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MODELLING AND OPTIMISATION OF DIRECT

REDUCTION OF IRON ORE BY COAL IN A ROTARY
KILN
V Runkana1, P Natekar2, V Bandla3, G Pothal4 and A Chatterjee5

ABSTRACT
India is the largest producer of sponge iron or direct reduced iron (DRI) in the world. The important
step in the manufacture of DRI is direct reduction of iron ore by coal or reducing gases such as
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Majority of the Indian plants utilise locally available coal, which is
relatively poor in quality. The carbon content of coal is low which necessitates high coal consumption.
The undesirable ash content is also high which leads to frequent shut-downs due to deposition of
ash inside the kiln. Hence, there is a need to optimise DRI production in order to enhance kiln
productivity and energy efficiency and to minimise release of greenhouse gases. Development
of a comprehensive mathematical model for direct reduction of iron ore by a mixture of coals is
presented here. Important physico-chemical phenomena such as heat transfer between solids, gases
and kiln wall, pre-heating and drying of particles, devolatilisation and gasification of coal, reduction
of hematite, magnetite and wustite by carbon monoxide and hydrogen, and flow of particles inside
the kiln are incorporated into the model. Ore and coal properties such as particle size distribution
and chemical analyses along with kiln geometry are taken as inputs. The model predicts gas and
solid temperature and concentration profiles along kiln length as well as total Fe content of DRI,
fixed carbon content of char and waste gas volume and its composition. The predicted gas and solid
temperature profiles at different locations along kiln length are reasonably close to the data from an
industrial kiln. The model can be utilised to predict the rate of release of greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide which can then be employed to design post-combustion furnaces appropriately so
that ultimate greenhouse gas emissions from the DRI plant can be minimised.
Keywords: direct reduced iron, coal, rotary kiln, modelling, optimisation

INTRODUCTION
India is the largest producer of sponge iron or direct reduced iron (DRI) in the world. DRI is
manufactured through either the gas- or the coal-based technologies and is used as the raw material
for making steel through the electric arc furnace (EAF)-route. Iron ore fines/lumps are reduced in
solid state at 950 - 1050 °C either by reducing gas (carbon monoxide and hydrogen) or by coal.
Majority of the sponge iron plants in India produce DRI using iron ore fines and non-coking coal
in a rotary kiln. Tata Sponge Iron Limited (TSIL) operates three large industrial rotary kilns for
producing DRI through the TISCO direct reduction (TDR) process (Chatterjee et al, 1978). The
critical step in this process is the reduction of iron ore by coal in the rotary kiln. In coal-based sponge
iron rotary kilns, iron ore, coal and dolomite are fed to the kiln as separate streams at a controlled
rate. Dolomite is added in small quantities to control sulphur content of DRI. The kiln is a refractory
lined steel cylinder in which direct reduction takes place in a counter-current fashion with iron ore,
dolomite and coal charged from the feed end of the kiln while air enters from the discharge end.
Coal is also injected pneumatically through a blower from the discharge end in order to provide the

1. Principal Scientist, Tata Research Development and Design Centre, A Division of Tata Consultancy Services Ltd, 54-B, Hadapsar Industrial Estate, Pune 411013, India.
Email: venkat.runkana@tcs.com
2. Systems Engineer, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd, 54-B, Hadapsar Industrial Estate, Pune 411013, India. Email: pradeep.natekar@cummins.com
3. Business Development-Lead, Tata Research Development and Design Centre, A Division of Tata Consultancy Services Ltd, 54-B, Hadapsar Industrial Estate, Pune 411013, India.
Email: viswanadh.bandla@tcs.com
4. Manager – Process Control, Tata Sponge Iron Ltd, Joda, Orissa 758 034, India. Email: gpothal@tatasponge.com
5. Advisor to the Managing Director, Tata Steel, Jamshedpur 831001, India. Email: amit.chatterjee@tatasteel.com

XXV INTERNATIONAL MINERAL PROCESSING CONGRESS (IMPC) 2010 PROCEEDINGS / BRISBANE, QLD, AUSTRALIA / 6 - 10 SEPTEMBER 2010 3383
 V RUNKANA et al

reducing agent after coal from the feed end is consumed during the reduction process. Coal charged
from the feed end is referred to as feed coal while coal injected from the discharged end is referred
to as injection coal. In a sponge iron rotary kiln, coal acts as the reducing agent as well as the source
of energy. Heat is supplied by convection and radiation to the solid charge from hot freeboard gas
flowing counter-currently as well as through regenerative wall. Air is also introduced along the length
of the kiln (at various locations through the secondary air blowers) in order to improve mixing. Air
entering from the discharge end is referred to as the primary air while that entering axially along the
kiln length is referred to as the secondary air. The kiln can be seen as having three distinct zones,
first the drying zone where the moisture in solids gets evaporated, second the pre-heating zone and
third the reduction zone. The reduced material (DRI) is discharged to a rotary cooler from where it
is dispatched to different magnetic separators to split the magnetic (DRI) component from the non-
magnetic components (char and ash) in the kiln output.
One of the critical problems faced by the coal-based sponge iron industries in India is accretion
inside rotary kilns. Accretion occurs due to deposition of low melting complexes consisting of ash,
gangue and metallic iron. The thickness of the deposited layer increases as time progresses and
ultimately leads to choking of the kiln. The kiln needs to be shut down and the deposited material
has to be removed mechanically. This results in frequent kiln shut-downs, reduced plant availability
and low production rates. Accretion affects not only the kiln throughput but also the coal utilization
and thermal efficiency of the kiln because it reduces the effective kiln volume and the efficiency of
heat transfer between the kiln surface, the free-board gases and the solids. Thermocouples installed
along the kiln length for process control do not provide accurate measurements of the temperatures
inside, except during the initial stages of a campaign. The inaccuracy in temperature measurement
is primarily due to coating of thermocouples with ash or gangue or metallic iron. While accretion
cannot be avoided completely, it may be possible to reduce the rate of accretion by manipulating the
process variables such as flow rates of iron ore, feed and injection coals, primary and secondary air
flow rates, and the kiln rotational speed.
A phenomenological model for direct reduction of iron ore by coal in the rotary kiln will be an
invaluable tool as it would then be possible to predict not only the gas and solid temperature profiles
inside the kiln but also the degree of metallization of the DRI, waste gas flow rate and its composition.
These predicted variables could be utilized, along with on-line process measurements and off-line
laboratory analyses, for more efficient plant optimization and control. Moreover, the mathematical
model would be useful to obtain information about internal gas and solid temperature profiles,
even when thermocouples installed on-line do not provide accurate measurements due to accretion.
A number of models were proposed in the literature for direct reduction of iron ore by coal in a
rotary kiln (Venkateswaran and Brimacombe, 1977; Mukhopadhyay, Sathe and Chatterjee, 1984;
Ramakrishnan and Sai, 1999). Although these models were useful in understanding the effect of
important process variables on the iron ore direct reduction process, they were not comprehensive in
nature, especially with respect to incorporating various physico-chemical phenomena involved in the
process. None of them include the well established step-wise reduction of hematite to magnetite to
wustite to metallic iron by carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Similarly, kinetics of drying of moisture
from iron ore and coal, and devolatilization of coal were also not dealt in detail. Moreover, none of
the models were validated with data from an industrial coal-based sponge iron rotary kiln process.
We have developed a fairly comprehensive mathematical model for the direct reduction of iron ore
by coal in a rotary kiln, validated the model with data from one of the industrial kilns at TSIL and
utilized it for process analysis, optimization and control (Runkana et al, 2007). The mathematical
model and its validation with data from the industrial kiln are described here.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL
In the TISCO Direct Reduction (TDR) process, iron ore, coal and dolomite particles are charged from
the feed end, without any pre-mixing, while only coal is injected from the discharge end of the kiln.
The kiln is usually inclined at an angle to the horizontal and the movement of solids depends on the
speed of rotation and the angle of inclination of the kiln as well as on the properties of particles and
the particulate bed inside the kiln. The solids enter at the ambient temperature and encounter hot
gases, flowing in a counter-current fashion, as they move from the feed end towards the discharge
end. Due to mixing, heat transfer takes place between the two phases and the temperature of the

XXV INTERNATIONAL MINERAL PROCESSING CONGRESS (IMPC) 2010 PROCEEDINGS / BRISBANE, QLD, AUSTRALIA / 6 - 10 SEPTEMBER 2010 3384
MODELLING AND OPTIMISATION OF DIRECT REDUCTION OF IRON ORE BY COAL IN A ROTARY KILN

solids increases gradually due to convection, conduction and radiation. During the initial stages,
moisture present in coal and iron ore particles evaporates. As the solids attain higher temperatures,
devolatilization of coal takes place resulting in the formation of char and release of tar and light gases
such as carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water (H2O),
etc. The coal gasification reactions, mentioned below, occur at higher temperatures and lead to the
formation of CO and H2.

Boudouard reaction: C + CO2 → 2 CO (1)

Water gas reaction: C + H2O → CO + H2 (2)

The iron ore utilized at TSIL primarily consists of hematite (Fe2O3) and minor constituents of gangue
materials such as silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), calcium oxide (CaO), sulphur (S) and phosphorous
(P). The reduction of hematite is assumed to take place in three steps, according to the following
reactions:
Conversion of hematite to magnetite (Fe3O4) by CO and H2:

3Fe2O3 + CO → 2Fe3O4 + CO2 (3)

3Fe2O3 + H2 → 2Fe3O4 + H2O (4)

Conversion of magnetite to wustite (FeO) by CO and H2:

Fe3O4 + CO → 3 FeO + CO2 (5)

Fe3O4 + H2 → 3 FeO + H2O (6)

Conversion of wustite (FeO) to metallic iron (Fe) by CO and H2:

FeO + CO → Fe + CO2 (7)

FeO + H2 → Fe + H2O (8)

The mathematical model developed in the current work is one-dimensional in nature and is based on
the fundamental principles of heat transfer between solids, gases and the kiln wall and mass transfer
between solids and gases. It is meant for steady-state simulation of direct reduction of iron ore. The
overall kiln model includes appropriate sub-models for kinetics of reactions involving hematite,
magnetite, wustite, carbon, oxygen, carbon monoxide and hydrogen, and the flow of solids inside the
kiln (see Figure 1). In order to predict gas and solid phase temperature and concentration profiles along
the kiln length, the rotary kiln is divided into a number of slices or computational elements over which

Model Inputs Model Outputs

Iron Ore Solids
Heat and Mass Reaction Kinetics
Flow rate Temperature Profile
Transfer
Size Distribution Composition
Hematite Content Degree of Metallization
Moisture Content Moisture Content
Coal Percent loading
Flow rates Bed Height Profile
Particle Size distributions Mean Residence Time
Proximate Analysis Gas
Moisture Content Rotary Kiln Model Flow Rate
Reactivity Temperature Profile
Air Composition
Flow rates
Temperatures
Kilm
Length
Diameter Drying of Moisture Solids Bed Height
Speed of rotation Profile
Angle of inclination

FIG 1 - Structure of the model for direct reduction of iron ore by coal in a rotary kiln.

XXV INTERNATIONAL MINERAL PROCESSING CONGRESS (IMPC) 2010 PROCEEDINGS / BRISBANE, QLD, AUSTRALIA / 6 - 10 SEPTEMBER 2010 3385
 V RUNKANA et al

material and energy balances for the gas and the solid phases and mass balances for the individual
species are written. The mathematical model consists of a set of ordinary differential equations, which
includes overall material and energy balances for the gas and the solid phases, material balances for
individual species in each phase and the height of the solids bed along the kiln length.

ENERGY BALANCE EQUATIONS

Heat transfer between gases, solids, the kiln refractory wall and the shell occur by different
mechanisms, depending on the temperatures and the transport medium. The possible mechanisms of
heat transfer in the rotary kiln are: (i) radiation and convection between gases and the kiln refractory
wall, (ii) radiation and convection between gases and solids, (iii) radiation and conduction between
the kiln refractory wall and solids, (iv) conduction in the kiln refractory layer, (v) conduction in
the kiln shell layer, and (vi) convection (natural or forced) and radiation from the kiln shell to the
ambient air. The temperature of gases, solids, kiln wall and shell will depend on the magnitude and the
dynamic balance of heat fluxes interchanged between different phases by appropriate mechanisms of
heat transfer. The variation of gas, solid and wall temperatures along the kiln length can be derived
by assuming one-dimensional (1-D) steady-state heat transfer. The thermal component of these 1-D
models can be derived by considering a transverse slice dividing a section into a differential volume
of free-board gases and solids. The energy balances for the gas and the solid phases are:

dTg GSATSACpAir
GgCpg = – Qrgw – Qrgh – Qcgw – Qcgb + + ∑ viRiΔHi (9)
dz ΔZ i

dTb
Qrgw = + Qrgb + Qcgb + Qcwb + Qrwb – RWΔHW + ∑ vjRjΔHj (10)
dz j

where Qrgw is the rate of heat transfer by radiation between gases and the kiln wall, Qrgb is the rate
of heat transfer by radiation between gases and solids, Qcgw is the rate of heat transfer by convection
between gases and the kiln wall, Qcgb is the rate of heat transfer by convection between gases and
solids, Qcwb is the rate of heat transfer by conduction between the kiln wall and solids, Qrwb is the rate
of heat transfer by radiation between the kiln wall and solids, Gg and Gs are molar flow rates of gases
and solids, respectively, Cpg and Cps are specific heat capacities of gases and solids, respectively, Tg
and Tb are temperatures of gases and solids, respectively, νi and νj are stoichiometric coefficients,
and z is the differential kiln length. The fifth term on the right hand side of Eq. (9) represents the
enthalpy of secondary air at any location along the kiln length. GSA is molar flow rate of secondary air
and CpAir is specific heat capacity of air at its temperature TSA. The last terms in Eq. (9] and Eq. (10)
represent, respectively, the net heat released/consumed due to chemical reactions in the gas phase
and in the solid phase. These terms include enthalpy of all the iron ore reduction reactions, carbon
gasification reactions and combustion of carbon with oxygen. RW∆HW is the net heat consumed due to
evaporation of moisture in solids. The equations for computing various heat fluxes are incorporated
in the model but are not described here due to space limitations.

MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATIONS

In the direct reduction process various physico-chemical and thermal phenomena occur inside the
rotary kiln, which result in the transfer of material across the phases, either due to phase changes,
such as evaporation of moisture or volatilization of species present in coal, or due to chemical
reactions, such as reduction of various mineral phases or carbon gasification. The net amount of
gas flowing through the kiln depends on the amount of input primary air, amount of air used for
injecting coal from the discharge end, individual amounts of secondary air pumped into the kiln
at various locations along the kiln length, the rate of gas generation/consumption due to coal
devolatilization and gasification, the rate of evaporation of moisture present in the solids and the
rate of gas consumption/generation due to the reduction reactions. The overall material balance for
the gas phase across an element in the kiln is given by the following equation:

dGg GSA
= ± ∑ vi RiG (11)
dz Δz i

XXV INTERNATIONAL MINERAL PROCESSING CONGRESS (IMPC) 2010 PROCEEDINGS / BRISBANE, QLD, AUSTRALIA / 6 - 10 SEPTEMBER 2010 3386
MODELLING AND OPTIMISATION OF DIRECT REDUCTION OF IRON ORE BY COAL IN A ROTARY KILN

where GSA is molar flow rate of secondary air, ∆z is length of the infinitesimal discrete kiln element
used for computations, RiG is the rate of generation/consumption of gases due to reaction or phase
change process i in gaseous phase, νi is the stoichiometric coefficient of ith reaction. GSA is set equal
to zero at every location except where secondary air is injected. The above equation can be suitably
modified at the discharge end to include flow rates of primary air and roots blower air. Similar to the
gas phase, the net amount of solids passing through the kiln will change due to coal devolatilization
and gasification, evaporation of moisture and reduction of various phases in the iron ore. The overall
material balance for the solid phase is given by:

dGg GIC S
= ± ∑ vj Rj (12)
dz Δz j

where GIC is molar flow rate of the total injected coal components, that is, fixed carbon, volatile
matter (CO2, CO, H2O, CH4, H2, tar in the present model) and free water (unbound moisture of coal).
RSj is rate of generation/consumption of solids due to reaction or phase change process j in the solid
phase. The above equation is modified suitably at the feed end to include input of iron ore, dolomite
and coal. GIC at different locations is calculated using the data obtained by conducting coal injection
measurements under cold conditions. This data is used to compute the distribution of coal along the
kiln length (as a percentage of the total injection coal flow rate) as well as the size distribution of coal
falling at a particular location.
The iron ore consists of hematite and gangue material while coal contains fixed carbon, volatile
matter and ash. Dolomite is treated as an inert in the present work. Based on the literature reports
(Solomon, Fletcher and Pugmire, 1993; Sun and Lu, 1999; Donskoi and McElwain, 2003a and b),
the volatile matter in coal is assumed to consist of tar, methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen and chemically-bound water. Devolatilization of coal results in liberation of these species.
During coal pyrolysis, phase transformation of tar appears to occur from solid to liquid and then
combustion of liquid tar to either carbon or hydrocarbons. Tar is treated as two components in the
present model, tar-solid and tar-liquid and the solid phase is assumed to consist of a total of 13 species
or components, namely, Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeO, Fe (metallic), carbon, tar-solid, tar-liquid, methane,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, free moisture and chemically-bound moisture. The
concentrations of these species change along the kiln length, depending on the rates of reactions
involving them. The concentration of hematite in the solids, xH depends on the rate of reduction by
CO and H2:

dxH
Vsolids = –3(RH–CO + RH–H2) (13)
dz

where Vsolids is volumetric flow rate of solids, RH-CO and RH-H2 are rates of reduction of hematite by CO
and H2, respectively. Similarly, the material balances for other individual species in the solid phase
are written and incorporated in the model.
The gas phase is assumed to consist of a total of 7 species, namely, nitrogen, oxygen, moisture, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane. The concentration of carbon monoxide, yCO varies
due to its formation by the Boudouard and the water gas reactions, generation by devolatilization of
coal and consumption due to reduction of mineral phases.

dyCO
Vgas = 2RB + RWG – RH–CO – RM–CO – RFeO–CO + RCO–VM (14)
dz

where Vgas is volumetric flow rate of gases, RB and RWG are rates of Boudouard and water-gas reactions,
respectively, RM-CO and RFeO-CO are rates of reduction of magnetite and wustite, respectively, by CO.
RCO-VM is rate of release of CO from the volatile matter present in coal. Similar material balance
equations are written for other species and incorporated in the model.
The general rate expression for reduction of various mineral phases by CO or H2 is given by:

R = 4π rore
2
φ –1
ore nore ( )
A K*ya yb
Vsolids A B (15)

XXV INTERNATIONAL MINERAL PROCESSING CONGRESS (IMPC) 2010 PROCEEDINGS / BRISBANE, QLD, AUSTRALIA / 6 - 10 SEPTEMBER 2010 3387
 V RUNKANA et al

where rore and φore are radius and shape factor of ore particles, respectively, A is area of cross-section
of bed and Vsolids is solids volumetric flow rate. nore is number of iron ore particles in a unit cross
section of the bed calculated as volume of ore divided by volume of single ore particle, yA and yB are
concentration of reactants A and B, respectively, and K* is the overall reaction rate constant given by
(Levenspiel, 1972):

1 (16)
K* =
1 rore 3
+ +
km 2De kp

where De is effective diffusion coefficient of the reacting gas through the product layer in the iron
ore particle. The mass transfer coefficient, km is calculated using a correlation between Sherwood
number, NSh, Reynolds number, NRe and Schmidt number, NSc (McCabe, Smith and Harriott, 1985):

dAB 0.3333 0.5

km = [2 + 0.7NSc NRe ] (17)
ds

where DAB is the diffusion coefficient of species A through gas B. Depending on the gas involved in the
reaction, that is, either CO or H2, its diffusion coefficient through the gas phase is used in the above
equation.
Coal devolatilization is assumed to occur as a first order rate process. The general rate expression
for devolatilization kinetics is given by:

R = 4π rcoal
2
φ –1
coal ncoal ( )A k x , i = tar-solid, CH , CO, CO , H , H O
Vsolids i i 4 2 2 2 (18)

where xi is concentration of component i in coal and ncoal is the number of coal particles in unit
cross-section of bed calculated as volume of coal divided by volume of a single coal particle. Coal
gasification occurs via Boudouard and water-gas reactions. The rate expressions for these reactions
are similar to those used for reduction reactions.
The particles of iron ore, coal and dolomite contain moisture (free-water). During pre-heating of
the solid charge inside the kiln, moisture evaporates from these particles. The moisture content of
iron ore is relatively low (1.8-2.5 per cent wt) as compared to that of coal (7.5-12.5 per cent wt).
The drying of solids is assumed to be a first-order rate process and the rate of drying is given by the
following equation:

RFW = 4π rcoal
2
φ –1
coal ncoal ( ) A k x
Vsolids FW FW
(19)

where xFW is concentration of free-water in the solids and kFW is drying rate constant, given by an
Arrhenius-type expression (Patisson et al, 2000a and b):

kFW = k0 exp (-27700/RTb) (20)

SOLIDS BED HEIGHT ALONG KILN LENGTH

The interfacial area for heat transfer between gases, solids and the kiln wall require computation
of filling angle along the kiln axis. It is a function of the bed height and the kiln internal diameter,
as given by Eq. (21) below. A steady state model for the transport of granular material through an
inclined slowly rotating cylinder is considered here. The variation of bed height along the kiln length
is given by (Kramers and Croockewit, 1952):

[ [ ]]
2 –3/2
dH(z) tan θ 12Qv tan β 4H(z) 2H(z)
= – 3 3
– 3
(21)
dz cos β ωD i D i D
i

where Qv is volumetric flow rate of solids, H is bed height, z is the distance from feed end along the
length of the kiln, θ is kiln inclination angle with the horizontal, β is dynamic angle of repose of
solids, Di is internal diameter of the kiln and ω is kiln rotation speed. The above ordinary differential

XXV INTERNATIONAL MINERAL PROCESSING CONGRESS (IMPC) 2010 PROCEEDINGS / BRISBANE, QLD, AUSTRALIA / 6 - 10 SEPTEMBER 2010 3388
MODELLING AND OPTIMISATION OF DIRECT REDUCTION OF IRON ORE BY COAL IN A ROTARY KILN

equation is integrated numerically from the kiln discharge end up to the feed end to calculate the
axial bed height profile, applying dam height at the discharge end as the boundary condition. The
axial velocity and the mean residence time of solids are then calculated using the bed height profile.

HEAT TRANSFER ACROSS KILN WALL AND SHELL

In order to solve the overall energy balance equations to calculate temperatures of gases (Tg) and
solids (Tb), it is necessary to have knowledge of the refractory wall temperature (Tw). Heat transfer
occurs continuously between gases/solids and the wall, between the wall and the outer shell and
between the shell and the ambient air. Hence, the wall temperature is influenced not only by gas
and solids temperatures but also by the shell and ambient air temperatures. It becomes necessary to
solve simultaneously for the wall (Tw), the wall-shell interface (Ti) and the shell temperatures (Ts).
This is achieved by formulating and solving the following three energy balances: the energy balance
for heat transfer between gases, solids, kiln wall and the wall-shell interface, the energy balance for
heat transfer between the wall-shell interface and the outer shell, and the energy balance for the heat
transfer between the outer shell and the ambient air.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The mathematical model consists of a system of 26 nonlinear ordinary differential equations (ODEs)
and 3 nonlinear algebraic equations. The system of 25 ODEs is solved numerically using the 4th
order Runge-Kutta method (Constantinides, 1987), excluding the equation for bed height profile
which is solved independently at the beginning of each simulation. In order to verify the validity of
the solids flow model, it is first tested with pilot plant data published by Chatterjee et al (1983) on
flow of solids in sponge iron rotary kilns. The predicted mean hold-up of solids is compared with
the pilot plant data in Figure 2 and it can be observed that the model predictions are fairly close to
measurements.
The model is tuned for the operating conditions in one of the rotary kilns at TSIL. The kiln is cylindrical
in shape, 72 m long and 4.2 m in diameter with an angle of inclination of 1.5° and rotational speed in
the range of 0.4 - 0.7 rpm. The gas and solid temperature profiles, measured using the quick response
thermocouples (QRTs) and the DRI metallization achieved, are used for tuning and validation of the
model. More than 30 sets of measurements are carried out on the kiln to collect iron ore, coal and DRI
properties and flow rates and temperatures of secondary air, in addition to measurements made on-
line, for example, primary air flow rate and kiln speed. Only a few representative sets of data are used
for tuning the model and the rest are utilized for model validation.
Since the model is comprehensive in nature and most of the key physico-chemical and thermal
phenomena are incorporated in it, the model involves a number of parameters for which appropriate
numerical values are required. Based on extensive literature search on phenomena related to direct

60
Predicted Solids Hold-up, kg

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Measured Solids Hold-up, kg

FIG 2 - Comparison of solids hold-up calculated using the solids bed height model with the experimental data of Chatterjee et al (1983).
Angle of inclination of kiln: 2.50, exit dam height (15-30 mm) and kiln rotational speed (0.3-0.7, rpm).

XXV INTERNATIONAL MINERAL PROCESSING CONGRESS (IMPC) 2010 PROCEEDINGS / BRISBANE, QLD, AUSTRALIA / 6 - 10 SEPTEMBER 2010 3389
 V RUNKANA et al

reduction of iron ore by coal and heat transfer in rotary kilns, representative values of these parameters
are taken and included in the model. The correlations for specific heats of iron oxides, metallic
iron, and carbon, CO, CO2, H2 and H2O are taken from Donskoi and McElwain (2003a and b). The
correlations for specific heats of other gaseous components, namely, N2, O2, Air and CH4 are taken
from Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook (1997). The correlations for temperature-dependent
heats of reduction reactions and the coal gasification reactions are also taken from Donskoi and
McElwain (2003a and b). Similarly, correlations for temperature-dependent thermal conductivities
of gas and solid phase species are also presented by Donskoi and McElwain (2003a and b) and used
in the present work. The emissivities of solids and refractory wall are taken from Venkateswaran and
Brimacombe (1977) and the emissivity of shell is taken from Mukhopadhyay, Sathe and Chatterjee
(1984). The emissivity of solids, refractory wall and the shell are assumed to be constant and taken
as 1.0, 0.9 and 0.56, respectively. The emissivity of gases is calculated using the equation proposed
by Rovaglio, Manca and Biardi (1998) who fitted the data reported by Hottel and Sarofim (1968). The
coal devolatilization rate constants are taken from Solomon and Colket (1978). The rate constants for
drying of solids are taken from Patisson et al (2000a and b). The predicted gas and solid temperature
profiles are compared with measured data in Figures 3-4. The plant data correspond to an iron ore
flow rate of 22.2 tph and kiln speed of 0.46 rpm. Numerical values of other process parameters
used for simulation are provided in Table 1. It can be noticed from Figures 3 and 4 that the model

1200

1000
Gas Temperature, K

800

600

400

200 Plant Data

Model prediction
0
0 12 24 36 48 60 72
Kiln length from feed end, m

FIG 3 - Comparison of predicted kiln internal gas temperature profile with measured profile at an iron ore flow rate of 22.2 tph and kiln speed of 0.46 rpm.

1200

1000
Bed Temperature, K

800

600

400

200 Plant Data

Model prediction
0
0 12 24 36 48 60 72
Kiln length from feed end, m

FIG 4 - Comparison of predicted kiln internal bed temperature profile with measured profile at an iron ore flow rate of 22.2 tph and kiln speed of 0.46 rpm.

XXV INTERNATIONAL MINERAL PROCESSING CONGRESS (IMPC) 2010 PROCEEDINGS / BRISBANE, QLD, AUSTRALIA / 6 - 10 SEPTEMBER 2010 3390
MODELLING AND OPTIMISATION OF DIRECT REDUCTION OF IRON ORE BY COAL IN A ROTARY KILN

TABLE 1
Inputs to the model (plant data) for the results shown in Figures 3 and 4.

Iron Ore Flow rate, tph 22.2

Mean diameter, mm 10.8
Chemical Analysis Fe (total) (wt %) 67.3
Moisture (wt %) 2.0
Feed Coal Mean diameter, mm 8.0
Proximate Analysis FC (wt %) 45.2
VM (wt %) 22.5
Ash (wt %) 32.3
Moisture (wt %) 7.5
Injection Coal Mean diameter, mm 8.0
Proximate Analysis FC (wt %) 45.4
VM (wt %) 25.8
Ash (wt %) 28.8
Moisture (wt %) 8.3
Kiln speed of rotation (rpm) 0.46
3
Primary air flow rate (Nm /hr) 8665
3
Secondary air flow rate (Nm /hr) 38410
FC: Fixed Carbon; VM: Volatile Matter

predictions are reasonably close the plant data. The model is tested extensively with additional plant
data for further validation.
The model predictions are also checked against shell temperatures of the kiln at TSIL. The predicted
and measured kiln shell temperatures for a set of typical operating conditions are shown in Figure 5.
It can be noticed from Figure 5 that the shell temperatures are higher in the preheating zone than in
the reduction zone. Typically, shell temperature should be lower in the preheating zone than in the
reduction zone because gas and solid temperatures inside the kiln are much higher in the reduction
zone. However, the current shell temperature data indicate otherwise. This indirectly shows that
gases and solids are losing more heat in the preheating zone than in the reduction zone. This appears
to be the reason for the discrepancies in the gas and the solid temperatures in the preheating zone
in Figures 3 and 4. In the present model, uniform wall thickness and properties are assumed along
kiln length. However, due to wear and tear during removal of kiln accretions and due to exposure to
high temperature gases over a period of time, the wall properties might have changed, causing these
higher heat losses in the preheating zone. Although the results are not presented here, since step-wise
Shell Temperature, deg C

400

350

300

250

200 Predicted
Measured
150
0 12 24 36 48 60 72
Kiln Length, m

FIG 5 - Comparison of predicted and measured shell temperatures in the rotary kiln at TSIL for typical operating conditions.

XXV INTERNATIONAL MINERAL PROCESSING CONGRESS (IMPC) 2010 PROCEEDINGS / BRISBANE, QLD, AUSTRALIA / 6 - 10 SEPTEMBER 2010 3391
 V RUNKANA et al

reduction of hematite to magnetite to wustite to metallic iron by CO and hydrogen is incorporated

in the current model, it is possible to predict the concentration of these species in the iron ore along
the length of the kiln. However, since it is not feasible to obtain concentration of these species along
kiln length, only predicted concentration of metallic iron in the DRI was compared with the actual
plant data. The predicted value was within ± 2 per cent of the actual value on most of the occasions.
After validation with plant data is completed, the model is used in a predictive mode to identify
optimum conditions of key process variables to increase kiln throughput, to minimize coal
consumption and to enhance kiln campaign life. The primary air flow rate and the total carbon-
to-iron (C/Fe) ratio are found to be critical to achieve the above objectives. The optimum values of
these variables are determined and they are maintained at their set points on a regular basis, which
resulted in the reduction of coal consumption by about 55 kg/ton of DRI produced. As a result of
this model-based optimization exercise and additional process optimization and control measures
undertaken by the plant engineers, the kiln campaign life has also increased beyond 300 days, from
approximately 180 days for previous kiln campaigns.
CONCLUSIONS
A steady state one-dimensional model for direct reduction of iron ore by coal in a rotary kiln is
presented here. It is relatively comprehensive in nature and incorporates all the important physico-
chemical phenomena involved, that is, flow of solids inside the rotary kiln, different modes of heat
transfer between gases, solids, refractory wall, steel shell and ambient air, drying of moisture, coal
devolatilization, gasification and combustion, and reduction of hematite, magnetite and wustite
by CO and H2. The effects of particle size and porosity are incorporated in the kinetics of various
reactions occurring inside the sponge iron rotary kiln. Unlike previous models, detailed kinetics
models for coal devolatilization and gasification are included in the present work. The model also
incorporates step-wise reduction of hematite to magnetite to wustite to metallic iron. Moreover, the
effect of solids bed height profile along kiln length on heat transfer and various reaction rates is taken
into account in the current model. The sub-model for solids flow is tested with published experimental
and pilot plant data and the predicted results are in close agreement with measurements. The model
is customized for an industrial kiln and validated with plant data obtained under different operating
conditions. The predicted internal gas and solid phase temperature profiles are reasonably close
to measurements made using quick response thermocouples. The shell temperatures predicted by
the model revealed that the heat losses from the pre-heating zone in the kiln are high, probably due
to deterioration of the refractory wall. The mathematical model is a useful tool for understanding
how solid and gas phase compositions vary internally along the kiln length. The model is useful in
identifying optimum values of key process variables which has helped in reducing coal consumption
and in enhancing kiln campaign life.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the managements of Tata Sponge Iron Ltd. (TSIL), Joda and Tata Research
Development and Design Centre (TRDDC), Pune for the permission to publish this article. Excellent
cooperation provided by plant engineers and operators at TSIL is gratefully acknowledged.

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