materials and/or steam generation. The potential for electricity generation is of the order
~0.3-0.5 MWh/t DRI, depending on the volatile content of the reductant used.[17]
The pellets achieve a mean metallization of up to 92 % during the reduction time of 16-
18 minutes and the final carbon content of the DRI can be adjusted within a wide range
from 1.5-7 % Cfix, by varying the quantity of surplus reductant in the green pellets. The
21
DRI is discharged under an inert atmosphere at a temperature of about 1000°C.[17] A
chemical analysis of 85 % and 92 % metallized DRI is listed in Table 7.
Table 7. Typical chemical analysis of DRI for two degrees of metallization.[18]

Expected DRI chemistry Expected DRI chemistry
Component % weight Component % weight Component % weight Component % weight
Fe total 84.95 CaO 0.11 Fe total 82.30 CaO 0.11
Fe metallic 78.15 MgO 0.08 Fe metallic 69.95 MgO 0.08
FeO 8.85 P2O5 0.08 FeO 16.08 P2O5 0.08
C 5.00 S 0.10 C 6.2 S 0.10
SiO2 2.40 ZnO 0.10 SiO2 2.33 ZnO 0.10
MnO 0.91 Na2O+K2O 0.05 MnO 0.88 Na2O+K2O 0.05
Al2O3 2.58 Others balance Al2O3 2.50 Others balance
Metallization: 92% Metallization: 85%
The REDSMELT process is basically a two-step smeltreduction process. It employs the

Inmetco direct reduction technology of reducing carbon containing green pellets from
iron ore in a rotary hearth furnace and the subsequent smelting/melting of the highly
metallized sponge iron pellets into liquid hot metal in a submerged arc furnace (Fig.
11).[19]
Fig. 11. The REDSMELT concept.[19]
The hot DRI at around 850°C is continuously fed together with some lime to the SAF.
The SAF works with electrical energy which is converted into heat using the electrical
resistance of the slag. The electrodes are immersed in the slag which provides the
required energy exchange area. The superheated slag is the heat exchange medium to
supply the energy required for melting and chemical reactions of the charge.[19]
The melting process separates metal from gangue and ash. The chemical reactions are
final reduction of the DRI, recarburization of the molten iron and removal of sulfur in
accordance with the reducing melting conditions and the applied slag chemistry.[19]
The residual C-content in the DRI is sufficient to cover the demand of carbon for the
final reduction process and will lead to a C-content in the hot metal adjustable between
22
1.5 % and 3.5 % (max. 4.0 %).[19] The hot metal is tapped at a temperature of around
1430°C every 1-2 hour. If required, hot metal is de-sulfurized in the ladle by injection of
de-sulfurizing agents.[18] Table 8 shows the possible product specification of a typical
REDSMELT plant producing merchant pig iron.
Table 8. Tentative product specifications of a REDSMELT plant for merchant pig iron.[19]
Temperature, °C C, % S, % (after de-S) P, % Si, % Mn, %
1450-1500 1.5-3.6 < 0.02 < 0.08 0.1-0.3 0.3-1.0
The slag is tapped through a separate tap hole every 2-3 hours. This is to ensure that a
slag-free metal tap is obtained. The slag is of similar nature to blast furnace slag and can
be processed as a valuable byproduct.[19]
The process gas generated by the chemical reactions is combusted outside the furnace
by balanced addition of air and then enters a recovery boiler with superheater, for
production of steam. After the energy recovery, the off-gas is sent to a dedusting
system. The recovered dust is recycled to the DRI plant.[19]
2.4.2.2 Application scenarios
Several scenarios are possible implementing the DRHF and SAF in steel plants and iron
ore mines for DRI, pig iron and hot metal production.[19]
Fig. 12 shows some ways how REDSMELT can be integrated in a mini-mill to produce
low-cost, high quality steel.
Fig. 12. REDSMELT integration options into different types of mini-mills.[19]
23
To replace a part of the scrap feedstock with liquid pig iron is one of the most effective
means to upgrade the performances and the economics of an existing EAF-based mill.
Advantages of this solution are increase in productivity, power savings, better product
quality and smoother operation.[19]
A modern EAF equipped with oxygen blowing system can be charged with a maximum
of 35-40 % hot metal. A “hybrid” (oxygen top blowing plus electricity) steelmaking
process, like the “CONARC” furnace, extends this replacement ratio to a 50-70 % of the
hot metallic input. The remaining solid fraction of the charge may also include DRI
produced by an additional DRHF.[19]
A very wide range of liquid to solid metallic charge is also possible using the EOF
(Energy Optimizing Furnace) melting technology. This oxygen-based steelmaking
furnace can be a valid alternative to the EAF for mini mills below 1 Mt/a capacity to be
located in areas where electric energy is too expensive.[19]
REDSMELT can also be conveniently integrated with the “mini-BOF” concept to set-
up a new generation of mini mills combining the well recognized advantages of the
oxygen-based steelmaking, such as steel quality, productivity, independence from raw
materials, energetical efficiency, with those typical on mini mills, such as flexibility,
environmental viability and affordable investment cost.[19]
Fig. 13 shows various options to integrate a DRHF or a REDSMELT plant in an

existing integrated mill. Reference is made to a 2 Mt/a plant.
Fig. 13. Options to integrate a REDSMELT into an integrated BF-based plant.[19]
Charging of DRI into the BF results in two main benefits: coke saving (about 7 % less
for each 10 % of metallic iron in the charge) and productivity (about 8 % increase for
each 10 % of charged metallic iron).[19]
When a limited additional hot metal output, corresponding to a 10-15 % increase of the
current BF production, is required, the most convenient solution is to install a DRHF
producing DRI to be charged to the BF in a proportion of 15 to 20 % of the iron burden.
24
Briquetting of DRI is not necessary, since it has been shown that the DRHF may
produce DRI pellets with chemical and mechanical characteristics suitable for the BF
processing.[19]
When 0.5 to 1.0 Mt/a hot metal is required as additional capacity, the complete
REDSMELT configuration including one or two DRHFs and one SAF becomes the
most advisable solution.[19]
The first commercial scale Inmetco plant has been designed as a part of a 1.5 Mt/y
electric steelworks, supplying liquid steel for thin slab casting and inline hot strip
production, currently under construction in Thailand. The DRI will be fed hot to the
EAF, thus providing energy savings as well as virgin iron units to supplement the scrap
charge.[17]
Those countries showing strong interest in the REDSMELT technology are the US,
Canada and Thailand. The fist REDSMELT plant was to be erected at Siam Strip Mill.
The project aimed for production of 760 000 tpy of hot metal in an advanced stage to
become an order when the financial crisis in SE-Asia brought the project on hold. In the
US at present there will be the first installation at Iron Dynamics who are in progress of
starting a similar process line. MDM is supplying the SAF for production of hot metal
from coal based DRI at a capacity up to 70 tph to be fed in EAF-steel making.[20]
Cleveland Cliffs have recently announced their intention to erect a REDSMELT plant at
their Northshore Mining facility to produce up to 700 000 tpy of pig iron for sale to the
market. This plant will employ two RHFs, one SAF and a pig caster.[20]
2.4.3 COMET
Centre for Research in Metallurgy (C.R.M), Belgium, has developed and patented the
COMET direct reduction process, which produced low gangue and low sulfur DRI from
iron ore and coal fines.[21]
Extended series of laboratory tests have demonstrated the feasibility and the flexibility
of the process, which can notably be operated with any kind of coal or other solid
reductant (including lignite and coke breeze) and which is also very well suited for
recycling iron-bearing metallurgical wastes to be substituted to (or mixed with) the iron
ore. Limestone or any other calcium-bearing material can be used as desulfurizing
agent.[21]
25
Fig. 14 shows the flow-sheet of the COMET process. The hearth of a rotary hearth
furnace is continuously covered by superimposed thin layers of dried raw materials
consisting alternately of coal and iron ore fines. For desulfurizing purposes, the coal is
previously mixed with a small amount of a calcium-bearing material like limestone.[21]
Fig. 14. Flow sheet of the COMET process.[21]
Inside the furnace chamber, the temperature of the multi-layer bed is progressively
increased up to 1300°C. The raw materials first release their residual moisture and
volatile matters. When the temperature reaches 700°C, CO2 reacts with the carbon in the
coal layers and generates the CO for the reduction of the iron oxides in the ore layers:
there is a continuous exchange of CO2 and CO between layers. The sulfur released by
the coal is mostly captured by the neighbouring calcium.[21]
The heat requested by the process is generated in the upper part of the furnace chamber,
partly by fuel burners (using natural gas, coke oven gas, pulverized coal, oil, etc) and
partly by preheated air injections in order to burn off the combustible gases released by
the solids (coal volatiles and CO excess).[21]
Because of the high processing temperature, the reduced iron layers at the exit of the
furnace are sintered while the residue of the coal layers remains powdery and is thus
very easy to separate by screening. The hot products are continuously discharged from
the rotary hearth and can be handled in different ways, according to specific needs. A
first possibility is to cool down the products before screening; another possibility is to
screen the products at high temperature and to charge the hot DRI into the EAF in order
to take advantage of its heat content.[21] Table 9 shows typical DRI analysis.
Table 9. Typical DRI analysis from COMET process.[22]

Fe, % Metallization, % C, % S, % gangue, % SiO2, % Al2O3, % CaO, % MgO, %
94.8 92 0.2 0.032 2.7 1.86 0.46 0.11 0.03
26
In the furnace, the gases flow counter-currently to the hearth rotation and escape
through a chimney. Additional air is then injected in the exhaust gas in order to achieve
a total post-combustion. Afterwards, the sensible heat of the hot gas is used in order to
dry the raw materials and to preheat the combustion air for the RHF burners. After
scrubbing, the waste gas is finally rejected at the stack.[21]
The waste of the process (the powdery residue of coal layers) consists mainly of char
particles mixed with some burnt lime and calcium sulphide. Its valorization can be
achieved through different ways: it can be sold as low quality fuel to cement factories or
to power stations equipped for processing high gangue coal mine residues. It can also be
recycled in integrated steelmaking facilities.[21]
A pilot installation is operated at C.R.M. since February 1997. The tests results
demonstrate that the COMET process enables the continuous production of a highly
metallized DRI (>92 %) with a low gangue content (<4 %) and low sulfur content
(<0.05 %).[23]
2.4.4 SIDCOMET
The SIDCOMET process, based on the coal-based COMET principle, is developed by

Belgium’s Sidmar. It is a combination of the direct reduction of iron ores with coal as
the reducing agent and a melting operation. This hot metal is then suitable for further
treatment in a typical BOF steel shop.[24]
SIDCOMET’s advantages are partly in its use of raw materials. The direct reduction
part of the process uses a rotary hearth furnace fed with a mixture of iron ore fines and
ordinary (i.e. non-coking) coal. In using fines, as opposed to the pellet and lump
required by its rivals, SIDCOMET can exploit a cheaper and more plentiful source of
iron units. There is no need for pelletizing prior to reduction.[25]
SIDCOMET’s major difference from the COMET technology from which it has
developed is that the fines and coal are charged to the furnace mixed together, whereas
in COMET the coal and iron ore are laid down in layers. SIDCOMET differs from the
other rotary hearth technologies because the ore and coal are reduced in the furnace for
as much as an hour.[25]
Fig. 15 shows the flowsheet of the SIDCOMET process.
27
Fig. 15. SIDCOMET process flowsheet.[26]
In the process, the raw materials (iron ore and fluxes) are preheated up to 800°C in a
multi-cyclone. The reducing agent, coal, is crushed and also preheated up to 150°C. The
raw materials and the coal are charged at the center of the rotary hearth furnace and are
slowly moved towards the outer diameter of it. At the same time the burden is mixed by
means of mechanical devices, allowing an intensive contact between iron ore, coal and
fluxes. This leads to a low coal consumption, it avoids thermal shocks on the hearth
floor, and permits operation with a thick layer of raw materials an optimal retention
time and consequently high production rates. The gaseous atmosphere within the burden
and close to the layer avoids reoxidation of the sponge iron. During their stay in the
RHF, the iron ores are transformed into DRI with a metallization rate of more than 90
%. The temperature of the burden reaches some 1100°C. Waste gas of the RHF is used
to preheat the burden.[26]
The DRI is discharged by gravity into an electric furnace in which it is melted by means
of heat transfer through the slag layer and through electric arcing. The hot metal and the
slag are tapped discontinuously: the hot metal is poured in a classic torpedo ladle and
transported to the BOF steel shop for further processing.[25] The molten iron is tapped at
1450-1470°C. Table 10 shows the analysis of SIDCOMET molten iron and Table 11 the
expected gas emissions from a SIDCOMET plant.
Table 10. Analysis of SIDCOMET molten iron.[27]

Temperature, °C C, % S, % P, % Si, % Mn, %
1450-1470 3-3.5 0.03-0.04 0.07 0.4-0.6 0.06-0.08
Table 11. Expected gas emissions from the SIDCOMET plant.[27]

Unit CO SO2 NO2 Dust
mg/Nm3 < 100 < 250 < 75 < 30
28
According to Sidmar, a typical SIDCOMET installation will have a capacity of about
750 000 t of hot metal per year. Sidmar has built a plant at its site in Ghent, in which it
has a rotary hearth furnace and will add a smelting furnace at a later stage.[24]
3 Reduction temperature and retention time
Table 12 shows the reduction temperature and retention time of the charge in different
DRI processes.
Table 12. Reduction temperature and retention time of the charge in different DRI processes.
Process Temperature, °C Retention time
Kinglor Metor 1050 13 h
SL/RN 1050-1100 12 h
CODIR 950-1050 8-10 h
Circofer 950 (CFB), 850 (FB) 20-30 min (CFB), 45-240 min (FB)
Inmetco 1300 10-18 min
FASTMET 1250-1300 6-12 min
COMET 1300 87 min
As can be seen the retention time of the charge in the furnace is much higher in Kinglor
Metor, SL/RN and CODIR processes compared to the other processes. In the case of
SL/RN process the retention time is from Iscor plant (South Africa), which operates the
kilns with a little backflow of material so as to ensure maximum filling and retention
time of the material in the kiln.
In the case of Circofer process, in the primary stage CFB reactor the reduction
temperature is approximately 950°C and a degree of metallization of about 80 % is
achieved in 20-30 minutes. In FB reactor operating at approximately 850°C for final
reduction degrees of 93-95 % retention times of 45-240 minutes would be required.
The rotary hearth furnace processes (Inmetco, FASTMET and COMET) operates at a
temperature midway between that of the smelting reduction and the other direct
reduction processes. Residence time of charge on the furnace hearth is fairly low
compared to the other DRI processes due to high temperature and improved reaction
kinetics. The residence time must also be low to prevent sticking of the charge.
In the case of Inmetco process, iron ore reduction to >90 % metallization will require 16
to 18 minutes whereas for steel mill residues the time will be at 10 to 14 minutes due to
their lager share of two-valued iron.
As can be seen, in the case of FASTMET process, the reduction time is even shorter 6-
12 min. Very low residence time of material in the furnace allows rapid adjustment of
process parameters and minimal production loss from process upsets.
In the case of COMET process, considering three iron ore layers of 10 mm thickness
each, to reach a metallization level of 92 %, the retention time of the charge in the
furnace is about 87 min. This is much higher than in FASTMET and Inmetco processes
because the charge on the hearth is much higher. The productivity of the process with
29
three iron ore layers in the multi-layer bed is 42.5 kg DRI/h∗m2 (for a metallization
degree of 92 %). That is 25 to 30 % lower than FASTMET and Inmetco processes for
equivalent raw materials.[28]
4 Product quality
The desired DRI product quality features a high total iron and carbon content in
addition to a low gangue and sulfur content. Fig. 16 shows carbon, sulfur and gangue
content in direct reduced iron from different processes.
8 0.2
6 0.15
carbon and gangue content, %
sulfur content, %
4 0.1
2 0.05
0 0
DRC SL/RN CIRCOFER FASTMET INMETCO COMET
carbon sulfur gangue
Fig. 16. Product qualities of direct reduction processes.
In coal-based reduction processes both the iron ore and the carbon source contribute to
the gangue amount and composition. In FASTMET and Inmetco rotary hearth processes
Self-Reducing Pellets (SPR) made of an intimate mix of iron ore fines, pulverized coal
and a necessary binder such as bentonite are used. In these cases only the volatile
constituents of the carbon source are excluded from the resulting DRI chemistry.
COMET rotary hearth process, Circofer process and kiln-type reactors provide some
separation between the DRI and carbon char at the discharge of the reactor resulting to
lower carbon and sulfur content and in the case of Circofer and COMET processes also
lower gangue content compared to FASTMET and Inmetco processes. Fig. 17 shows
the comparison of SPR and COMET processes.
30
Fig. 17. Basic comparison of SPR and COMET direct reduction processes.[23]
In the direct reduction process via DRHF, the raw materials specifications and the pellet
preparation recipe need to be optimized according to the DRI utilization. Table 13
shows some of the recommended specification ranges as a function of the DRI
utilization.
Table 13. Raw materials and product specifications vs. DRI destination.
Materials DRI destination
specifications SAF BF EAF
Iron ore acid gangue <5% <6% <3%
Coal ashes < 10 % < 12 % <8%
Coal volatiles < 25 % < 20 % < 20 %
Na2O+K2O input - < 3 kg/t Fe -
ZnO input - < 2 kg/t Fe -
Pellet size 8-14 mm 16-22 mm 8-14 mm
DRI metallization 80-90 % 85-92 % > 90 %
DRI carbon 6-7 % 4-7 % 1.5-3 %
DRI compr. strength > 150 N > 250 N > 200 N
In general, the SAF is the most “tolerant” smelter, as far as the chemical and the
mechanical properties of the prereduced pellets are concerned: in fact, it can process
successfully even a DRI with low metallization, high gangue content and poor
mechanical strength. Of course the selection of raw materials shall be made taking into
consideration that the higher energy cost of melting a poorer DRI is paid as electricity.
The BF is even more tolerant than the SAF versus the DRI gangue (SiO2+Al2O3) and
metallization, but needs a careful control of impurities (alkalis, zinc) and mechanical
properties.
The direct utilization of DRI as a major iron user source in a steelmaking furnace (EAF)
is the most demanding application of the DRHF process. Metallization, gangue, sulfur,
density and strength are all critical factors that can negatively affect the plant
productivity and product quality.
In the case of FASTMELT, REDSMELT and SIDCOMET processes liquid iron,

equivalent to blast furnace quality hot metal, can be produced as can be seen from the
Fig. 18.
31
5 5
4.5 4.5
4 4
3.5 3.5
Mn, P, S, Si, C-content, %

3 3
2.5 2.5
2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
FASTMELT REDSMELT SIDCOMET BLAST FURNACE
Mn P S Si C
Fig. 18. Hot metal qualities from FASTMELT, REDSMELT, SIDCOMET and
Blast furnace processes.
5 Consumption rates and economy
Table 14 shows typical operating parameters of different direct reduction processes. The
consumption rates of the processes are mainly from the articles which are recently
published in literature. In the case of CODIR process, data was found only in the article
which was published in 1990. In the case of COMET process the data was given by
Jean Borlee from C.R.M.[28].
Table 14. Typical consumption rates(unit/t product) of different direct reduction processes.
Description Unit Specific rate
2 30 2
SL/RN CODIR DRC Circofer7 FASTMET11 Inmetco31 COMET28
Capacity Mt/y 0.5 0.15 0.3 2 0.5 0.5 0.4
Iron ores
Lumps t 1.47 1.42 1.47 - - - -
Fines t - - - 1.41 1.2-1.35 1.2 1.46
Energy
Coal t 0.75 0.61 0.75 0.37 0.3-0.4 0.4 0.51
Natural gas GJ - - - - 2.1-2.9 1.7 2.7
Electricity kWh 70 70 100 90 80-100 85 70
Additives
Organic binder t - - - - - 0.004 -
Bentonite t - - - - 0.030-0.040 0.016 -
Dolomite t 0.025 - - - - - -
Limestone t - 0.050-0.090 0.030 0.015 - - 0.009
Burnt lime t - - - - - - 0.004
Sodium carbonate t - - - - - - 0.010
Oxygen Nm3 - - - 190 - - -
Nitrogen Nm3 - - - - 2.5 10 10
Water m3 2.5 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.0-2.0 0.2 1.5
Labor man-h 0.32 0.4 0.4 0.15 0.1-0.2 0.15 0.25
In the case of SL/RN, CODIR and DRC processes the consumption rates are based on
the use of 100 % lumpy ore as a iron bearing charge material, the other processes use
fine ore. In the case of FASTMET and Inmetco processes the fine ore is pelletized with
coal by using bentonite and/or organic binder.
32
In the kiln processes (SL/RN, CODIR and DRC) coal provides both the heat and
reductant for the processes. So in order to supply the heat requested by the processes the
use of high volatile coals are preferred. In CODIR and DRC processes coal is also
injected from the discharge end in order to supply the energy for the endothermic
reactions occurring in the remainder of the kiln. The use of high volatile coal with low
fixed carbon in SL/RN, CODIR and DRC processes results in higher coal consumption
as can be seen from the Table 14. In the FASTMET, Inmetco and COMET processes, in
addition to combustion of process gas (CO) and coal volatiles, auxiliary fuel is burned
to balance the energy requirements. Limestone and dolomite are the main desulfurizing
agents in the processes.
In the case of Circofer process oxygen is used for gasification of coal and in
FASTMET, Inmetco and COMET processes nitrogen is used for maintain inert
atmosphere when hot DRI is discharged from the furnace.
Table 15 shows production cost of the processes based on the consumption rates
mentioned in Table 14. The cost of maintenance & supplies is based on a percentage of
the plant investment cost, about 3 percent per year. In the case of CODIR process, the
cost of maintenance & supplies was assumed to be the same than in SL/RN process and
in the case of Circofer process, the value was found from the literature[7]. The references
where the unit prices for the other components are taken are mentioned in description
column in Table 15. When the calculations were performed (6th of July, 2000), the
exchange rates were: 1 euro = 5.94573 mk, 1US$ = 6.3455 mk.
Table 15. Production and investment costs of different direct reduction processes.
Unit Unit SL/RN CODIR DRC Circofer FASTMET Inmetco COMET
Description price
mk/unit
Capacity Mt/y 0.5 0.15 0.3 2 0.5 0.5 0.4
Iron ores
Lumps 3 t 166.48 244.73 236.40 244.73 - - - -
Fines 3 t 141.21 - - - 199.11 190.63 169.45 206.17
Coal
High vol. 28 t 317.91 238.43 193.92 238.43 117.63 - - 162.13
Low vol., ash and S 28 t 355.98 - - - - 142.39 142.39 -
Natural gas 3 GJ 20.81 - - - - 60.35 35.38 56.19
Electricity 40 kWh 0.20 14.00 14.00 20.00 18.00 18.00 17.00 14.00
Additives
Organic binder 31 t 10470.08 - - - - - 41.88 -
Bentonite 31 t 412.46 - - - - 16.50 6.60 -
Dolomite 3 t 74.32 1.86 - - - - - -
Limestone 3 t 74.32 - 5.20 2.23 1.11 - - 0.67
Burnt lime 3 t 356.74 - - - - - - 1.43
Sodium carbonate 28 t 1269.10 - - - - - - 12.69
Oxygen 3 Nm3 0.24 - - - 45.19 - - -
Nitrogen 3 Nm3 0.24 - - - - 0.59 2.38 2.38
Water 40 m3 8.77 21.93 8.77 10.96 13.16 13.16 1.75 13.16
Labor 3 man-h 112.97 36.15 45.19 45.19 16.95 16.95 16.95 28.24
Maintenance&supplies mk 45.69 45.69 47.59 53.94 34.27 30.46 29.51
Total operating cost mk/t 602.78 549.17 609.13 465.07 492.84 464.24 526.56
Investment cost mk/t/y 1522.92 - 1586.38 - 1142.19 1015.28 983.55*
* including 4 % fixed up-front royalties
As can be seen from the Table 15, iron ore seems to be the major factor affecting to the
total operating cost, following by coal. Together they represent over 60 % of the
operating cost. Iron ore fines are cheaper than lumps and high volatile coal is cheaper
than low volatile coal with low ash and sulfur content. In the case of FASTMET and
Inmetco processes, low volatile coal with low ash and sulfur content was used in the
33
calculations. This kind of coal is preferred in the processes due to all the ash and most
of the sulfur remains in the product and becomes part in the feed of the subsequent
steelmaking processes. In all the other processes only high volatile coal was used in the
calculations.
According to the calculations, it seems that in the case of rotary kiln processes (SL/RN,
CODIR and DRC), the total operating cost is higher compared to the other processes,
also the investment cost seems to be higher.
The total operating costs of Circofer, FASTMET and Inmetco processes, are quite close
of each other, in the case of COMET process it is a little higher compared to the above
mentioned processes. The investment costs of the processes are quite similar. In the case
of CODIR and Circofer processes the investment cost was not available. However, in
the case with Circofer process it is possible to produce up to 2 million t HBI/DRI per
year in only one unit. The specific capital cost can thus be lower compared with the
HBI/DRI processes with production capacities of only up to 1 million t/a per line.[8]
Table 16 shows typical operating parameters for FASTMELT, REDSMELT and

SIDCOMET processes from recently published articles. In the case of SIDCOMET
process only the iron ore and coal consumption data were available.
Table 16. Typical consumption rates (unit/t product) of FASTMELT, REDSMELT and SIDCOMET plants.
Description Unit Specific rate (per HM t)
FASTMELT15,32 REDSMELT31 SIDCOMET27
Capacity Mt/y 0.5 0.8 0.75
Iron ore t 1.4-1.55 1.46 1.42
Coal t 0.4-0.5 0.47 0.5
Natural gas GJ 2.3-3.3 2.0
Electricity kWh 500-600 600
Organic binder t - 0.005
Bentonite t 0.022-0.045 0.019
Lime t 0-0.040 0.060
Electrodes t 0.003 0.005
Water m3 1.0-2.0 0.5
Labor man-h 0.2-0.3 0.3
As can be seen, the consumption rates per HM t, are quite similar in the processes.
Table 17 shows calculated production costs for FASTMELT and REDSMELT
processes based on the information in the Table 16. In the case of SIDCOMET process
the production cost was not calculated due to limited consumption data of the process.
Table 17. Production and investment costs of FASTMELT and REDSMELT processes.
Unit Unit price FASTMELT REDSMELT
Description
mk/unit
Capacity Mt/y 0.5 0.8
Iron ore 3 t 141.21 218.88 206.17
Coal 28 t 355.98 177.99 167.31
Natural gas 3 GJ 20.81 68.67 41.62
Electricity 40 kWh 0.20 120.00 120.00
Organic binder 31 t 10470.08 - 52.35
Bentonite 31 t 412.46 18.56 7.84
Lime 3 t 356.74 14.27 21.40
Electrodes 3 t 10405.03 31.22 52.03
Water 40 m3 8.77 17.54 4.39
Labor 3 man-h 112.97 33.89 33.89
Maintenance&supplies mk 41.25 52.97
Total operating cost mk/t 742.26 759.66
Investment cost mk/t/y 1460-1586 1300
34
As can be seen, the production costs for FASTMELT and REDSMELT processes are
quite close each other. The capital cost for a 500 000 ton/y FASTMELT plant is in the
US $115 to $125 million range, depending on the infrastructure and plant location.[9] In
the case of REDSMELT process, the specific investment cost for a turnkey
REDSMELT plant installation range for a 0.2 to 0.5 million t/a plant from 250 down to
205 US$/annual tonne and for a > 0.5 to 1.0 million t/a plant from 210 down to 190
US$/annual tonne[20].
According to Monteyne the production cost for a 0.75 Mt/y hot metal SIDCOMET
process is about 105-110 US$/ton (666-698 mk/ton) and the investment cost
approximately 140 US$/ton (888 mk/ton). [27]
In most of the direct reduction processes the sensible heat of the waste gas can be used
for production of electricity and thus decrease the production costs. Table 18 shows
energy data of some direct reduction processes.
Table 18. Energy data for different coal-based direct reduction processes (per t DRI).[17]
SL/RN Circofer Inmetco FASTMET
Inputs:
Coal kg 630 323.2 445.2 420
Fuel gas MJ - - 2300 3258
Electricity kWh 100 90 90 60
Oxygen Nm3 - 180 - -
Total MJ 20450 11692 16929 16832
Output:
Electricity kWh 609 - 290 100
Total MJ 5603 - 2668 920
Net MJ 14847 11692 14261 15912
In SL/RN process electricity generation is over 600 kWh/t DRI, this is much higher than
in Inmetco and FASTMET processes due to higher coal consumption rate. In the
Circofer process there is no electricity generation from the waste gas due to the process
is characterized by closed gas circuit.
The potential for electricity generation from Inmetco process is of the order ~300-500
kWh/t DRI, depending on the volatile content of the reductant used. The electricity
generation from the FASTMET process is about 100 kWh/t DRI, if the burners are
supplied with coal instead of natural gas the burner fuel will reduce by ~10 % and
reductant coals with higher volatile content will increase the amount of coal required,
but also the steam credit and, therefore, the power generation.[19]
Table 19 shows by-products from a REDSMELT plant.
Table 19. By-products from a REDSMELT plant.[19]

By-product Unit Specific rate (per HM t)
Energy recovery (as steam) GJ/t 5.1
Energy recovery (electricity) kWh/t 450
Granulated slag kg/t 217
It can be seen that a significant amount of thermal energy may be recovered from the
REDSMELT off-gas systems. If a co-generation power station is installed, 50 to 70 %
35
of the electric energy required by the plant may be self-generated, with a substantial
improvement of the overall process economy.[19]
6 Environmental aspects
In addition to high investment cost of a blast furnace plant, stringent environmental

regulations on integrated steel mill emissions, especially from coke ovens, is driving the
steelmakers to develop new processes to produce steel. Also the increasing landfill costs
for waste material and decreasing public acceptance for waste dumping is driving the
ore, iron and steel industry to apply environmental friendly and economically acceptable
waste processing solutions on site. The future goal of steel companies is the
establishment of a ‘clean process line’, which incorporates all waste materials within the
production process.[35]
One of the benefits of the coal-based DR processes is that they do not produce any
liquid effluent. Waste materials are discharged from the processes in the form of solids,
some of which are char-rich and can be recycled to the kiln. In addition FASTMET,
Inmetco and COMET processes recycle the majority of iron bearing waste materials
including mill wastes accumulated in the ore, pelletizing, iron and steel production. This
can provide environmental benefits by recovering valuable iron units and other
materials from wastes that may pose an environmental liability.
As mentioned before production of sinter and coke is a continuing concern for

integrated mills. Stricter environmental regulations on integrated steel mill emissions,
especially from coke ovens, are a major problem. FASTMELT, REDSMELT and
SIDCOMET processes can enable integrated mills to produce liquid iron, equivalent to
blast furnace quality hot metal, while shutting down troublesome facilities. Slag which
is the only solid waste generated from FASTMELT, REDSMELT and SIDCOMET
processes, is comparable to blast furnace slag and can therefore be sold for road
construction or cement manufacture. By re-using all the waste water within the plant,
the liquid emissions are close to zero.
Very limited amount of information concerning gas emissions from the DRI processes
were available. Table 20 shows expected emission values from REDSMELT plant in
comparison with those typical of an integrated BF plant. Also SO2 and CO2 emissions
levels of a Circofer/EAF and SL/RN / EAF routes are reported.
Table 20. Gas emissions from a REDSMELT, integrated BF plant and Circofer/EAF–and SL/RN / EAF
routes.
Pollutant Unit Specific rate (per HM t)
REDSMELT35 BF35 Circofer/EAF8 SL/RN / EAF13
Carbon monoxide (CO) g/t 620 41450
Nitrogen oxides (as NO2) g/t 520 1610
Sulfur oxides (as SO2) g/t 235 2600 ≤15
Particulate g/t 630* 2300
Volatile organic compounds g/t <20 350
Carbon dioxide (CO2) kg/t 1460 1820 1475 ~1700
* excluding raw materials yards
36
As can be seen the REDSMELT components are environmentally compatible operating
units. Emissions of off-gases and dust are much lower than in blast furnace plants and
can be further reduced by introducing commercially proven gas cleaning units.[18]
In the case of Circofer/EAF route, as a result of direct processing of fine ores – without
a sinter plant – SO2 emissions are very low. The CO2 emissions are similar to the
REDSMELT process and below that from integrated BF plant. Also CO2 emissions
from a SL/RN / EAF route seems to be lower than from integrated BF plant but higher
than from REDSMELT and Circofer/EAF route due to higher coal consumption.
The reduction of CO2 emissions is important due to the countries of the European
Union, the Unites States and Japan agreed at the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change) conference in Kyoto in December 1997 to reduce their
greenhouse gas emissions by 8, 7 and 6 % in the period 2008-2012, respectively,
compared to their emissions for a reference year. The Kyoto agreement covers six
categories of greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
perfluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons and sulfurhexa-fluoride.[33]
Approximately 7 % of the CO2 emissions each year in the European Union can be
attributed to the production of iron and steel.[36]
7 The use of DRI
Most of the DRI is used in electric steelmaking, but it is also used in blast furnaces or in
converters.
In the blast furnace application typically low grade DRI with low metallization ratio and
high gangue content is used to increase production and decrease coke consumption. In
the converter process DRI could be used as cooling material as it is proper to be added
from silos during the blowing period and it does not influence the impurity contents in
the steel.[37]
In electric arc furnaces (EAF) DRI is used as scrap substitute. The demand for direct
reduced iron (DRI) as charge material of EAF has increased because it has a low
content of tramp elements, which leads to stable production of clean steel, and because
of the economics of low residual steel scrap. On the other hand, DRI has a higher
content of gangue compared with scrap. Therefore power consumption at EAF tends to
increase as the blending ratio of DRI in charge material increases.[38]
Both the amount of gangue and the gangue composition are important to the EAF
operator. The amount of gangue contained affects both electric power input
requirements and metallic yield – the higher the gangue the more energy required and
the lower the iron recovery per tonne of DRI charged. If the gangue in DRI increases by
one percent, it will displace one percent of the other constituents with the iron content
displaced the most.[4]
37
In the case of gangue composition, one important consideration is the ratio of basic
components CaO and MgO to acid components SiO2 and Al2O3 (“V” ratio). The gangue
must be neutralized in the arc furnace by the addition of lime. Lower “V” ratio materials
require more lime which requires energy to melt. This factor becomes more important
as the amount of DRI increases as a percentage of the charge. Fig. 19 indicates the
effect of increasing the silica component in the DRI on the theoretical EAF energy
requirement and shows that for example, for a charge addition of 60 % DRI, each 1 %
increase in silica content increases the energy consumption requirement by ~10
kWh/t.[13]
Assumptions: “V” ratio = 2.5; DRI = 92% metallic Fe, Metallization = 92 %; Temp. = 1600°C
Fig. 19. Theoretical power requirements as a function of % DRI

in the charge at different DRI SiO2 levels.[13]
Increased carbon contents in DRI – up to 5 %C – as well as a higher metallization

grade, will allow steelmakers to melt DRI more effeciently.
Fig. 20 shows the variation in EAF energy consumption with DRI metallization and the
proportion of DRI in the charge and indicates that the additional energy requirement for
increasing amounts of DRI in the charge is minimized for metallization levels above
~94.5 %. For example, for an EAF charge consisting of 40 % scrap and 60 % DRI, with
a metallization level of 94.5 %, an increase in energy consumption of 20-40 kWh/t is
expected compared with the 100 % scrap case. At a metallization level of 91 %,
however, the required increase in energy consumption is more than doubled.[13]
Fig. 20. Energy consumption as a function of metallization and scrap/DRI ratio.[13]
38
A main benefit of higher carbon DRI, is that it has lower melting point and is
assimilated into the melt, which is important for continuous feeding, and extended CO
bubble generation acts as additional nucleation sites for nitrogen, giving lower nitrogen
levels in the steel. In addition, higher carbon makes slag foaming easier, enabling
foaming to take place at lower basicity.[13] When there is more carbon than needed to
reduce the remaining iron oxide in DRI, the excess carbon supplies additional energy to
the steelmaking process. For a DRI-based EAF, carbon in DRI can be an economic way
to supply carbon units because the DRI continuous feeding system adds carbon at the
same time that DRI is fed. Fig. 21 shows calculated effects of DRI temperature and
carbon content on the electrical energy consumption.
Fig. 21. Effect of DRI temperature and Carbon content on electricity consumption.[13]
As can be seen for 50 % of cold DRI in the charge and 94 % metallization, increasing
the carbon content from 1.8 % to 4.0 % reduced the power consumption by ~40
kWh/tls, to a level that is similar to that for a 100 % scrap charge. When DRI is charged
hot at 600°C, there is a decrease of ~100 kWh/tls.[13]
Hot charging of DRI (HDRI) has been successfully demonstrated at several melting
shops around the world. The attractiveness of using hot charging in the EAF is that it
contains considerable potential thermal energy, in addition to the inherent chemical
energy resulting from carbon combustion. Thus, hot metal reduces the requirement for
electrical energy (Fig. 22), contributes virgin iron units to the charge to improve or
maintain specific quality requirements, extends foaming slag conditions for improved
heat transfer, reduce refractory loss and better nitrogen control and helps to reduce
electrode consumption (Fig. 23).[13,34]
Fig. 22. Estimated EAF power savings Fig. 23. Estimated EAF electrode savings
(kWh/ton).[34] (kg/ton).[34]
39
There is also an increasing trend in blending molten iron into EAF because its proper
blending ratio ensures higher productivity and lower energy consumption at EAF. If hot
DRI is used as charge material of the melter, high quality molten iron can be produced
economically. Blending of this molten iron into EAF contributes to higher productivity
and higher quality steel production at EAF.[39] As discussed earlier, several methods to
produce liquid iron are proven or under development such as REDSMELT,
FASTMELT and SIDCOMET processes.
8 Summary and Conclusions
In this work coal-based direct reduction processes that are currently in commercial
operation or under development were discussed and compared. Coal-based processes
are very attractive to countries with limited scrap supply, little access to cheap natural
gas and an extensive supply of cheap coal.
One of the benefits of the coal-based DR processes is that they do not produce any
liquid effluent. Waste materials are discharged from the processes in the form of solids,
some of which are char-rich and can be recycled to the kiln.
The Circofer, FASTMET, Inmetco and COMET processes seem to be more attractive to
produce DRI than the old rotary kiln processes. The advantage of rotary hearth
processes is that mill dust and other by-products can be recycled easily back to the
process, which can reduce dust disposal. Such processes like FASTMET, Inmetco and
COMET can fit as a steel mill waste processor that offers a significant environmental
benefit. The undesirable gangue can also be removed from the DRI in a subsequent
melter before charging further.
In the case of rotary hearth processes (FASTMET, Inmetco and COMET) the reduction
temperature is higher and thus retention time much lower compared to the other coal-
based direct reduction processes, also the production and investment costs of Circofer,
FASTMET, Inmetco and COMET processes seem to be lower compared to the other
processes. The production costs of Circofer, FASTMET and Inmetco processes, are
quite close of each other, in the case of COMET process it is a little higher. The
investment cost of the processes is quite similar. In the case of Circofer processes the
investment cost was not available. However, with the Circofer process it is possible to
produce up to 2 million t HBI/DRI per year in only one unit. The specific capital cost
can thus be lower compared with the HBI/DRI processes with production capacities of
only up to 1 million t/a per line.
In FASTMELT, REDSMELT and SIDCOMET processes liquid iron, equivalent to

blast furnace quality hot metal, can be produced. Slag which is the only solid waste
generated from the processes, is comparable to blast furnace slag and can therefore be
sold for road construction or cement manufacture. The production and investments costs
of FASTMELT and REDSMELT processes are quite similar.
Most of the DRI is used in electric steelmaking, but it is also used in blast furnaces and
in converters. The demand for direct reduced iron as a charge material of EAF has
40
increased due to DRI offers numerous advantages such as boosting productivity,
grade scrap. However, the potential for a high acid gangue content will likely penalise
its use as a merchant product for EAF steelmaking, particularly in areas with high
power cost. On the other hand, it could be a suitable charge medium for the EAF if a
premelter is used as an additional processing stage to melt the DRI and remove the
gangue, like in FASTMELT, REDSMELT and SIDCOMET processes.
41
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COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT COAL BASED DIRECT REDUCTION PROCESSES

Technical Report · August 2000

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COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT COAL BASED DIRECT REDUCTION

Marko Kekkonen Lauri Holappa

COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT COAL BASED DIRECT REDUCTION

Marko Kekkonen Lauri Holappa

Helsinki University of Technology

Keywords Direct reduction, DRI, Coal

Financier TEKES, Rautaruukki Oyj

Collaboration partner University of Oulu, Rautaruukki Oyj, Fundia Wire Oy Ab

Fig. 1. World DRI production by year [1].

Fig. 2. World DRI production by process in 1999.[1]

Direct reduction is defined as a process in which metallic iron is produced by reducing

Fluidized bed pelletizing *

ACCAR/OSIL Kinglor Metor Circofer FASTMET *

Fig. 3. Principles of coal-based direct reduction processes.

2.1.1 SL/RN process

2.1.1.1 Raw materials

2.1.1.2 Operating procedure

Table 1. Typical composition of DRI from SL/RN process.[3]

2.1.1.3 Current status

The development of the CODIR (Coal-Ore-Direct-Iron-Reduction) process started in

2.1.2.1 Raw materials

2.1.2.2 Operating procedure

1. >5-mm fraction, DRI, goes to product storage.

2.1.2.3 Current status

2.1.3.1 Raw materials

2.1.3.2 Operating procedure

Stack Blown Coal

Ore Coal Limestone

Table 2. Typical composition of DRI from DRC process.[5]

Table 3. Waste heat recovery.[6]

2.1.3.3 Current status

The Allis-Chalmers ACCAR process was developed by the Allis-Chalmers

2.1.4.1 Raw materials

2.1.4.2 Operating procedure

2.1.4.3 Current status

2.2 Shaft (retort) process

2.2.1 Kinglor Metor

2.2.1.2 Operating procedure

Fig. 7. Flow sheet of the Kinglor Metor process.[2]

In 1999, 2 modules produced together 0.03 Mt of DRI by Kinglor Metor process in

2.3 Fluidized bed

2.3.1.1 Raw materials

2.3.1.2 Operating procedure

The Circofer process (Fig. 8) is a coal-based process, which utilizes a combination of

Table 4. Typical composition of DRI from Circofer process.[8]

Fig. 8. Flow sheet of Circofer process.[7]

2.3.1.3 Current status

2.4 Rotary hearth processes

2.4.1.1 Raw materials

- blast furnace filter cake

2.4.1.2 Operating procedure

FASTMET DRI is continuously discharged from the rotary hearth furnace at

In Kakogawa demonstration plant DRI metallization levels of greater than 85 % were

Table 5. Typical HBI analysis from the FASTMET process.[13]

Major functions of the premelter are[14]:

Table 6. Typical chemical composition of FASTMELT molten iron.[15]

2.4.1.3 Product applications

FASTMELT offers liquid FASTIRON, which is used in an electric arc furnace as a