International Journal of Coal Preparation and Utilization

ISSN: 1939-2699 (Print) 1939-2702 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gcop20

Effect of inorganic and organic additives on coal

combustion: a review

Raj Chavda & Prakash Mahanwar

To cite this article: Raj Chavda & Prakash Mahanwar (2018): Effect of inorganic and organic
additives on coal combustion: a review, International Journal of Coal Preparation and Utilization,
DOI: 10.1080/19392699.2018.1536046

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/19392699.2018.1536046

Published online: 23 Oct 2018.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COAL PREPARATION AND UTILIZATION
https://doi.org/10.1080/19392699.2018.1536046

Effect of inorganic and organic additives on coal combustion: a

review
Raj Chavda and Prakash Mahanwar
Department of Polymer and Surface Engineering, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai-19, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Coal is an important fossil fuel, a resource primarily used for electric Received 13 June 2018
power generation, and currently supplies 41% of global electricity Accepted 11 October 2018
needs. Fossil fuel is one of the demanding energy source, and the KEYWORDS
consumption has gradually increased with the demand of energy Coal; combustion; thermal
consumption sector. The fuel stock is enough for few decades to analysis; calorimetry;
meet the requirement of the energy sector, but it is depleting gra- combustion catalysts;
dually. The increased consumption demands have pushed the organic binders
researcher to search for a substitution to the fossil fuel and for a
environmentally friendly and also a relatively inexpensive energy
source. There comes a need to improve coal combustion perfor-
mance to enhance the efficiency of the furnace and boiler. Adding
additive to the coal is an option and has grabbed the attention of
many researchers for developing an additive. These additives for coal
can effectively improve the combustion performance of the coal. This
review paper contributes information about the impact of additives
on coal combustion properties, coal calorific value, binder for coal
fines and a hybrid technology which use additives to modify the coal
surface. The objective of this review is to relate the effect of additives
on coal utilization and coal combustion performance.

Introduction
Coal is an important fossil fuel resource, which currently fulfills India’s 60% commercial
energy requirements. Indian coal has approximately 86% of the total reserves for noncok-
ing coal suitable primarily for use in power generation. In India, coal consumption by
power sector accounts for about 70% and other major consumption sectors are iron and
steel and cement segments (Tiwari et al. 2004). Currently, India has the fifth largest coal
reserves in the world. Indian coal produced has an average calorific value of 4000 Kcal/kg,
with approximately 30–40% of high ash content and 0.35% sulfur content (Venkatesha,
Satyanarayana Rao, and Narashime Gwoda 2014). Coal industries have a major impact on
global economy and have an important economic contribution in the world economy.
Global utilization of coal is very high as it is abundantly available in nature; commercially
coal is mined in more than 50 countries and utilized in more than 70 countries.
Statistically, annual consumption of coal accounts for about 5800 million tons globally,
out of which electricity generation sector utilize 75%. This utilization of coal is estimated
to be nearly twice by the year 2030 to meet the challenge of sustainable development and
increasing demand for energy sector (Mishra 2009). The electricity produced in India

CONTACT Raj Chavda raj.chavda422@gmail.com Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai-19, Maharashtra,

India
© 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 R. CHAVDA AND P. MAHANWAR

depends on the fossil fuel, and the coal reserves are in better condition that can meet the
power sector requirement. Use of coal to a large extent is responsible for polluting our
environment (Chandra and Chandra 2004). Also, the direct utilization of coal has several
problems, such as higher ash forming and moisture contents; lower heating value; and
environmental pollution. In direct coal combustion process, mostly useful unburnt coal
and particulate matter as ash are rejected after the process is completed and discarded in
the environment as particulate matter. The direct utilization of coal for combustion causes
hazardous gas (greenhouse gas, SOx, and NOx) emission, toxic metals, and particulate
matter emission into the environment (Rahman, Pudasainee, and Gupta 2017).
To promote clean coal utilization, it is also important to improve the performance and
efficiency of boilers and associated devices. To this end, a thorough understanding is
needed of the combustion behaviors of different feedstock fuels under various operating
conditions, pertinent to both conventional and future combustion technologies. Due to
these several problems with direct utilization of coal, research on upgrading and mod-
ification of the coal has been prioritized using a range of coal additives which can help
enhance the properties of coal (Khatami and Levendis 2016). For instance, based on the
invention by Bush (2013), a composition of coal additive was formulated and a method
was developed for coal combustion. This additive composition along with coal was added
to the coal fuel streams that resulted in improved coal combustion. Further, he had
mentioned that coal additives can be used as combustion improver in operating coal-
fired furnace and hence improving its combustion efficiency. This review paper presents
work done by author's globally using different types of additives and their effect with
diversified grades of coal.

Types of Coal
Coals are categorized into four different ranks: lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous, and
anthracite coals. They are categorized according to the formation of coal by the strata in
mountains (Facts about Coal and Minerals 2016). Coal is typically formed from peat. Over
the period of time, peat is dried and hardened due to increased pressure and heat from
layer by layer of rock in the earth crust which typically has high moisture and ash content
and low heating value. Higher pressure coal forms the higher rank coal which eventually
forms high-quality coal. Peat coal under higher pressure resulted in the formation of
lignite coal and further forms bituminous coal, a grade superior than lignite. Bituminous
coal (soft coal) has a higher heating value than lignite coal. Anthracite coal (hard coal) is
higher in grade than bituminous and possessed the highest heating values and the lowest
amounts of moisture and ash content than other coal types due to the elevated pressures,
encountered in layers of rock formed during natural formation of mountain ranges. Coal
can be designated as high-rank coals and low-rank coals (LRCs) depending on their
carbon content; high-rank coals have higher carbon content than LRCs in their structures
(Khatami and Levendis 2016).
The noncoking coal is categorized based on its useful heat value (UHV), the coking coal
is categorized based on ash content, and semicoking coal is categorized based on ash and
moisture content. Coal is graded according to ash content and calorific value and is shown
in Table 1 (Coal Grades 2014) and Table 2 (Coal Grades 2014).
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COAL PREPARATION AND UTILIZATION 3

Table 1. Grades of coking coal.

Grade Ash content
Steel Grade - I Not exceeding 15%
Steel Grade - II Exceeding 15% but not exceeding 18%
Washery Grade - I Exceeding 18% but not exceeding 21%
Washery Grade - II Exceeding 21% but not exceeding 24%
Washery Grade - III Exceeding 24% but not exceeding 28%
Washery Grade - IV Exceeding 28% but not exceeding 35%

Table 2. Grades of noncoking coal (availability in Indian industry is with D, E,

and F coal grades).
Grade Useful heating value range (Kcal/Kg)
A Exceeding 6200
B Exceeding 5600 but not exceeding 6200
C Exceeding 4940 but not exceeding 5600
D Exceeding 4200 but not exceeding 4940
E Exceeding 3360 but not exceeding 4200
F Exceeding 2400 but not exceeding 3360
G Exceeding 1300 but not exceeding 2400

Coal Analysis
Proximate and ultimate analysis is a conventional analytical technique that provides
valuable information related to the general characteristics of any specified coal.
Parameters examined by proximate analysis include moisture content, ash content, volatile
matter, and fixed carbon in coal and are assessed from standard methods. Coal comprises
of inorganic matter which is in the form of ash. Proximate analysis gives a close estimation
of the coal behavior during its formation and conversion. The ultimate analysis performed
has been used to detect elements such as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen.
These elemental analysis helps to asses coal combustion characteristics and predict emis-
sion of harmful gas such as sulfur and nitrogen oxides (Gupta 2007; Montgomery n.d.) for
which the description is showed in Table 3 (Tumbleson 2006; Venkatesha, Satyanarayana
Rao, and Narashime Gwoda 2014) and Table 4 (Gupta 2007).

Need for Coal Additives

Coal is a physically heterogeneous and chemically complex mixture of organic and
inorganic species, which undergoes significant physicochemical changes when treated

Table 3. Typical proximate and ultimate analysis of various coal.

Characteristics Indian coal Indonesian coal South African coal
Proximate analysis
Moisture% 10–20 10–30 8
Ash% 25–50 10–15 15–17
Volatile Matter% 16–30 25–35 23
Fixed Carbon% 24–40 45 51
Ultimate analysis
Carbon% 30–55 60 70–80
Hydrogen% 2–4 4.5 4–5
Nitrogen% 0.7–1.15 1 2–2.5
Sulfur% 0.3–0.8 About 1 Up to 1
Oxygen% 4–8 12 8–9
4 R. CHAVDA AND P. MAHANWAR

Table 4. Coal properties and respective analysis.

Properties Analysis
Chemical Proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, and ash analysis
Physical Density, specific gravity, pore structure, surface area, reflectivity
Mechanical Hardness/abrasiveness friability, grindability, dustiness index
Thermal Calorific value, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, plastic, agglomerating index,
free-swelling index
Electrical Electrical resistivity, dielectric constant, magnetic susceptibility

thermally (Ozbas, Kok, and Hicyilmaz 2003). Different conversion processes such as
combustion, pyrolysis, liquefaction, and gasification involve thermal treatment of coal
under precise conditions such as ambient atmosphere, pressure, heating rate, and the type
of coal used (Kök and Keskin 2001; Wachowski and Hofman 2006). For effective utiliza-
tion of coal, it has to be converted into useful form which can improve coal burning
efficiency so as to save overall process energy and to keep control of environmental
pollution. Generally, coal burning requires low pollution and high combustion efficiency.
In order to successfully accomplish the above purposes, using coal-burning additives can
be an effective method in coal-burning procedures (Fangxian, Shizong, and Youzhi 2009).
The application of coal-burning additives has been quickly developed, to be used as a fuel
in power stations, cement industry, coal-fired furnaces and boilers, and other related
industries. So it is important to carry out the research work on the coal-burning char-
acteristics along with different additives so as to advance in selecting the additive and to
predict its effect on coal combustion. A classification of coal additives along with some
examples is shown in Fig. 1, and its effects on coal combustion have been discussed. The
additives mentioned in Fig. 1 does not limit their use, and there is always scope for
development of coal additives considering its cost-effectiveness.

Advantages and Limitations

Generally, additives play a vital role in coal combustion performance. Some of them
improve the combustion performance while some retard the combustion. Metal oxides
used are found to be advantageous as they give a catalytic effect. On decomposition, the
oxides formed react with the carbon content and improve its combustion efficiency. Ignition
temperature and burnout temperature are decreased and thus can be utilized in coal-fired
furnaces and boilers. Kinetics study has shown that activation energy can be decreased by
few percent. Also to avoid the low-temperature ignition in coal mines or in general,
additives like alkali metal and alkali earth metal salts have been used which provided
a retarding effect. Wise selection of additives may also help in reducing environmental
pollution by lowering harmful gas emission like SO2, NOx, CO, and CO2. Disposal of coal
fines has been resolved as it can be utilized with some amount of binder material which will
bind the fine together and can be used as reliable fuel for residential and industrial
applications. Calorific value is also an important parameter as it decides the UHV of fuel.
Very few additives have helped to increase the calorific value up to some extent.
Coal is abundant in nature and is available at a very cheap price. Any external material
added to the coal will lead to an increase in its cost and ultimately increase the cost of end-
use application. Additives used are expensive compared to coal. It is necessary to search
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COAL PREPARATION AND UTILIZATION 5

Figure 1. Classification of additives for coal.

low-cost additives that improve the overall combustion characteristics of coal, but it is not
the case because the coal produced worldwide has different composition and sets different
burning characteristics. Hence, no specific additive will provide overall performance, and
one or the other properties has to be compromised.

Effect of Inorganic Additive on Coal Combustion

Investigations on the effect of inorganic additive on coal combustion have been con-
ducted. Studies conducted by authors have used catalysts which include metal oxides (e.g.,
MnO2, CaO, CeO2, Fe2O3, CuO, and ZnO) (Gong, Guo, and Wang 2010a; Gong, Guo,
and Wang. 2010b; Li et al. 2007) and alkaline metal compounds (e.g., NaNO3, NClO4,
KNO3, KClO3, and K2CO3) (Fangxian, Shizong, and Youzhi 2009; He et al. 2013; Kim
et al. 2012; Yin et al. 2012), which are high-purity chemicals. Mechanism of catalyst/
additive effect on coal characteristics has been performed by many authors and has shown
reliable data. More importantly, these additives help enhancing the coal decomposition
reaction, resulting in the oxidative reactions of matter that is difficult to oxidize and
transforming the reaction to accelerate the release of the volatile matter from coal (Shen
and Qinlei 2006; Li and Suzuki 2009; Li et al. 2000). These metal oxides on oxidative
decomposition produce numerous oxides that can promote coal combustion, and these
have a strong affinity for the oxygen, which is concentrated on the surface. The effective-
ness of the catalyst depends on the combustible carbon content of coal (Zhang et al. 1997).
6 R. CHAVDA AND P. MAHANWAR

Upon decomposition, these oxides are formed that act as active oxygen carriers giving
catalytic coal combustion. The active oxygen at higher temperature creates active center,
and the carbon around it burns faster, and also the resistance on the surface of the coal
particles is reduced due to the holes created by combustion and oxygen diffusion is
increased (Yin et al. 2012). This mechanism enables the intimate contact between oxygen
and coal, consequently improving the coal combustion rate and lowering the coal ignition
temperature simultaneously. Given that in bulk of the pulverized coal, the supply of
oxygen has to be on right time, so that negative impact on the reactivity of coal combus-
tion is suppressed, and improved coal combustion is achieved (Ma et al. 2006). The effects
of salt of alkaline metal, alkaline-earth, rare-earth, and transition metals on the pulverized
coal combustion have been investigated (He et al. 2013; Li et al. 2009; Sahu et al. 2014;
Wenqing et al. 2015; Zou et al. 2014). The data obtained indicated a decrease in ignition
temperature and simultaneously burnout index increased with catalysts. Therefore, inten-
sifying combustion behavior, the catalytic combustion is an effectual one, which has been
successfully applied in many industries for efficient coal burnout (He et al. 2013; Kakaras
and Vourliotis 1998; Saint-Just and Kinderen 1996). Catalytic effect on pulverized coal
combustion resulted in the following: (1) Increase in the combustion reactivity, due to
reduction in ignition temperature and increase in the combustion rate (Gong, Guo, and
Wang 2010a; Wu et al. 1998), (2) Improvement in burning of unburnt carbon in the ash
and hasten heat release from coal (Gong, Guo, and Wang. 2010b), and (3) Reduction in
the pollutants in the exhaust gas, such as NOx, SO2, CO, and PM (Doggali et al. 2011;
Kpsel and Halang 1997; Sowa and Fletcher 2011). Coal combustion due to additive effect
has been comprehensively studied by authors in recent years as shown in Table 5.

Effect of Organic Additives on Coal Combustion

Coal is used as an energy source in many industrial settings. Regrettably, there are many
problems that restrict the industrial use of coal to generate heat. These problems arise
during mining, preparation prior to shipping, storage, preparation prior to use, and the
use of coal. After mining, large-size coal lumps are collected and stored. But after storing,
handling, and cleaning process is completed, nearly 15–20% of the coal fines are discarded
which are in the form of powder or small granules. These fines in its form cannot be used
directly; thereby a large amount of fines are wasted and impose great disposal problems,
usually done near the mine site. The coal fines are frequently recovered from the mining
that contains about 20–30% moisture in the form of wet filtrate which depends upon the
fine size, distribution, and ash content. Coal fraction can be mixed with the coarser
particles of the mining, but all the fines together reduce the quality of the final product
than its requirement. For these reasons, a huge unproductive expenditure is spent by the
industry for coal fines handling, storage, and disposal operations.
Coal briquetting technology is used to utilize coal fines which involves low-pressure
agglomeration by using a binder, which was first prepared using coal tar origin that binds
the particles together. Blend of waste coal fine with coal can also be prepared before
combustion to be utilized in boiler operation, but often the coal fines get separated out
during handling process and cause separate particles to enter the boiler. Das et al. (2015) has
used agglomeration technique to utilize low-grade coals along with discarded coal fines.
Agglomeration technology is a low-cost briquette manufacturing process, but cannot be
Table 5. Detailed summary on studies of inorganic additives on coal combustion parameters.
Research Form/amount of
group/reference Coal type catalyst addition Catalyst reported Instrumental Analysis Remark on combustion behavior
Skowronski Graphitized Solution/1.02– MnO2 Modified DTA Increase in MnO2 content ignition temperature decrease.
(1983) active carbon 20.66%
Pan (1988) Lignite Solution/0.13 M CaCl2, Ca(CH3COO)2 TGA/DTG Decrease in activation energy accompanied by increase in
heat of reaction.
Babich et al. Various coal Physical/5–30% Ferrous-containing waste, NaNO3 TGA Intensification in ignition with 5% FeO and most other
(1996) types temperatures decreased.
Gopalakrishnan Sub-bituminous Solution CaO TGA Intrinsic oxidization reactivity increased.
and coal char
Bartholomew
(1996)
Zhang et al. High- and low- Physical/5% Metal and semi-metal oxides TGA/DTG Additives has no significant effect on the calorific values but
(1997) rank coal accelerates burning/oxidation of the high rank and the low-
rank coal.
Wu et al. (1998) High-rank coal Solution/0.05– Alkali salts, alkaline earth salts, and TGA/DTA Reduction in ignition temperature of coal, increase in the
0.5 mol metal/ transition metal salts volume of volatile matter and support homogenous
kg coal combustion.
Sujanti and Brown coal Solution/4.76%, Watersoluble- KAc, NaAc, NaNO3, NH4Cl, Isothermal reactor Some promoted the spontaneous combustion while most
Zhang (1999) Physical/5% CaCl2, Mg(Ac)2, NaCl. Water insoluble-FeS2, type inhibited spontaneous combustion. Acidwashed coal
CaCO3, Montan powder. showed prominent result in oxidation.
Li et al. (2000) Graphite Physical/5% Metal and semi-metal oxides TGA Decrease in initial temperature, reduction in maximum
burning rate and final temperature and acceleration carbon
burning.
Liu et al. (2002) Bituminous coal Physical/6% FeCl2, FeCl3 Fe2O3, NaCl and CaCl2 TGA Acceleration in the combustion rate and improvement in
the ignition behavior.
Ma et al. (2006) High ash coal Physical/6% MnO2, Fe2O3 and BaCO3 TGA/DTG Decrease in ignition temperature and decrease in burnout
time and corresponding temperature.
Li et al. (2007) High ash coal Physical/6% CuO, Fe2O3, and ZnO TGA/DTG Decrease in ignition temperature and decrease in burnout
time and corresponding temperature.
Fangxian, Bituminous and Physical/0.3–0.5 LSZ, NaNO3, KClO3 TGA/DTG Ignition
Shizong, and anthracite temperature
Youzhi (2009) was reduced and there was an increase in ignition index Di
and combustion ending index Df.
Gong, Guo, and Lignite, Physical/10% CeO2 and Fe2O3 TGA/DTG Decrease in ignition temperatures, and increase in
Wang bituminous, combustion efficiency and burnout index.
(2010b) anthracite and
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COAL PREPARATION AND UTILIZATION

graphite
Gong, Guo, and Anthracite Physical/10% CeO2 and Fe2O3 TGA/DTG Increase in combustion efficiency and decrease in ignition
Wang temperatures.
7

(2010a)
(Continued )
 8

Table 5. (Continued).
Research Form/amount of
group/reference Coal type catalyst addition Catalyst reported Instrumental Analysis Remark on combustion behavior
Taraba, Peter, Bituminous and Solution/10 wt% NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, Na2SO3, NaNO3, NH4Cl, Calorimetric analysis Almost all showed good inhibiting efficiency at low
and Slovák sub-bituminous NaOOCCH3, NaOOCH, EDTA, urea, thiourea, temperature.
(2011) phenol, NaH2PO4
Shui-Jun et al. Bituminous and Solutions Ammonia-free Gel 2, MgCl2 and Antioxidant Advanced gas Improvement in spontaneous inhibition.
(2012) sub bituminous A analyzer PG-250A
Kim et al. (2012) Coal char Physical/10 wt% K2CO3, LaMn1_xCuxO3, c-alumina TGA Decrease in coal char combustion.
Yin et al. (2012) Bituminous and Physical/3% CeO2, Fe2O3, KNO3 TGA/DTG Increase in exothermic heats, decrease in activation
high ash coal energies Increase in ignition index (Di), and burnout index
(Df).
He et al. (2013) Anthracite Physical/2% NaClO4, MnO2, and ZnO. TGA/DTG/DSC Decrease in ignition temperature, higher burnout index,
improved heat releasing quantity and accelerated coal
R. CHAVDA AND P. MAHANWAR

combustion.
Liu et al. (2014) High and low Solution/0.5– MgO, CaO, sodium formate, sodium acetate, Bomb calorimeter Increase in calorific value and improvement in combustion
rank coal 2%, Physical/ sodium citrate, potassium Nitrate etc. efficiency.
0.5–3%
Daood et al. Low ash to high Physical/mass Mixture of iron, aluminium, calcium and Combustion test Improved thermal combustion efficiency.
(2014a) ash coal fraction 1.3–13% silicon based oxides facility
Daood et al. Sub-bituminous Physical/5,15,33 Iron, aluminum, and silicon-based oxides TGA/DTG Increase in combustion temperature.
(2014b) coal %
Tang et al. Medium rank Solution/0.05 NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, ZnCl2 Thermal reactor type Inhibition to the spontaneous combustion of coal was
(2015) coal mole in 7 ml observed.
Zou et al. (2014) Bituminous and Physical/1% MnO2, CaO and Fe2O3 TGA/DTG Higher reactivity of unburnt char and decrease in ignition
anthracite and burnout temperature of char.
Cheng et al. Anthracite Physical/mass Na–Fe–Ca composite promoters of TGA/DTG Decrease in ignition temperature and increase in burnout
(2016) ratio of 0.5% industrial wastes efficiency.
(catalyst/coal)
Zou et al. (2017) Anthracite Physical/4% Iron-containing powder TGA/DTG Decrease in the ignition temperature, increase combustion
rate and burnout behavior.
Di et al. (2017) Bituminous and Physical/0.5% Siderite TGA/DTG Decrease in ignition temperature, increase in burnout index
anthracite and 1.5% and heat release from coal.
Cheng et al. Anthracite Physical/weight Eight industrial wastes rich in Na, Fe, Ca TGA/DTG Decrease in ignition temperature and variation in burnout
(2017) ratio- 0.5% and Al efficiency was observed.
Tang (2017) Anthracite Solution/20 MgCl2, Zn3(PO4)2, (NH4PO3)n. TGA/DTG Reduced in heat release and improvement in spontaneous
weight % inhibition.
Larionov et al. Lignite and Physical/5% NaNO3 and CuSO4 TGA/DTG Acceleration of the coal oxidation process leads to decrease
(2017) bituminous coal in ignition temperature.
Bush (2013) Coal Physical Zinc carboxylate compound Conversion and Significant improvement in combustion efficiency.
environmental
process simulator
(CEPS)
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COAL PREPARATION AND UTILIZATION 9

used in making a small-size product. Composite fuel made out of coal fines and biomass
mixture is a briquetting technology used to produce alternate fuel which can replace the
direct use of coal lumps and has shown improved combustion properties. Blesa et al. (2001)
has prepared a smokeless briquette fuel by making a composite from coal and biomass.
Pyrolysis method was performed to study the effect on physicochemical and mechanical
properties of the composite fuel. Organic and inorganic binder materials were selected to
prepare coal briquette and was combusted to analyze for its combustion characteristics
(Altun, Hicyilmaz, and Bagci 2003). Selection of any specific binder material depends
predominantly on the cost and product quality required (Kriech 2003). Many processes
have been patented and implemented by the authors for utilization of waste coal fines with a
binder material to produce synthetic fuel and studied its combustion characteristics.
Haykiri-Acma, Ersoy-Mericboyu, and Kucukbayrak (2000) investigated the blends of
two different coals with and without binder materials for their combustion characteristics.
Samples prepared were analyzed by differential thermal analysis (DTA), and air as a
carrier gas was used to obtain the combustion curves. The analyses on combustion
characteristics, such as ignition temperature, rate of heat release, heat of combustion,
etc., for the Turkish lignite, Siberian bituminous coal, molasses, sawdust, and sunflower
shell samples and their blend were investigated. Results showed a broad combustion time
and combustion of the blends occurs at higher temperatures than are expected for lignite.
Also, the blends showed an increase in the calorific value.
Ulker Gurbuz Beker (1997) tested briquette samples, prepared using lignite and differ-
ent binder materials. Paper mill waste, sunflower shell, sawdust, and brewery waste were
used as binder materials at different ratios. Briquette strength was examined for the effects
of moisture content of lignite samples at varying compression stress. The examined results
showed improvement in compressive strength and acceptable water resistance with
increase in calorific value. Later, Gurbuz-Beker, Kucukbayrak, and Ozer (1998) investi-
gated briquetting conditions for blends of low-quality lignite mixed with a high-quality
bituminous coal along with binder material. The blends were prepared using sunflower
shell, sawdust, and molasses as a binder additive. The authors had experimented by
keeping the lignite coal percent constant, and varying the percentage of bituminous coal
and binder additive, the briquettes produced showed an increase in mechanical strength
with the increase in calorific value which in turn improves its quality as fuel.
Altun, Hicyilmaz, and Kök (2001) investigated using thermogravimetric analysis meth-
ods (TG/DTG) the combustion properties of the Tuncbilek lignite coal with different
binders. The blends were prepared using 11 different organic and inorganic binder
materials. It was observed that some blend decreased the residue content at the end of
the combustion period, whereas some blends increased the calorific values of the blends.
Yildirim and Ozbayoglu (2004) investigated the binder effect of ammonium nitrohumate
on briquetting coal fines. The influence of binder content, varying moisture content,
nitrogen content, pressure, and heat treatment on briquette was studied. The study
shows that with an increase in binder content there is a decrease in the mechanical
strength because of the plasticity of the binder. Heat treatment on briquette improved
its mechanical strength by removing sufficient moisture to increase the calorific value and
also to increase the water resistance. Combustion properties of the briquette were
improved with the use of ammonium nitrohumate as binder. Also, the authors concluded
10 R. CHAVDA AND P. MAHANWAR

that the briquette combustion has no harmful emission in the environment and can be a
cost-effective binder compared to other organic binders.
Cornell (1864) explored and suggested that coal waste of different types can be molded
by saturating it with a starch-derived solution, compressing it, or else molding it into a
regular block shape fuel, and drying it. The green pellets made out of starch binders must
be dried to attain acceptable fuel performance and to lower the transportation costs.
Starches weakly fuse the coal fines and when rewetted, the bond strength weakens. Pellets
prepared using starch as a binder are neither durable nor water resistant. Mashek (1907)
disclosed a preparative method of making briquette step by step which includes heating
and drying the pulverized coal, mixing a coal-tar/asphaltic pitch as a binder material to the
coal fines, in warm condition, then cooling it, and compacting the mixture. Eatough, Ford,
and Lambert (1998) also unveiled a recipe made up of tar, acid, a polymeric binder, water,
and a surfactant if essential to help in wetting the carbonaceous material. Binder composi-
tion made out of asphaltic material and tar are well-known for their binding character-
istics but are found to have some drawbacks. However, they do not sufficiently prevent the
bound material from absorbing water and they are not suitable for industrial use due to
their soft and “gummy” characteristics. The product containing gummy binder can cause
clogging inside the feed line of the furnace. These are difficult to transport or store as they
absorb water and decrease the British Thermal Unit (BTU) content. Kriech (2003)
disclosed a method of converting waste coal fines into useful fuel by using binder
composition synthesized by emulsifying distillable petroleum hydrocarbon using a surfac-
tant and water. The method involves blending binder with fine carbonaceous particles. A
necessary amount of binder is added, which improves the hydrophobic characteristics of
the fine carbonaceous particles and significantly modifies their chemistry.
Many other natural and synthetic materials have been utilized as binders for coal fines
are showcased herein:
Sardessai, Pollok, and McMurray (1993) proposed a briquetting method, where binder
was synthesized using phenol formaldehyde resole resin mixed with a polyisocyanate in
the presence of a catalyst. A polymeric material, which is a combination of phenolic and
urethane group, formed a bond with the particles and makes the briquette moisture free,
resistant to moisture uptake, structurally stable, and abrasion resistant.
Ford (1996) disclosed a binder composition which comprised of a polymer and a
solvent. The polymer used was polystyrene, which was dissolved in a hygroscopic solvent
(methyl ethyl ketone) and then the solution was blended with coke breeze and coal fines
until the solution was evenly distributed. After that, a polyvinyl polymer was emulsified in
water and blended with previously blended fines until a homogenous mixture was
achieved. The briquettes prepared were stable structurally and do not deform again into
fine particles during storage and handling. The briquetted product provides a reliable
bond strength and constitutes a high calorific value fuel for home and commercial
purposes, which gives clean burning and does not pollute the environment.
Unfortunately work done previously used binders from natural and synthetic polymers
that were prepared from expensive raw materials and thus the overall cost of the briquette
manufacturing and its use became unaffordable. Ford, Lambert, and Madsen (1996)
revealed a process to prepare briquettes using an organic binder, additionally using
calcium carbonate and alumino-silicate as a hardener and flux to remove impurities in
the reduction process. A method is proposed where dust from the furnace in the form of
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COAL PREPARATION AND UTILIZATION 11

oxides of iron and other metal oxides is recovered and briquetted with an organic binder
to be utilized in iron and steel processing industries. The organic binder synthesized is
described by George W. Ford in his previous patents filed (U.S. Patent number 5453103
and U.S. Patent number 5487764 under the same title). Donovan and Tis (2003) described
a process of producing a commercially useful fuel: first emulsifying tall-oil-mix in water to
prepare an emulsion, and second to treat bituminous coal fines with emulsion to prepare a
synthetic fuel. An additional method was further disclosed by Donovan (U.S. Patent
number 20040049973A). In this method, a mixture of tall-oil with enhancer additives
was prepared, which was later mixed with metallurgical coal fine to produce a synthetic
fuel. These additives either amplify the chemical reactivity of the tall-oil mix or reduce the
cost of the mixture while upholding the chemical change rate stable. Some suitable
materials are also described by Donovan to be used as enhancer additives for tall-oil.
Donelewski (1982) proposed utilization coal fines with liquid by-products from pulp and
paper industry. The slurry is made by first mixing coal fines with water, it is then fed to a
preparation tank containing tall-oil mix and even coating of the individual coal particle
was achieved. But the proposed method which uses industrial by-products does not fulfill
the economic competitiveness as a fuel source. Landis (1999) disclosed a composition
which includes combustible carbonaceous material mixed with activated carbon or an
activated graphite along with a binder to prepare charcoal briquette. Typically, the
briquette composition comprised of 65% to about 99.9% by weight of carbonaceous
material, 1% to about 15% by weight binder, and 0.1% to about 20% of activated carbon
or activated graphite. The binder used is a mixture of water-swellable inorganic clay and
an organic binder selected from the group consisting of starch, hydroxyl alkyl cellulose,
dextrin, a gum, polyvinyl alcohol, a carboxy alkyl cellulose, metal salts of a carboxy alkyl
cellulose, and a polysaccharide.
Dospoy et al. (1998) disclosed a composition for making fuel pellets comprising of coal
fines, papermaking sludge, and shredded LDPE polymeric material. This manufacturing
method of fuel composition involved elevated temperature and high-pressure pelletizing.
Michalek and Thomas (2007) resent an invention to prepare a synthetic fuel which
comprises pelletizing coal fines with fragmented fibrous cellulosic material and a binder.
The binder such as Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) or nylon used to serve as an encapsulating
material which can interact and modify fibrous cellulosic material. Typically, the accep-
table stability may be achieved by using a binder in a range from about 2% to 20% by
weight of the overall composition, depending upon the suitable binder selected.
For example, starch-related binders are required in higher amount, while plasticrelated
binders are effective in lower amounts. This invention provided structurally stable pellet
with low binder requirement and lowering the overall cost of manufacturing the synthetic
fuel pellets.
Major and Radu (2000) disclosed a composition for binding coal fines to prepare
briquettes using an asphalt base, sodium carbonate pulping liquor, and a surfactant such
as nonyl phenol ethoxylate. Strength-increasing additives such as latex, vinyl derivatives,
cellulose, cellulose derivatives, peat moss, starch, starch derivatives, and various pulps
need to be added to the binder composition to obtain the best results. Also, the other
preferred materials like lignosulfate, cement, bentonite, rubber, and plastics may also be
added. Although this process uses a range of industrial waste to form briquette, the
mixture of binding material makes the process very complex to produce usable fuel;
12 R. CHAVDA AND P. MAHANWAR

hence the overall method is not economically feasible. White (1999) disclosed a method in
which biobased binders were used for pelletizing and briquetting coal fines by liquefaction
of biomass. This process is carried out in an oxygen-free environment at higher tempera-
tures between 450 degrees and 700 degrees Fahrenheit and elevated pressures, with pres-
sure ranging between 200 psi and 3000 psi for the liquefaction process. The liquid
produced is also mixed with additives to modify its characteristics. The resulting liquid
mixture is sprayed on coal fines that have already been heated to at least 250 degrees
Fahrenheit, after which they are allowed to react at about 300–400 degrees Fahrenheit. The
drawback for the invention is the liquefaction process which adds cost to the overall
process for its usefulness.
Binders are associated with large amount of water due to which UHV of coal decreases
with increasing moisture content. Moreover, dispersion of coal fines in a binder is necessary
which accounts for water requirement to achieve the desired coating. Regardless, water
imparts undesirable weight in the final product, increasing transportation costs and decreas-
ing the calorific value per ton. As a result, previous work done has shown improvement in
the briquetting process to produce synthetic fuel but not sufficient improvement in calorific
value. Therefore, development in the briquetting methods needs more attention to utilize
coal fines effectively with a suitable binder material that should give structural integrity to
the fuel pellets, has minimum moisture absorption, is weather resistant, is environmentally
compatible, and should be manufactured with low investment.

Hybrid Coal Technology

Hybrid coal technology, where limited amount of biomass is co-fired with coal, ranging
between 2 and 20%, has been widely implemented in power plants. However, combustion
behavior of biomass with coal has gained attention because of the predictability of
combustion reactions. Due to the difference in the combustion temperature of biomass
and coal, unstable situation occurs in coal combustion environment. Such co-firing results
in different reactivities of biomass (Backreedy et al. 2005; Ma et al. 2007).
Hybrid coal is a technology currently studied in which a mixture of LRC and bio-liquid
matter is developed and is characterized (Lee et al. 2013). The fuel mixture is produced by
impregnating the coal pores with the bio-liquid matter extracted from biomass such as
molasses and sugarcane juice. In the preparation of hybrid coal, the slurry-like paste is
prepared by mixing crushed raw coal with bio-liquid aqueous solution. The paste prepared
is then conditioned for 12 h and dried at 378 K for 6 h so that the carbon precursor
diffuses into the coal pores and replacing inherent moisture from coal pores.
Consequently, the added artificial volatile/carbon matrix inside the coal pores formed by
biomatter resulted in improved calorific value (Lee et al. 2016).
Development in upgrading technologies for LCRs involves physical blending of coal
and biomatter to make a slurry and then dried under high pressure. Typically, the process
involves upgrading coal and hot-water drying (HWD). Kobe Steel has developed a process
for upgrading of brown coal by upgrading LRC to an improved and acceptable fuel. The
LRC fuels are prepared by physical mixing and characterized to have increased calorific
value obtained simply by slurry dewatering. Preparation of LRCs initially involves a
reduction in particle size and then mixed with oil, and a small amount of asphalt is
added to the slurry. This coal-oil slurry is thermally treated under pressure to dewater and
the oil penetrates inside coal pores, thus removing its water. The UBC produced has less
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COAL PREPARATION AND UTILIZATION 13

moisture affinity, because the active sites on coal surface are deactivated by asphalt
(Akiyama et al. 2010; Kinoshita et al. 2010; Umar, Usui, and Daulay 2006). A thorough
understanding is needed for upgrading coal for its combustion characteristics.
Umar, Usui, and Daulay (2006) has developed a procedure in which dry upgraded coal
which may match with the characteristics of bituminous coal is said to be upgraded brown
coal (UBC) process. The UBC process consists of five preparation steps, which are coal
preparation, slurry dewatering, coal–oil separation, oil recovery, and upgraded coal bri-
quetting. In this whole process, the coal is impregnated with light liquid fuel and is heated
to reduce 90% moisture. UBC process can increase the ignition temperature and calorific
value of coal along with better combustion characteristics. In an investigation by
Heriyanto et al. (2015), upgrading brown coal was done by using oil as an key additive
to improve the quality of coal.The experiment resulted in an increase in calorific value as
the carbon of the oil adds to the coal carbon percentage. Also, good water repellency was
observed because oil replaced water from the pores of coal. The experimental result
showed an increase in calorific value up to 23.8% with the additive oil, and the moisture
content decreased up to 69.45%.
Lee et al. (2013) addressed the upgrading the coal to overcome two major problems,
such as to reduce CO2 emission and to use LRC due to low availability of high-rank coal.
However, the authors also suggested two processes to address the utilization of LRC by
integrated gasification combine cycle (IGCC) and carbon capture and storage. In his
investigation, hybrid coal was prepared which is a mixture of LRC with a sugarcane-
derived bio-liquid, such as molasses and sugarcane juice. In this hybrid coal preparation
process, derived bioliquid diffuses into coal pores and precarbonization of the bio-liquid is
done which shows a single combustion pattern unlike blends prepared from biomass and
coal. Herein, the authors have concluded that, if hybrid coal with biomass/coal ratio equals
to 28 wt% as a fuel for 500 MW power generation, then the net CO2 emission lowered to
21.2−33.1% for LRC and 12.5−25.7% for designed coal.
Fundamental experimentation has been performed for the use of chemicals to improve
coal-water-slurry (CWS) viscosity. Generally, LRC has high water absorption ability due to
the hydrophilic surface. Therefore, Bae et al. (2014) suggested and demonstrated hybrid
coal slurry as a new method to modify LRC, whereby using molasses, surface, and pore
characteristics were modified. To prepare high coal content CWS was made possible
through these processes. As found by the authors, CWS with high coal content could be
achieved if the coal pores are filled with biomass which increases carbon content and
decreases the water absorption. The results can be expected to improve the efficiency
of plants that use CWS as a gasification process.
Some coal-fired power plants, have switched toward the use of blended coal with
biomass in a solid state, such as using wood chips with coal in the feed stream.
Furthermore, it became difficult to predict the combustion behavior due to different
burning characteristics. To remove these barriers, Bae et al. (2013) experimented to
develop a hybrid coal system using glycerol as an additive. Glycerol as a solvent is
impregnated in the coal pores to replace inherent moisture and acts as artificial volatile
matter. When blending glycerol with coal, both will show independent combustion
behavior because glycerol evaporates at 443 K. This hybrid technology utilizes solvent as
volatile matter which results in a two-in-one fuel and shows single combustion behavior.
The work done by the authors makes the process commercially viable with a reduction in
14 R. CHAVDA AND P. MAHANWAR

carbon dioxide emissions, improvement in combustion behavior, and also providing a

synergistic effect.

Conclusion
Advances in utilization of the inorganic and organic additives have been accepted and
implemented, but the cost remains the major factor for additives to be used for coal as it is
abundant fossil fuel and cheaply available. Additives based on different chemical composi-
tions and possible counteracting effects can be used to enhance or inhibit the coal
combustion performance. These additives challenge the environmental effect of coal
utilization with reduction in CO2 and CO emission, lowering ash deposition, and reduc-
tion in toxic traces of element. More studies are still required for further understanding
the interaction of additives and coal because every coal mined worldwide produces
different grades of coal, having different compositions, and so to predict the effect of
single additive performance on diversity of coal is not possible and hence no universal coal
additive can give identical coal combustion performance. Most of the studies in the
literature are testified based on laboratory scale, while it is suggested that more trials
based on pilot or industrial scale should be preferred with success in preliminary analysis
reports. In addition, new additives should be identified which have multipurpose value,
have high reactivity, are compatible with the process, and offer low cost. It would be most
attractive to create more additives available from waste materials with low costs and in
large amounts. Coal will continue to be used necessarily in many regions that do not have
other acceptable economic alternatives. Further research and development should be
continued on all of these barriers, which can be accomplished in near future. The authors
believe that the menace on environmental prospects for coal can be overcome, partly
through the additives. Coal is part of the future.

ORCID
Raj Chavda http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4151-3369
Prakash Mahanwar http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7594-4044

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