EE All Modules

Bangalore Institute of technology Department of Mechanical Engineering
1.STEAM POWER PLANT

Different types of fuels used for steam generation.:- Generally there are three types of fuels can be burnt in
any type of steam power plant. They are 1) Solid fuels 2) Liquid fuels 3)Gaseous fuels.
Gaseous fuels:
The gaseous fuels widely used in steam power plants are natural gas, Blast furnace gas. Gaseous fuels may
be either natural gases or manufactured gases. Since the cost of manufactured gases is high only natural
gases are used for power generation. Natural gas is colorless , odorless and is non poisonous its calorific
value lies between 25000KJto 50000 KJ/ m3 .
The various manufactured gases are coal gas, Coke oven gas , Blast furnace gas and producer gas. These
manufactured gases play an less important role in the steam generation.
Advantages:
1) Excess air required is less 2) Uniform mixing of fuels and air is possible 3) Handling is much more
easier compared to the coal. 4) The load changes can be met easily. 5) There is no problem of ash disposal.
6) Operational labourer required is less.
Disadvantages:
1) Storage of gaseous fuels is not easy compared to liquid fuels due to the risk of explosions.
2) The plant must be located near the natural gas field other wise transportation cost increases.
Liquid fuels:
The liquid fuels used in the thermal plant to generate the steam instead of coal as it offers the following
advantages over the coal.
1) The calorific value of liquid fuels is about 40% higher than that of coal or solid fuels.
2) The storage space required for liquid fuels is less.
3) Instantaneous ignition and extinction of fire is possible.
4) Stand by losses are minimum. 5) Efficiency of the boiler is high. 6) Ash handling system can be
eliminated. 7) Oil can be easily metered. The rate of fuel supply to furnace is easy to control.
Disadvantages
1) The overall combustion efficiency of the liquid fuel fired power plant is less compared to the coal fired
power plants
2) The availability of the liquid fuel resources are very limited as compared to the coal resources
Ex. Heavy oils, Bunker C oil , Viscous residue oil, Petroleum and its by products .
Solid Fuels:
Example for solid fuels is Coal. The term coal refers to the rocks in the earth’s crust , produced by the
decaying of the plant materials accumulated overt the millions of years ago. Different types of coals that
are used for steam generation are 1) Lignite 2) Sub Bituminous 3) Bituminous coal 4) Semi Anthracite coal
5) Anthracite coal.
1)Lignite:
It is lowest grade of coal . Its having 30% of moisture calorific value is about 14650 to 19300 KJ/ Kg. Due
to the high moisture content and low calorific value lignite is not easy to transport over long distances. It
is usually burnt by the utilities at the mine sites.
2) Sub Bituminous:
Its calorific value is slightly less than that of the Bituminous coal. Its calorific value is in between 19300
to 26750 KJ / Kg. The moisture content is about 15 to 30%. It is brownish black in colour. These coals
usually burned in the pulverized form.
3) Bituminous coal:
Bituminous coal is widely used in all purposes. It is used in steam generation and in the production of the
coal gas and producer gas. Its moisture content may vary from 6 to 12 %. Its calorific value ranges from
25600 KJ/Kg to 32600 KJ /Kg. Bituminous coal burn easily especially in pulverized form.
Energy Engineering 1
4) Semi Anthracite
It is an intermediate coal between Bituminous and Anthracite coal. It ignites more easily than anthracite to
give a short flame changing from Yellow to Blue . It is having the following properties’
Moisture content = 1 to 2%
Volatile matter = 10 to 15 %
Calorific value= 36000 to 36960 KJ / Kg
5) Anthracite:
It is the most mature and hard form of solid fossil fuel. It is having an fixed Carbon content ranging from
92 to 98%. Anthracite is good domestic fuel for heating and is some times used for steam generation.
Selection of coal for steam generation.

Selecting an suitable coal for steam generation is an very difficult task. The firing qualities of coal are every
important when we are considering an combustion equipments. Slower burning coal generates high fuel
bed temperature s and therefore requires forced draught fan. The fast burning coals require large
combustion chamber. Such coals are suitable for meeting an sudden demand for steam. The most important
factors which are to be considered in the selection of coal are sizing and caking, Swelling properties and
ash fusion temperature . Some times the selection of coal depends on the ash content also.
The following properties of the coal are to be considered for the selection of the coal for steam generation
in steam power plants.1) Burning rate of coal 2) Sizing, Caking , Swelling properties of coals. 3) Finess of
coal.
Selection of site
The following factors should be considered while selecting the site for a steam power station
1) Availability of fuel.
2) Nature of load
3) Cost of land.
4) Availability of water.
5) Transport facilities.
6) Ash disposal facilities.
7) Availability of labour.
8) Size of the plant.
9) Load center.
10) Public problems.
11) Future extensions.
Combustion equipments for steam generators.
The combustion equipment is one of the important component of the steam generator. The combustion
equipment used must have the ability to meet the following requirements.
1) Through mixing of fuel and air.
2) Maintaining of optimum air fuel ratio leading to complete combustion over the full load range.
3) ready and accurate response to the load demand
4) continuous and reliable ignition of the fuel.
Coal handling :
The coal handling plant needs extra attention , while designing a thermal power station, as almost 50% to
60% of the total operating costs consists of fuel purchasing and handling . Fuel system is designed in
accordance with the type and nature off fuel. Plants may use coal oil or gas as the fuel. The different stages
in coal handling are shown below.
Coal delivery
The method of transporting coal to a power station depends on the location of the plant, but may be one or
more of the following : rail, road , river or sea. Plants situated near river or sea may make use of the
navigation facilities. Stations which cannot make use of these facilities may be supplied coal either by
trucks or by rail. Transportation of trucks is usually used in case the mines are not available. In case rail
transport is to be adopted , the necessary siding for receiving the coal should be brought as near the station
is possible.
Unloading:
Just what kind of equipment will do the best job for unloading depends first of all on how the coal is
received. If the coal is delivered in dump trucks and if the plant site is favourable we may not need
additional unloading equipment. When coal transported by using by sea or rivers unloading bridge or tower
and portable conveyors are used. In case the coal received by rail in hoppers cars, again the coal may be
unloaded quickly by using any of the facilities such as car shakers , Car throwing equipments , Car
dumpers(Rotary), coal accelerators .
Preparation:
If the coal is brought to the site un sized and sizing is desirable for storage or firing purposes. The coal
preparation plant may be located either near the coal receiving point or at the point of actual use. The coal
preparation plant may include the following equipments a) Crushers b) Sizers c) Dryers and d) Magnetic
separators.
Coal preparation plant is as shown below.
The raw coal is crushed in to required size using crushers. The crushed coal is passed over the sizer which
removes unsized coal and feeds back to the crusher. The crushed coal is further passed to the drier to remove
the moisture from the supplied coal . Before supplying the coal to the storage hopper , the iron scrap and
particles are removed with the help of magnetic separators.
Transfer:
Transfer means the handling of the coal between the unloading point and the final storage point from where
it is discharged to the firing equipment. The equipments used for the transfer of coal may be any one of the
following or a suitable combination there of:a) Belt conveyors b) Screw conveyors c) Bucket Elevators d)
Grab bucket Elevators e) Skip hoists and f) Flight conveyors.
Belt conveyor
Cross section of belt drive

The belt conveyors are suitable for transporting large quantities of coal over large distances. It consists of
endless belt made up of rubber, canvas or balata running over a pair of end drums or pulleys and supported
by series of rollers provided at regular intervals. The return idlers which support the empty belt are plain
rollers and are spaced wide apart. Belt conveyors can be used successfully up to 20 degree inclination to
the horizontal . The load carrying capacity of the belt may vary from 50 to 100 tons /h and it can easily be
transported through 400 meters.
Advantages:
1) It is most economical method of coal transfer.
2) The rate of coal can be regulated by varying the speed of the belt.
3) The repair and maintenance charges are minimum.
4) The coal can be protected.
5) The power consumption is minimum.
Disadvantages;
1) It is not suitable for short distances and greater heights.
Screw conveyor
It consists of an helicoids screw fitted to a shaft as shown in the figure. The driving mechanism is connected
to one end of the shaft and the other end of the shaft is supported in an enclosed ball bearing. The screw
while rotating in a trough transfers coal from one end to the other end as shown in figure. The diameter of
screw is 15 cm to 50 cm and its speed varies from 70 to 120 rpm and the maximum capacity is 125 tones
per hour.
Advantages:
1) It requires minimum space and is cheap in cost
2) It is most simple and compact
3) It can be made dust tight.
Disadvantages:
1) The power consumption is high.
2) The maximum length limited to 30 meters.
3) The wear and tear is very high therefore life of the equipment is less.
Bucket elevators:
These are used extensively for vertical lifts, through their for horizontal runs is not ruled out. These
elevators consists of relatively small size buckets closely spaced on an endless chain. The coal is carried
by the buckets from the bottom and discharged at the top. Centrifugal type and continuous type bucket
elevators are most commonly used. The maximum height of the elevator is limited to 30.5 m and maximum
inclination to the horizontal is limited to 60 degree. The speed of the chain required in first case is 75 m/min
and continuous type is 35 m/min for 60 tonnes capacity per hour.
Advantages:
1) Less power is required.
2) Coal can be discharged at elevated places.
3) Less floor area is required.
Disadvantages:
Its capacity is limited to 60 tons per hour and hence not suitable for large capacity stations.
Grab bucket
Grab bucket conveyor is form of hoist which lifts and transfers the load on a single rail or track form one
point to another. This can be used with crane or tower as shown in figure A 2-3 cu-m bucket operating over
a distance of 60 m transfer nearly 100 tons of coal per hour. Its initial cost is high but operation cost is
less.
Flight conveyor
This type of conveyor is generally used for transfer of coal when filling of number of storage bins situated
under the conveyor is required. It consists of one or two strands of chain to which steel scrappers are
attached The scraper scraps the coal through a trough and the coal is discharged in the bottom of the trough
as shown in figure.
Advantages:
1) It requires small head room
2) The speed can be regulated .
3) It can be used for as well as coal transfer.
4) It requires less attention.
Disadvantages:
1) There is excessive wear and tear and hence the life of the conveyor is less.
2) The repair and maintenance charges are high.
3) The restricting the operating speed to 300m/min is required to reduce the abrasive action.
4) Power consumption is high per unit of coal or ash handled.
Skip hoist:
It is used in high lifts and handling is not continuous. It consists of vertical or inclined hoist way, a bucket
or a car guided by the frame, and a cable for hoisting the bucket.
Advantages:
1) It requires very low maintenance.
2) Power requirement is low.
3) It can handle larger size clinkers.
4) It can be used for handling ash as well as coal
5) It needs minimum floor area.
Disadvantages:
1) The initial cost is high
2) This is not suitable for continuous supply of coal.
3) There is excessive wear of skips and ropes which need frequent replacements.
Out door storage: Whether the storage is large or small , it needs protection against losses by weathering
and by spontaneous combustion. With proper methods adopted even larger outdoor storage can remain
safe. In order to avoid the oxidation of coal the compact layers are formed. To avoid spontaneous
combustion air is allowed move evenly through the layers.
Indoor storage or Live storage:

This is usually a covered storage provided in plants, sufficient to meet day’s requirement of the boiler.
Storage is usually done in bunkers made of steel or reinforced concrete having enough capacity to store
the requisite of coal. From the coal bunkers coal is transferred to the boiler grates.
Weighing: A frequent part of in plant handling is keeping tabs on quantity and quality of coal fired. For
weighing weigh bridge is used. Coal is weighed in transit also by using belt scale.
Fuel Firing methods
Selection of firing method adopted for a particular power plant depends on the following factors.
1) Characteristics of fuel available.
2) Capacity of the plant.
3) Load factor of the power plant.
4) Nature of load fluctuations .
5) Reliability and efficiency of the various combustion equipments.
Depending upon the combustion equipments used boilers can be classified as

1) Solid fuel fired.
2) Liquid fuel fired.
3) Gaseous fuel fired
Solid fuel firing

The classification of combustion system used for coal burning given below.
Hand firing system is the simplest method for solid fuel firing but it can not be used in modern power plant.
The most commonly used methods for firing the coal are 1) Stoker fire 2) Pulverized fire.
Stoker fire:
Stoker is fuel burning mechanism used for burning fuel on grate. This type of burning mechanism is
suitable where the coal is burned. Stokers are classified as
1) Over feed stokers
2) Under feed stoker.
In over feed stoker the direction of air and coal are opposite to one another. The coal is supplied on to the
grates above the point of air admission. In under feed stoker coal is fed from underneath the grate between
the two tuyers. The direction of fuel and air is same.
Over feed stoker.
Typical overfeed stoker is as shown in the figure. Coal is fed on to the grate above the point of air admission.
The pressurized air coming from the FD fan enters under the bottom of the grate. The air passing through
the grate opening is heated by absorbing the heat from the ash and grate itself , where as the grate and ash
get cooled . As hot air passes through the incandescent coke layer O2 reacts with Carbon to form Carbon
dioxide. This is an exothermic reaction and releases heat required for continuation of combustion process.
It continues till all the oxygen is consumed. If the incandescent layer thick, CO2 may be partly reduced to
CO(CO2 + C – 2CO) The gasses leaving the incandescent layer are N2 , CO, CO2, H2 . A slight water
reaction may take place with the moisture in air (H2O + C – H2 + CO) . This is an endothermic reaction
and may bring down the temperature of the bed and gas. Stream of gases then passes through the distillation
zone where volatile matter is added from raw coal and then moisture is picked up in the drying zone and
finally emerges above the fuel bed. The gases leaving the upper surface of the fuel bed contain combustible
volatile matter, N2, CO2, CO, H2 and H2O , If the combustion of Carbon , Hydrogen and volatile matter is
to be completed following have to provide .
a) Sufficient fresh air or secondary air is supplied .
b) Ignition point should be in the range 10000C – 13000 C.
c) Creating turbulence by supplying secondary air at right angles to the up flowing gas stream from fuel
bed.
It does not help supplying if the secondary air supplied along with primary air, since more primary air
produces only more carbon monoxide. The presence of the Carbon monoxide in the exhaust gases indicates
the in complete combustion leads to decrease in the efficiency of combustion equipments.
Types of Over feed stoker
1) Traveling grate stoker

2) 2) Spreader stoker
1) Traveling grate stoker
The traveling grate stoker is as shown in the figure. This type of stoker has the grate which is moving from
one end of the furnace to the other end. This grate may be chain grate type or bar grate type chain grate
stoker is made up of series of Cast Iron chain links connected by pins to form an endless chain. The bar
grate stoker is made up of a series of Cast Iron sections mounted on a carrier bars. The carrier bars are
mounted and ride on two endless drive chains. The traveling grate stoker consist of an endless chain which
forma support for the fuel bed. The chain travels over the two sprocket wheels which are at the front and
rear end of the furnace. The front end sprocket wheel is connected to variable speed drive mechanism. The
grate can be raised or lowered as needed. Simultaneous adjustment of grate speed, fuel bed thickness, and
air flow control, the burning rate so that nothing but ash remains on the grate by the time it reaches furnace
rear. The ash falls on to the ash pit, as the grate turns to make the return trip. A coal gate at the rear of the
coal hopper regulates coal. As the raw coal or green coal on the grate enters the furnace, surface coal gets
ignited from heat of furnace flame and radiant heat rays reflected by ignition arch. The fuel bed becomes
thinner towards the rear of furnace as combustible matter burns off. The secondary air supplied helps in
mixing the gases and supplies oxygen to complete combustion. The coal should have minimum ash content
which will form an layer on the grate. It helps in protecting grate from over heating.
Advantages:
1) Simple and initial cost is low.
2) Its maintenance costs are low
3) It is self cleaning stoker.
4) Heat releases rates can be easily controlled.
5) It gives high heat release rates per unit volume of furnace.
Disadvantages
1. This can not be used for high capacity boilers 200t / hr or more.
2. The temperature of preheated air is limited to 1800c.
3. The clicker troubles are common.
4. The ignition arches are required.
5. The loss of fuel in ash can not be avoided.
Spreader Stoker
The coal from coal hopper is fed by a rotating feeder, a drum fitted with short blades on its surfaces, to the
spreader or distributor below. Which projects the coal particles on to the grate holding an ignited fuel bed.
The finer particles burn in suspension and the coarse particles are consumed on the grate. The speed of the
feeder directly proportional to the steam out put of the boiler. The secondary air helps in creating turbulence
and completing combustion. In high capacity boilers may have traveling grate stoker in addition to spreader
stoker. The grate consists of Cast Iron links underneath the grate connect all the bars to a lever. Moving
lever makes the ash fall through to the ash pit below. Spreader stokers capable of burning any type of coal.
Advantages:
1) Almost any type of the coal can be burnt.
2) Clinkering problem is less.
3) It is having quick response to varying load.
4) The quantity of excess air required is less.
5) The operation cost is low.
Disadvantages:
1) The problem of fly ash is high. It requires an dust collector to prevent the environment pollution.
2) Coal particles trapping mechanism is necessary to prevent their escape with excess air.
3) Its operating efficiency decreases with varying sizes of coal.
Vibrating stoker
Its operation of similar to that of the chain grate stoker except that fuel feed and fuel bed movement are
accomplished by vibration. The vibration and the inclination of the grate cause the fuel to move through
the furnace towards the ash pit. The vibrating conditions of the fuel bed permits the use of wider range of
fuels. Vibrating grate stokers are suitable for medium volatile Bituminous coal and Lignite but at reduced
burn rates.
Under feed stoker
In this type of stokers the fuel and air move in the same direction. In this case coal is fed from underneath
the grate by screw conveyor or by a ram. Primary air after passing through the holes in the grate meets the
raw coal . As the air diffuse through the bed of raw coal picks up moisture and then pass through the
distillation zone where volatile matter is added. When gas stream next passes through the incandescent
coke region, volatile matter burns readily with the secondary air fed at the top. The gases in this type stoker
are at higher temperature than over feed stoker. The under feed method is best suited for burning semi
Bituminous and Bituminous coals high in volatile matter.
Types of Under feed stokers.
1) Single retort Stoker 2) Multi retort stoker.
1) Single retort stoker
The arrangement of single retort stoker is shown in figure in the form of two views. The fuel is placed in
large hopper on the front of the furnace and then further fed by reciprocating ram or screw conveyor in to
the bottom of the horizontal trough. Air is supplied through the tuyers provided along upper edge of the
grate. The ash and clicker are collected on the ash plate provided with dumping arrangement. The coal
feeding capacity of a single retort stoker varies from 100 to 2000 Kg / Hr.
2) Multi retort stoker
Tuyers
Incandescent zone
Distilation zone
Green coal
Stoker ram
Extension grate
Damper Wind box

inlet
Damper Pushers
Discharge
Ash
Daft gauge
connection
Multi retort stoker is as shown in figure . It consists of series of alternate retorts and tuyers boxes for
supply of air . Each retort is fitted with reciprocating ram for feeding and pusher plates for uniform
distribution of coal. Coal falling from hopper is pushed forward during inward stroke of the stoker ram.
Then distributing ram pushes the entire coal down length of the stoker. The ash formed is collected at the
end as shown in the figure. The number of retorts may be vary from 2 to 20 with burning capacity varying
from 300 kg to 2000 Kg /hr/retort.
Advantages
1) High thermal efficiency compared to chain grate stoker.
2) Combustion rate is high 3) Combustion is continuous 4) Grate is self cleaning 5) Smoke less operation
6) Stokers are suitable for non clinker high volatile and low ash content coal.
Disadvantages
1) It requires large building space.
2) Clicnker problems are high.
3) Low grade coals with high ash content can not be burn economically.
4) Initial cost of the unit is high.
Pulverized fuel firing system.

In pulverized fuel firing system the coal is grinded in to a fine powder form with the help of grinding mill
and then projected in to the combustion chamber with the help of hot air current. This hot air is known as
the primary air. The amount of the air required for complete combustion is supplied separately in the
combustion chamber. It helps in creating turbulence, so that uniform and intimate mixing of coal particles
and air can take place inside combustion chamber. The efficiency of the pulverized fuel firing system
mostly depends upon the size of the particles of the coal in the coal powder . The finess of the coal particles
should be such that 70% of it would pass through 200 mesh sieve and 98% through a 50 mesh
sieve.
Coal handling for pulverized fuel plant is shown in figure
Advantages:
1) Any grade of coal can be used.
2) Stand by losses are reduced and banking losses are eliminated.
3) Efficiency of combustion is high compared to other methods of solid fuel firing methods.
4) Boiler unit can be started up from cold rapidly and efficiently.
5) Practically free from slagging and clinker troubles.
6) Furnace has no moving parts subjected high temperatures.
7) The furnace volume required is less.
8) This system works successfully with or in combination with gas and oil.
9) Greater capacity to meet the peak loads.
10) Practically no ash handling problems.
11) The structural arrangements and flooring are simple.
12) The external heating surfaces are free from corrosion.
Disadvantages:
1) Coal preparation plant is necessary.
2) High capital cost.
3) Handling of fly ash makes the system uneconomical.
4) Special equipment is needed to start this system.
5) Larger building space is needed especially with central system..
6) Skilled operators are required.
7) Refractory material surfaces are affected by high furnace temperatures.
8) Atmospheric pollution created by the fly ash is can not be completely eliminated.
9) The possibility of explosion is more as coal burns like gas.
10) The maintenance of furnace brick work is costly.
There are two methods of pulverized fuel firing. They are unit system and central or Bin system. In unit
system each burner of the plant has its own pulveriser and handling units. In central or Bin system fuel is
pulverized in the central plant and then distributed to each burner with the help of high pressure air current.
Unit system
In unit system each burner of the plant has its own pulverizer and handling units. The pulveriser an
together with feeder , separator and fans may be arranged to form an complete unit or mill. The number
of units required depends on the capacity of the boiler. Raw coal from coal hopper fed to the pulverizing
mill through feeder . Hot air from or flue gases passed through the feeder to dry the coal before feeding
to the pulveriser. The pulverized coal is carried from the mill with the help of induced draught fan as
shown in figure. This further carries the coal through the pipes to the burner. Secondary air supplied to
the burner before fuel entry in to the combustion chamber is as shown in figure helps in creating the
turbulence as well as supplying additional air required for completing the combustion of the coal
particles in the furnace.
Advantages:
1) It is simple in layout and cheaper than central system.
2) It allows direct control of combustion rate from the pulveriser.
3) Maintenance charges are less.
4) The coal transportation is simple.
Disadvantages.
1) The performance of pulverizing mill is poor.
2) Degree of flexibility is less than central system.
3) The fault in the preparation unit may put entire steam generator out of use.
4) There is excessive wear and tear of the blades of fan as it handles air and coal particles.
5) Strict maintenance of the mill is required because the entire plant operation depends on it
Central or Bin system
The central system or Bin system fuel is pulverized in the central plant and then distributed to each
burner with the help of high pressure air current. Crushed and sized coal is fed to the drier from coal
bunker by gravity as shown in figure. The dried coal fed to the pulverizing mill with the help of air, as
shown in figure ,separated in the cyclone separator. The separated pulverized coal is transferred to the
central bunker using conveyor as shown in figure. Oversized coal particles are fed back to the
pulverizing mill for further processing. The storage bin may contain 12 to 24 hours of supply of
pulverized coal. The energy consumption is 15 to 25 KW-Hr / Ton of coal pulverized.
Advantages:
1) The reliability of plant is high.
2) The central system is flexible . Supply of the coal can be maintained to the burners without any
interruption.
3) Burner operation is independent of coal preparation.
4) The pulverising mill may work at the part load because of storage capacity available in the storage
bin.
5) Power consumption per ton of coal handled is less .
6) As the fans handle only air there is no problem of excessive wear and tear.
7) The labourers required is less .
Disadvantages.
1) Initial cost is high and occupies a larger space.
2) The overall power consumption per ton of coal handled is higher than unit system due to high power
consumption by auxiliaries.
3) The operation and maintenance charges are higher than unit system of same capacity.
4) There is possibility of fire hazard due to the stored pulverized coal.
Equipments or components of the pulverized coal fired plant.
The main equipments used in the pulverized coal fires plant are
1) Primary crushers .
2) Magnetic separators.
3) Coal driers .
4) Pulverizing mill
5) Burners.
Primary crushers
Crushing of coal is required when we are handling un sized coal. Plant using pulverized coal generally
specifies the top size, larger than what can not be handled by the pulveriser, making crushing necessary
to prepare coal for pulverization following types of crushers are used.
1) Ring crushers
2) Hammer mill crushers.
3) Bread ford breaker.
4) Rotary breaker
5) Single roll crushers.
Ring crushers
In this type of crushers coal is fed at top of crushers and is crushed by the action of ring that pivot off
centre on a rotor. Adjustable plate helps in varying the size of discharge coal. It can be used as off or
on plant site.
Hammer coal crusher
In this type of coal crusher also the coal is fed from the top and is crushed by the action of swinging
hammers that are pivoted on a rotor. Swinging hammers are attached to the central drum. As the drum
rotates coal particles coming in between the swinging hammers and adjustable plates crushed . The
crushed sized coal falls out of the crusher through the opening provided at the bottom. The adjustable
plates used to vary the size of discharge coal.
Brad ford crushers.
It is used in large capacity plant. It comprises of large cylinder consisting of perforated steel screen
plates to which lifting shelves are attached inside . The cylinder rotates slowly at about 20 rpm and
receives feed at the one end. The coal is lifted by the shelves , the breaking action is accomplished by
the repeated lifting and dropping of the coal until its size permits it to discharge through the perforation
made . The size of the perforation determine the size of crushed coal. The main advantage is
rejection of the foreign matter and to produce relatively uniform size coal particles.
Rotary breakers.
The crushing of coal takes place between the rotating cylinder and rollers. The crushing action is
combination of both lifting and dropping of the coal and also by the crushing action of coal between
rollers and rotating cylinder.
Single roll crushers
The crushing of coal takes place between adjustable plate and rotating single roller having teeth on the
circumference. The size of the coal particle can be varied by varying the gap between adjustable plate
and rotating roller.
Pulveriser:
Pulverisers are devices that are used to produce coal in the powder form. They are also called as
pulverizing mills. The pulverizing process consists of three stages namely i) Feeding ii) Drying iii)
Grinding . Feeding system controls automatically air required for drying and transporting pulverized
fuel to the burner depending on the boiler demand. For pulverization of coal has to be dry and dusty.
Dryer are an integral part of the pulverizing equipment. For drying coal part of primary air passing
through the air preheater at 3500c is utilized. The third stage of pulverization process is the grinding
and equipment used for this action is known as the grinding mill. Four different types of pulverizing
mills are used .
a) Ball and race mill
b) Bowl mill.
c) Ball mill.
d) Hammer mill.
a) Ball and race mill
This is also known as the contact mill. The coal is crushed between two moving surfaces ball and race.
The upper race is stationary and the lower race is driven by worm and gear, holds the steel balls between
them. The coal is allowed to fall on the inside of the race from feeder or hopper. Moving balls and race
catches coal between them to crush in to a powder. Springs are used to hold down the upper race and
adjust the force needed for crushing. Hot air supplied picks up the coal dust as it flows between the ball
and races and then enters in to the classifier, moving and fixed vanes make the entering air to form a
cyclonic flow which helps to through the oversized particles on to the wall of classifier. The oversized
particles slide down for further grinding in the mill. The coal particles of required size carried to burners
with air from the top of the classifier.
b) Bowl mill
The bowl mill grinds the coal between a whirling bowl & rollers mounted on pivoted axis. The
pulveriser consists of stationary rollers and power driven balls in which pulverization takes place as the
coal passes between the bowl and rollers. The hot primary air supplied in to the bowl picks up coal
parcels and passes through the classifier. Where oversized coal particles falls back to bowl for further
grinding. The required size coal particles along the primary air supplied to the burner.
c) Ball Mill with double classifier
The line diagram of the ball mill is as shown in figure . It consist of a large cylinder partly filled with
varying sized steel balls. The coal from coal hopper fed in to the cylinder with the help of crew
conveyor. At the same time required quantity of hot air from air preheater is also enters. As the cylinder
rotates pulverization takes place between the balls and the coal. The stream of hot air picks up the
pulverized coal and pass through the classifier. The oversized coal particles thrown out of the air stream
in the classifier and fine coal particles are passed to the burner through exhaust fan. Ball mill capable
of pulverizing 10 tons of coal / hr containing 4% moisture requires 28 tons of steel balls and consumes
20- 25 KW – Hr energy per ton of coal pulverized.
d) Hammer mill
The hammer mills have swinging hammers connected to an inner ring and placed within the rotating
drum. The coal to be pulverized is fed in to the path of hammers. Grinding is done by the combination
of impact on large particles and attrition on small particles . The hot air is supplied to dry the coal as
well as carrying coal particles to burners. It is compact low in cost and simple in operation. How ever
its maintenance is costly and its capacity is limited. The power consumption is high when fine powder
is required.
Pulverised fuel burners.

Burners are devices use to burn coal particle by uniform mixing of coal and air and creation of
turbulence within the furnace. The air which carries pulverized coal in to the furnace through the burner
is primary air. The secondary air required for completing combustion is supplied separately around the
burner or else where in the furnace.
The main requirements of pulverized fuel burners are.
1) It should mix thoroughly primary air with coal particles and secondary air.
2) It should create turbulence and maintain stable combustion.
3) It should control the flame shape and it travel in the furnace.
4) The velocity of primary air and coal particles should be same as that of flame velocity to avoid flash
back.
5) The burner should have ability to with stand overheating due internal fires and excessive abrasive
wear.
Types of pulverized burners are

1) Long flame or U- Flame burners. Or streamlined burners.
2) Turbulent burners.
3) Tangential burners.
4) Cyclone burners
1) Long flame burners.
The tertiary air supplied around the burner to provide better mixing of primary air and fuel. The burner
discharges air and fuel mixture vertically down wards with no turbulence to provide long flame. Heated
secondary air supplied at right angles to the flame creates turbulence that required rapid combustion.
This type of burners are suitable for burning low volatile slower burning coal particles.
2) Turbulent Burners.
These burners are also called as short flame burners. Turbulent burners can project flame horizontally
or at small inclination to the furnace. The fuel – primary air mixture and secondary hot air are arranged
to pass through the burner in such a way tat there is good mixing and the mixture is projected in highly
turbulent form in to the furnace. The mixture burns intensely and combustion is completed in a short
distance. The burning rate of turbulent burners is high compared to other types of burners. Turbulent
burners are preferred for high volatile coal and they are used in modern power plants.
3) Tangential burners.
It consists of four different burners located at 4 corners of the furnace. The discharge of fuel and air
mixture directed tangentially to an imaginary circle in the centre of the furnace. The swirling action
creates necessary turbulence required for completing the combustion in short period. The tips of the
burners can be angled through a small vertical arc. So as to raise or lower the position of turbulent
combustion region in the furnace. It helps in maintaining constant super heat temperature of steam as
load varies. This arrangement can provide 1000c difference in furnace gas exit temperature.
Advantages
1) Parts of burners are well protected.

2) High combustion efficiency and turbulence existing throught the furnace.
3) Liquid, gaseous and pulverized fuel can be readily fired either separately or in combination.
Cyclone Burner
It consists of horizontal cylinder of water cooled construction , 2 to 3 meters in diameter and 2.5 m in
length . The horizontal axis of the burner is slightly deflected downward towards the boiler. These
burners are externally attached to the furnace. The cyclone burner receives pulverized coal carried by
the primary air tangentially to the cylinder at outer end creates strong and highly turbulent Vortex.
Secondary air enters in to the cylinder tangentially to complete the combustion. These burners can be
rotated by 30 degree up and down it helps in controlling the super heater temperature. The fuel
supplied burns quickly with high heat liberate rates with temperature around 20000c . The ash forms
the molten film over the inner wall surface and molten ash flows to an ash disposal system. The cyclone
burners give best results with low grade fuel.
Advantages
1) Crushed coal can be used instead of costly pulverized coal.

2) It can burn low grades of coal.
3) Percentage of excess of air required is less
4) Combustion efficiency is high
5) Combustion rates ca be easily controlled by varying fuel and air supply
6) High furnace temperature can be obtained.
Ash handling system
General layout of ash handling system
Large quantity of ash is produced by the power plants. Which are burning coals having high ash
content. The ash should be discharged and dumped at sufficient distance from the power plant because
of the following reasons.
1) The ash content is dusty
2) It is very hot when it comes out of the furnace
3) It produces poisonous gases and corrosive acids when mixed with water.
The amount of ash produced is as large as 20% of total coal burnt during the day. In order to handle
this large quantity of ash use of mechanical handling equipment becomes necessary. Any ash handling
system consists of the following operations.
1) Removal of ash from the furnace.
2) Carrying of ashes from ash hopper to storage with the help of conveyor.
3) Quenching of hot ash before carrying is desirable and necessary as it offers the following
advantages.
a) Reduces the temperature .
b) Reduces dustiness of ash.
c) Reduces the corrosive action.
d) Disintegrate large clinkers in to smaller one .
e) It act as sealing against the air entering in to boiler.
Ash handling equipment.
The main requirements of good ash handling plants are listed below.
1) It should be capable of handling large volume of ash.
2) It should be capable of handling large clickers with minimum attention.
3) The plant should have high rates of handling.
4) The operation should be noise less as much as possible.
5) It should deal effectively both hot and wet ash.
6) The initial cost, operating and maintenance charges should be minimum as per as possible.
The generally used ash handling systems are classified in to four groups.
1) Mechanical handling system

2) Hydraulic handling system.
3) Pneumatic handling system.
4) Steam jet system.
Mechanical ash handling system.
This system of handling ash is used in low capacity power plants. The hot ash coming out of furnace
allowed to fall on to the belt conveyor moving through the water trough . Cooled ash carried
continuously by belt conveyor to the ash bunker . The ash is removed from the ash bunker to the
dumping site with the help of trucks.
Hydraulic handling system.

In this system ash is carried with the flow of water . The hydraulic system, is subdivide in to low
velocity system and high velocity system.
Low velocity system.
In this system water trough is provided just below the boiler and water is made to flow through the
trough. The ash falling directly in to the drain and it is carried by water to the sump. In the sump ash is
separated from water , separated water is used again while the ash collected in the sump is removed to
the dumping yard. The capacity of this system is 50 tons/ hr.
High velocity or high pressure system.
The ash hoppers below the boilers are fitted with water nozzles at the top and on the sides. The top
nozzle quench ash and side nozzle provide driving force to carry the ash through a trough. The cooled
ash with high velocity water is carried to the sump. The water is re circulated again after separating it
out from the ash. Capacity of the system is 120 tons /hr and distance is 1000 meters.
Advantages
1) The system is clan , dustless, totally enclose and pollution free.

2) The ash can be discharged at a considerable distance.
3) Its handling capacity is large hence it can be used in large capacity power plants.
4) Working parts do not come in contact with ash.
5) It can also be used to handle molten ash.
Pneumatic handling system.
In primary and secondary separation working on cyclone principle and then it is collected in the ash hopper
as shown in the figure. The clean air is discharged from the top of the secondary air separator in to the
atmosphere through the exhauster. Exhauster may be mechanical type with filter or washer to ensure that
the exhauster handles clean air or it may use steam jet or water jet for its operation. Mechanical exhausters
are used in large power stations. While steam exhausters are used in small and medium power stations.
The pneumatic system can handle abrasive as well as fine materials such as fly ash as soot.
The capacity of system varies from 15 -25 tons/hr.
Advantages:
1) The system is flexible.
2) There is no spillage and re handling.
3) No chances of ash freezing and sticking of the materials , ash can be discharged freely by gravity.
4) Dustless operation as the system is totally closed.
5) Cost / ton of ash handled is comparatively less.
Disadvantages.
1) Wear and tear of pipes is high and hence the maintenance costs are high.
2) The operation is noisy compared to other systems .
Steam jet system

In this type of ash handling system, a jet of high pressure steam is passed in the direction of ash travel
through a conveying pipe in which ash from the boiler ash hopper is fed. The ash is deposited in the ash
hopper . The velocity is given to the steam by forcing it through the pipe under pressure greater than that
of atmosphere.
Advantages:
1) It does not requires any auxiliary drivers.

2) Capital coat and maintenance costs are low.
3) It requires less space.
4) Equipment can be installed in any position
Disadvantages
1) Noisy operation.
2) Wear and tear of pipes is high.
3) Capacity of this system is limited to 15 tons/hr
Dust collection
Any gas borne matter larger than 1 micron (0.001mm) in diameter we called it as dust. If the particles are
mainly ash particles then it is called fly ash. If the particles are in turn mixed with some quantity of carbon,
then the matter is known as the cinders. The size of cinders is usually greater than 100 micron. Incomplete
combustion volatile components of fuel produces smoke, consists of particles smaller than 10 micron. The
removal of dust and cinders from flue gas can be achieved by using dust collectors. These are classified as
1) Mechanical dust collectors.
2) Electrical dust collectors.
Mechanical dust collectors.
The basic principle used in the mechanical dust collection is as shown in the figure.
a) Sudden velocity decreasing method: Enlarging cross sectional area off the dust carrying pipe helps
in slow down of the gas so that dust particles will have the chance to settle out are allowed to fall
down.
b) Abrupt change of flow direction.: When gas makes a sharp change in flow direction the heavier
particles tend to keep goinig in original direction and so settle out.
c) Impingement upon small baffles: The larger dust particles may be knocked out of the gas stream
by impingement on baffles. These are used to drop large cinders from the gases.
Mechanical dust collectors can be further classified as wet type and dry type. The wet type dust collectors
are also called as scrubbers . Scrubbers operate with water sprays to wash dust from the air. Large quantity
of wash water is required for central power stations and this system is rarely used. This also produces waste
water that may require chemical neutralization before it may be discharged in to the natural water bodies.
Scrubbers may be 1) Packed type 2)Spray type 3) Impingement type
Dry collectors
Dry collectors are the most commonly used . One example for dry dust collectors is cyclone separator. In
this type of mechanical dust collector, a high velocity gas stream carrying the dust particles enters at high
velocity and tangential to the conical shell. This produces a whirling motion of the gas within the chamber
and throws heavier dust particles to the sides and fall out of the gas stream and are collected at the bottom
of the collector. The gas from the conical shell is passed through the secondary chamber as shown in figure
for final separation.
Advantages
1) Maintenance cost is low.
2) Efficiency is higher for bigger size particles.
3) Its efficiency increases with increasing the load.
Disadvantages
1) It requires more power than other collectors.
2) It is not flexible.
3) Pressure loss is comparatively high.
4) The collection efficiency decreases as the finess of dust particles increases.
5) It requires large head room.
Electrostatic precipitator.
Electrostatic precipitator are extensively used in removal of fly ash from electric utility boiler emissions.
The dust laden gas is passed between oppositely charged conductors and it becomes ionized. As the dust
laden gas passed through these charged electrodes, both negative and positive ions are formed. The ionized
gas is further passed through the collecting unit which consists of set of vertical plates. Alternates plates
are charged and earthed. As the alternate plates are grounded, high intensity electrostatic field exerts a force
on positively charged dust particles and drives them towards the grounded plate. The deposited dust
particles are removed from the plates by giving the shaking motion to the plates . Dust removed collected
in the dust hoppers.
Advantages
1) It is more effective in removing small particle.
2) Its efficiency s high.
3) The drought losses are least.
4) It provides ease of operation.
Disadvantages:
1) Use of electrical equipment for converting AC in to DC is necessary.
2) The space required is larger than wet system.
3) Collectors must be protected from sparking .
4) The running costs are high.
High pressure boilers.

For generating steam up to 30 bar pressure with flow rates up to about 30 tones / hr can be achieved with
the use of shell boilers using fire tube principles. These boilers are known as the low pressure boilers. High
pressure boilers are operating with pressures ranging from 30 bar to 300 bars, steam flow rate vary between
30 to 650 tones /hr and maximum temperature is around 6000c having furnace height varying from 32 to
62 m. In high pressure boilers water tube principle is used. The boilers operating at pressure 221 bar . Then
such boilers are known as the sub critical boilers. The boilers operating above 221 bar steam pressure are
called super critical boilers.
The unique feature of high pressure boilers are
i) Method of water circulation.
Use of natural circulation is limited to sub critical boilers with pressures less than 221 bar. In high pressure
boilers forced circulation of water is used instead of natural circulation. With the increase in pressure in the
boiler, the pressure difference causing the natural flow of water decreases and this becomes zero at critical
pressure of steam 221 bar, because the density of water and steam is same at critical pressure. Therefore
the use of forced circulation becomes necessary. Forced circulation of water is achieved with the help of
pumps these pumps are known as forced circulation pumps.
ii) Arrangement of drums and tubing.
In order to avoid large resistance to flow of water these boilers have a parallel set of tubes arrangement.
They have small steam separating drum or may be entirely free of drum.
iii) Improved method of heating.
The following methods are used to improve the heating.

1) heat added to produce steam can be avoid by eliminating latent heat of evaporation at pressure
above critical (221 Bar).
2) Super heated steam is used to heat water by mixing.
3) Heat transfer coefficients can be improved by increasing gas and water velocities above sonic
velocity.
Advantages:
1) Scale formation is avoided due to the use of high velocity of water.

2) Light weight tubes can be used.
3) Reduction in number of tubes used.
4) Boilers are capable of meeting rapid load changes.
5) Completely eliminates the high head which is needed for natural circulation.
6) Since all parts are heated uniformly which eliminates danger of overheating and setting up thermal
stresses.
7) Construction time required is less.
Lamont boiler
The schematic arrangement of Lamont boiler is as shown in figure .The feed water from hot well is pumped
in to the steam separating drum with the help of the feed pump. The circulating pump draws water from
the drum and delivers it under pressure to the headers. These headers distribute the water to the steam
generating tubes or evaporator, part of the water evaporated is separated in the steam separator drum. The
steam from the top of the drum is allowed to enter super heater s located in the path of hot gases. As the
steam is drawn from the super heater , an equivalent quantity of feed water is supplied through the
economizer in to the drum. The large quantity of water circulated prevents the tubes from being overheated.
These boilers can be built to generate 45 to 50 tones/hr of super heated stem at pressure of 130 bar and at
a temperature of 5000c . The major disadvantage of this boiler is the formation of scale due the presence of
dissolved gases in the water it decreases heat transfer rate and efficiency of the boiler.
Advantages
(i).It can be easily started.
(ii). High steam generating capacity (about 50 tonnes per hour)
(iii). It has high heat transfer rate.
(iv)This boiler can be reassembled with the natural circulation boilers.
(v). Its design is simple.
Disadvantages
(i). There is a bubble formation at surfaces of the tubes in this boiler. This reduces the heat transfer rate to
the steam.
Loffler boiler.
The major difficulty of salt deposition and sediments experienced in Lamont boiler was solved in Loeffler
boiler by preventing the flow of water to the boiler tubes. In Loeffler boiler, feed water passes through an
economizer before its entry in to the evaporating drum. Superheated steam mixing with drum water and
evaporates it in to saturated steam. The saturated steam flows through radiant and convective super heaters.
About 2/3rd of the steam returns to the demand 1/3rd leaves as the steam generator out put. The steam
coming out of from HP turbine is passed through reheater before supplying to LP turbine. The steam
generating capacity of this boiler is 100 tones/hr at 140 bar pressure. It is best suited for land and sea
transport power generation.
Advantages
1) Loffler boiler can use salt water for steam generation.
2) This boiler can carry a higher concentration of salt than any other type.
3) The deposition of salt and sediments on the inner surfaces of the water tubes is eliminated
4) Using nozzles to distribute superheated steam in the evaporating drum for steam generation shuns
priming and sound.
5) Capable to react rapidly to sudden variation in load.
6) More compact than indirectly heated boilers having a natural convention.
Disadvantages:
1) Tightness of High-Pressure gas passage is essential.
2) Using Evaporating Drum makes the whole setup bulky and costly
3) The heat transfer rate decreased due to bubble formation.
Benson:
One of the difficulty experienced in Lamont boiler is the formation and attachment of bubbles on the inner
surfaces of the heating tubes.
In Benson boiler the difficulty of bubble formation experienced in Lamont boiler is avoided by raising the
boiler pressure to critical pressure (221.6Bar) . The arrangement of the boiler components is as shown if
the figure. The Benson boiler is the drum less once through boiler. This boiler takes the feed water in at
one end and discharges it as superheated steam at the other end. Feed water flows through the radiant tube
section to evaporate partly. Where major part of the water is converted in to steam. The remaining water is
evaporated in the convection evaporator tubes. The saturated high pressure steam is further passes through
super heater before leaving the unit.
Major problem that experienced with this boiler is the salt deposition. To avoid this difficulty the boiler is
normally flashed out after every 4000 working hours to remove the salt. Capacity of this boiler is 150 tones
/ hr of steam generation with pressure 300 bar at 6000c.
Advantages
1) There may be no pressure limitation and it may be as high as super critical.
2) Absence of drum and hence cost is less.
3) Evaporation is quick.
4) Light in weight.
5) Space re4quired is less.
6) Expansion problem is less compared to drum type boiler.
Disadvantage
1) The deposition of salt in evaporator tube is common.
2) Over heating of tubes incase of insufficient water supply.
3) It requires close coordination between steam generation and feed water supply.
4) There is a greater chance of corrosion of evaporator tubes.
Velox boiler.
The Velox boiler is a high pressure , forced circulation pressurized or forced combustion boiler with the
limitation of firing with oil or gas. Air is compressed to about 2.5 bar in an compressor run by gas turbine
before being supplied to an furnace. Compressed air helps in generating high velocity gas and also at the
same time release of greater amount of heat . The heat transferred from gases to water while passing
through the annulus to generate the steam. The mixture of water and steam thus formed then passes in to
separator. The separated steam is further passed in to the super heater and then supplied to the prime move.
The water removed from mixture is again passed in to the water tubes with the help of a pump. The gases
coming out of the combustion chamber are used for superheating steam in super heater. The gases coming
out of the gas turbine are used to heat water in economizer. The capacity of this boiler is limited to 100
tones /hr
Advantages:
1) High combustion rates are possible.
2) Low excess air is required.
3) It is very compact.
4) It can be quickly started.
Disadvantages
1. Size is limited to 100 tonnes/hr because 400kW power is required to run air compressor.
Schmidt Boiler
It consist of two separate circuits. In primary circuit steam is produced from distilled water. The generated
steam is passed through an heating coil located in evaporator drum. The steam produced in the evaporator
drum from impure water is passed through the super heater and then supplied to the prime mover. The
high pressure condensate formed in the submerged heating coil is circulated through the low pressure feed
water pre heater to raise the fed water temperature to its saturation temperature.
Advantages:
1) Overheating of tubes is completely eliminated.
2) It is capable of taking wide fluctuation of loads.
3) Removal of salts deposited is easy.
Accessories for steam generators:

Different devices that are used for the safety and to improve the efficiency of steam generators, are
classified in to two groups
a) Boiler mountings b) Boiler accessories
a) Boiler mountings: Boiler mountings are those devices which are mounted over the body of the boiler
itself for the safety of the boiler and for complete control of the process of steam generation. Some of the
mountings are 1) Two safety valves 2) Water level indicators 3) Pressure gauges 4) Fusible plug 5) Steam
stop valve 6) Feed check valve 7) Blow off cock 8) Inspector test gauge 9) Man and mud hole.
b) Boiler accessories: These are those devices which are installed either inside or out side the boiler to
increase the efficiency of the plant and or for proper working of the plant. The following accessories are
used in the boiler.
1) Air preheater
2) Economizers
3) Super heaters
4) De super heaters
5) Steam separators
6) Pressure reducing valve
Super heaters :
The function of the super heater is to remove the last traces of moisture from the saturated steam coming
out of the boiler and to increase its temperature sufficiently above saturation temperature. Super heating of
steam helps in improving the overall efficiency and it also avoids too much condensation in the last stages
of the turbine which avoids the blade erosion. Super heaters helps in recovering as large as 40% of heat in
steam generators. Modern super heaters are made up of special high strength steel alloys (Chromium
Molybdenum) it can be operated in the temperature range of 5400 C - 6500 C . If the operating temperature
is between 4600 C - 5100 C Carbon steel is sufficient.
Super heaters are classified in to three categories as
a) Convection zone heaters.
b) Radiation zone heaters.
c) External heaters.
Convection zone super heaters are usually of the horizontal type, heat transfer takes place from hot gases
to the super heater due to the convection . Due to chances of condensation during short time, shut down
super heaters in the convection zone are invariably made as drainable type. Radiant super heaters receive
heat by direct radiation. Heat available to the radiant super heater does not increase at the same rate as
steam mass flow within the tubes thus steam temperature decreases. External super heaters are once through
design. If it is not possible to locate the super heater within the boiler , it may be located externally.
Based on mechanical construction there are three kinds of super heaters namely pendant , inverted and
horizontal as shown below.
Pendant type super heaters are those that are hung from above they have the advantage of firm structural
support but disadvantage of flow blockage by condensed steam after cold shut down. To avoid this problem
inverted tube arrangement is used. To combine the advantages of both horizontal type super heaters are
used.
Super heaters may be made in the form of coils or platens .The coil may be single, double with one tube
and double coil with two tubes as shown below.
Super heater temperature control

For successful operation of prime mover it is necessary to supply steam as far as possible at constant
temperature and pressure. Steam pressure can be easily regulated by means of safety valve invariably
mounted on the boiler. Control of steam temperature is really a problem with boiler designers. Accurate
steam temperature control is necessary for avoiding over stressing of super heater tubes and to maintain
overall efficiency as high as possible.
Common methods used for controlling super heat temperature of the steam are listed below.
1) By passing the furnace gas around the super heaters
2) Tilting burner in furnace.
3) Using desuperheater.
4) Pre condensing control
5) Gas recirculation.
6) Twin furnace arrangement.
7) Coil immersion in the boiler drum
1) By passing the furnace gas around the super heaters.
In this method part of the flue gases are by passed with the help of damper as shown in the figure . Even
though the this method can be used successfully to control steam temperatures but finding an suitable
material to with stand erosion and high temperatures in the gas passage have limited the use of damper
method of control.
2) Tilting burner in furnace.
The temperature of the steam coming out of super heaters is controlled by tilting the burners up or down
through a range of 300C . By tilting the burner down ward in a furnace much of heat is given to the water
walls by the gas and the gas entering the super heater system is relatively cool. If the burner tilted up ward,
then the heat given to the boiler water wall is less and hot gas enters the super heat region to increase the
steam temperatures.
3) Desuper heaters using water spray
The temperature of the steam can be controlled by injecting the water either before the super heater or
between the sections of super heaters.
4) Pre condensing control:
The temperature of the steam can be controlled by condensing the steam coming out of boiler with a small
condenser with the help of feed water as shown in the figure. Automatic control regulates the amount of
feed water passing through the condenser.
5) Gas re circulation:
The gas coming out of the economizer is partially re circulated in to the furnace with the help of a fan as
shown in figure. The re circulated gas forms an blanket inside the furnace wall. This reduces the heat
absorption by water walls and increases the heat absorption by super heater.
6) Twin furnace arrangement.
Twin furnace arrangement is as shown in the figure below. It is an extension of separately fired super
heater. Varying the firing rates between the furnaces controls the super heat temperature.
7) Coil immersion in the boiler drum
The arrangement of this system is shown in the figure. A portion of the steam from low temperature section
of super heater by passed to a coil immersed in lower drum of the boiler under the control of by pass valve,
later it is actuated by the final temperature of the steam. Thus making system automatic. The desuper
heated steam in the boiler drum is returned and mixed with non desuperheated steam in the junction header
and final super heating takes place in the second stage super heater . This method is used in Bacock and
Wilcox boiler. The advantages of this method are 1) There is no erosive action on the equipment by gases
2) Over heating of the metal at high temperatures.
Economizers:
Economizer is a feed water heater deriving heat from the flue gases discharged from the boiler. The
function of economizer is to heat the feed water coming up to nearly saturation temperature corresponding
to the boiler pressure by utilizing energy of the hot flue gases leaving the super heater or re heater which
is generally at temperatures varying from 3700C to 5700C. Economizers are usually placed between last
super heater and the air preheaters. They have been built in vertical coils of continuous tubes connected
between inlet and outlet headers with each sections formed in to an several horizontal paths connected by
1800 Vertical at a pitch of 45 to 50 mm spacing depending on the type of fuel and ash characteristics.
Types of Economizers:
Basically there are two types of economizers
1) Plain tube economizer(With return bend)
Plain tubes are generally used in Lancashire boiler working with natural draught. The tubes are made up of
cast Iron to prevent corrosive action by the flue gases. The waste flue gases flow out side the economizer
tubes and heat is transferred to the feed water flowing inside the tubes. The external surfaces of the tubes
are continuously cleaned with the help of soot scrappers to maintain an constant heat transfer.
2) Gilled tube economizer : (With return bend)
A reduction in economizer size together with increased heat transmission can be obtained by casting
rectangular gills on the bare tube walls. Up to 50 bar pressure cast iron gilled tube economizers can be
used. Greater than 50 bar pressure applications steel tubes are used but gills are made up of cast iron are
shrunk to them.
Advantages of Economizers:
1) It helps in reduction of soot and fly ash.
2) Fuel savings will be higher than theoretically calculated.
3) It helps in reduction of thermal stresses in the pressurized parts of the boiler and promotes the better
internal mixing.
4) Hardness problem of water can be minimized
Air preheaters
Air preheater utilize some of the heat energy left in the gases before exhausting them to atmosphere. The
heat carried with the flue gases coming out of economizer is further utilized for preheating the air before
supplying in to the combustion chamber. It helps in improving the efficiency of the boiler. Air preheaters
are necessary equipments used for supply of hot air for drying the coal in pulverized mill and satisfactory
combustion of fuel in furnace.
Advantages of preheating air are
1) Improved combustion
2) Successful use of low grade fuel.
3) Increased thermal efficiency
4) Saving in fuel consumption
5) Increased steam generation capacity.
Air preheaters are divided in to two groups
1) Regenerative ( Ljungstorm preheater )
2) Recuperative preheater.
1) Regenerative preheater :
In this type of preheater heat is transferred from the hot flue gases, first to an intermediate heat storage
medium, then to air. The most common is the rotary air preheater known as Ljungstrom preheater. Rotor
driven by a electric motor. The rotor is having several radial members they form sectors. The sectors are
filled with heating surface composed of steel sheets. They constitute a heat storage medium of the preheater.
A stationary seal covers the equivalent of two opposite sectors. Half of the remaining sectors are exposed
at any instant to the hot gases which are moving in one direction . The sectors in the other half are exposed
to the air which is moving in the opposite direction. As the rotating sectors enters the gas zone they are
progressively heated by the gas. They store heat as sensible heat. When they enter air zone they
progressively give up this heat to the air . The seal system reduces the leakage.
2) Recuperative air preheater:

In this type of air preheaters heat is directly transferred to the air from hot gases across the heat exchange
surface.
There are two types of recuperative air preheaters
a) Tubular air preheaters
b) Plate type air preheater
a) Tubular air preheaters:
Tubular air preheater is as shown in the figure. It works similar to the counter flow heat exchanger . The
flue gases flow through the tubes and air is passed over the outer surface of the tubes. The horizontal baffles
are provided as shown in the figure to increase time of contact which will help for higher heat transfer. In
some designs tube row staggering is used to improve the air distribution. The steel tubes of 3 to 10 m in
height and 6 to 8 cm in diameters are commonly used. The gases reverse their direction near the bottom of
the air heater, and a soot hoper is fitted to the bottom of air preheater casing to collect soot.
Plate type air preheater:

GAS IN
AIR OUT
GAS OUT
AIR IN
It consists of rectangular flat plates spaced from 1.5 to 2.5 cm apart leaving alternate air and gas passages.
This type of air heaters is not used in modern installation as it more expensive compared to the tubular air
heater.
Cooling towers and cooling ponds
Necessity of cooling the condenser water

1) Cooling water system is one of the most important system of power plant and its availability
predominantly decides the plant site.
2) As the cooling water takes the latent heat of steam in the condenser, the temperature of water increases.
The hot water coming out of the condenser can not be used again and again in a closed system without
pre-cooling. This is because the hot water coming out of condenser if again used it will not absorb the
heat as two reaches near to saturation temperature of steam at condenser pressure an the condenser vacuum
can not be maintained. Therefore it is absolutely necessary to pre cool the water coming out of condenser
before using again.
Cooling towers and ponds are used for cooling water coming out of the condenser to make it suitable for
reusing in the plant.
Cooling towers:
The purpose of cooling towers is to cool the warmed water discharged from condenser and feed the cooled
water back to the condenser. By this way cooling water requirement get reduced to make up water supply
only. The cooling towers may be wet type or dry type.
Wet cooling towers employ a hot water distributing system that showers or sprays the water evenly over a
lattice work of closely set horizontal bars called fills or packaging. Since the water splashes down from one
fill level to the next by gravity. There is a through mixing of water falling with air moving through the fill.
The intimate mix between water and air results in enhancement of heat and mass transfer (Evaporation)
which cools the water. The cold water gets collected at the bottom of tower in concrete basin from where
it is pumped back to the condenser in a closed system or returned to the water body in open system. The
resulting hot and moist air leaves the tower at the top.
Wet cooling towers are classified as either
i) Mechanical draught cooling towers
ii) Natural draught cooling towers
i) Mechanical draught cooling towers.
In this case air is moved by one or more mechanically driven fans. The fan could be of forced draught (FD)
type or induced draught (ID) type. The FD fan is mounted on the lower sides to force air in to the tower
while in ID type ID fan is located on the top of the tower. FD type is thermodynamically superior but it is
having s=disadvantages like leakage, recirculation of hot and moist air and frost accumulation at fan in lets
during winter operation. Therefore induced draught type wet cooling towers are commonly used. In this
type air enters through the large openings provided at the bottom of the tower at slow velocity and passes
through the fill. The fan located at the top of the tower exhausts the hot humid air in to the atmosphere. The
fans are propeller type and driven by electric motor. The blades of the fan are usually made of cast
aluminum, stainless steel or fiber glass to safe guard against the corrosion.
Advantages:
1) It is independent of climate conditions.
2) Low initial capital costs and low physical profile.
3) More efficient and more safe.
Disadvantages:
1) High power consumption by fans
2) Noise produced is enormous.
3) Operating and maintenance costs are more.
Natural draught cooling towers
In this type of cooling towers there are no fans. These towers depend for air flow upon the natural driving
pressure caused by the difference in densities between the cool out side air and the hot humid air inside.
The driving pressure differential is expressed as
Pd = (o-i) gH ,
Where H is height of tower above the fill, o and I are densities of air out side and inside .
Since (o-i) is relatively small, so H must be large enough to cause desired Pd and as a result natural
draught cooling towers are very tall towers .Towers are usually of hyperbolic profiles and due to this natural
draught towers are called by name hyperbolic towers. The advantage of this type of towers is that their
greater resistance to outside wind loading compared to other shapes. The natural draught towers may be
counter flow type or cross flow type. In counter flow the fill is inside where as in cross flow the sits out
side the tower.
Advantages:
(i) Low operating and maintenance cost.
(ii) It gives more or less trouble free operation
(iii) Considerable less ground area required.
(iv)Towers may be as high as 125 m and 100 m in diameter at the base with the capability of withstanding
winds of very high speed.
Disadvantages:
(i) High initial cost
(ii) Its performance depends on the atmospheric conditions.
Dry cooling towers:

Dry cooling towers are those in which water pass through the finned tubes over which the cooling air is
passed. A dry cooling tower can be either mechanical draught or natural draught. They are very suitable
where there is scarcity of water. The plant could be located on fuel source site to avoid transportation cost
. They are less expensive and maintenance costs are low. The main disadvantage is less efficient than wet
type, work at high back pressure which decreases the plant out put and efficiency. Dry cooling towers are
of two types direct and indirect
Direct dry cooling towers:
In this type of cooling tower turbine exhaust steam is admitted in to a steam header through large ducts
and is condensed as it flows downward through a large number of finned tubes or coils arranged in parallel
which are cooled by the atmospheric air flowing in a natural draught cooling towers or forced draught fan.
The condensate flows by gravity and gets collected in condenser receiver from where it is pumped in to
the plant feed water system.
Indirect dry cooling tower

There are three design concepts available for indirect dry cooling towers
i) With conventional surface condenser.
It uses a conventional surface condenser in which circulating water goes through the finned tubes cooled
by atmospheric air in the tower. The finned tubes may be either cooled by air through natural draught or
induced draught system. This design is similar to the design of two heat exchangers in series and thus two
temperatures drops , one between steam and water and another one between water and air. If this type of
towers is used in the plant efficiency will be low compared to once through system.
ii) Using an open or direct contact condenser:
It eliminates the intermediate water loop of first design concept and uses an direct contact condenser. Since
the operation is in the closed mode circulating water can be mixed with steam from plant and hence use of
open type condenser is justified. The exhaust steam from turbine enters the open type condenser. Where
cold water is sprayed in to the steam for intimate mixing. The condensate falls to the bottom of the
condenser from which most of it is pumped by recirculation pump under positive pressure to finned tubing
in the tower. This part of the condensate is cooled and is returned to the condenser sprayers. The condensate
equal to the steam flow , is pumped to the plant water system by the condensate pump. In this case also
cooling towers may be natural or forced draught. A water recover turbine may be used to recover some of
the work of pump. This concept of indirect dry cooling tower is efficient more economical and more
feasible for large plants.
3) Using Vaporizing coolant.

This design uses vaporizing coolant instead of water. Nearly saturated liquid ammonia enters surface
condenser and is vaporized to saturated vapor . Vapor flows to finned coils and is condensed to saturated
liquid and finally pumped to the condenser. Since the heat transfer coefficient is very high compared to the
convective heat transfer in single phase fluid. Thus the use of ammonia reduces the size and power
requirement of the equipment.
Advantages of dry cooling towers:

1) There is no thermal pollution and loss of water due to evaporation.
2) Power plant can be located closer to the load centre .
3) There is minimum air pollution.
4) There is no fog , no blowdown treatment , no windage loss of water, no evaporative loss of water and
no thermal discharge to water source.
Disadvantages:
1) Their performance is dependent on the atmospheric conditions and so turbine exhaust temperature s are
much higher resulting in a substantial loss of turbine efficiency , most critical in warm climates.
2)Due to low heat transfer coefficient , dry cooling towers require enormous volumes of air, large surface
areas and are less effective at high natural air temperatures.
Cooling lakes or cooling ponds.
Cooling lakes are also known as the cooling ponds .These are the oldest and simplest type of artificially
made heat rejection system. Hot circulating water from the condenser is simply dumped in to an artificially
made lake and left to cool. Cooled water from the lake is returned to the water circulating system. Cooling
is accomplished naturally by evaporation by thermal radiation to sky and convection by wind. It requires
large land area. The main disadvantages of cooling lake is that very low cooling effectiveness and costs of
structure. Some of the advantages are
1) Simplicity
2) Low maintenance
3) It can be operated for extended periods without make up water
4) Only mechanical equipment needed is pump
Types of cooling ponds.

The common types of cooling ponds used in practice are listed below.
1) Single deck and double deck systems.
i) Single deck system
In this type of cooling ponds the spray nozzles are arranges at the same elevation as shown in figure. Its
effectiveness is less than the double deck system.
ii) Double deck system.
In this type spray nozzles are arranged at different elevation as shown in the figure. Its cooling effect is
more than single deck system as water comes in contact with air at low temperature.
2) Natural and directed flow system.
i) Natural flow system
In natural flow system water coming out from the condenser is directly allowed to flow in to the pond. This
system rarely used.
ii) Directed flow system

In this type of cooling pond the hot water coming out of condenser enters the middle channel. Then it
reaches the far end of channel and divides in to two currents. Baffles walls are used to traverse water
several times in the pond before uniting at the intake point. The cooling achieved is more effective.
Module-2
Solar energy:
Introduction: Of all the renewable energy sources, solar energy received the greatest attention the decade
of the 1970s. Many regarded it as the solution for reducing the use of fossil and nuclear fuels and for a
cleaner environment. Solar energy, in sheer size, does have the potential to supply all energy needs:
electrical, thermal, process, and chemical, and even transportation fuels. It is however, very diffuse, cyclic,
process, and chemical , and often undependable . It is therefore needs system and components and that can
gather and concentrate it efficiently for conversion to any of these uses and that can do the conversion as
efficiently as possible .
Solar radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere:

The energy incident on the earth out side its atmosphere is called extraterrestrial radiation. Energy radiated
by the sun as electromagnetic waves of which 99 percent have wave lengths in the range of 0.2 to 4.0
micrometers. Solar energy reaching the top of the earths atmosphere consists of about 8 percent ultraviolet
radiation , 46 percent visible light (0.39 to 0.78 micrometer), and 46 percent infrared radiation ( long wave
length more than 0.78 micrometer).
The sun is very large sphere of very hot gases , heat being generated by various kinds of fusion reactions.
Its diameter is 1.39 x 106 km . While that of the earth is 1.27 x 104 km. The earth rotates around the sun in
the elliptical orbit with major and minor axes differing by 1.7 percent. The mean distance between the two
is 1.50 x 108 km . It subtends at an angle of only 32 minutes at the earth’s surface. This is because it is also
at a very large distance. Thus the beam radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel. The
brightness of the sun varies from its centre to its edge. For all practical purposes , therefore , the sun’s rays
may be considered parallel when they reach the earth . The sun has an effective black body temperature
, as seen from the earth of 5762 K.
The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called the solar constant (S
2
= 1.353 KW / m ) or This is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area perpendicular to the
sun’s direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. Energy received at the earth’s atmosphere
varies Because of the variation in the distance and activity . This can be approximated by the equation
I/ Isc = 1+ 0.033 x cos x [360 (n-2) ] / 365
 1+ 0.033 x cos x 360n / 365
Where n is the day of the year . I is the change in the solar constant
Spectral distribution of solar radiation intensity
It will be noted from fig which shows spectral distribution of solar radiation intensity at the outer limit of
atmosphere, that the maximum value of 2074 W / m2 -m occurs at wave length of 0.48 m and that 99
percent of the sun’s radiation is obtained up to a wavelength of 4 m.
Solar radiation at the earth’s atmosphere

Solar energy falling on the earth’s surface is called terrestrial radiation . Terrestrial radiation varies
significantly both daily because of the earth’s rotation and seasonally because of the change in sun’s
declination angle. The terrestrial radiation is said to be attenuated by two mechanisms , scattering and
absorption .
Scattering (Diffusing) is a mechanism by which part of a radiation beam is scattered laterally and is ,
therefore attenuated by the air molecules, water vapour, and the dust in the atmosphere. The scattered or
diffuse radiation is mostly of shorter wave length.
The absorption of the solar radiation in the atmosphere takes place mainly by ozone O3, water vapour and
carbon dioxide CO2, X-ray and other very short wave length radiation of the sun are absorbed in ionosphere
by N2, O2 and other components. The terrestrial solar radiation incident on the earth’s surface is composed
of two parts 1) Beam radiation ( Without scattering and absorption) 2) Diffuse radiation . The incident
radiation on the earth’s surface is presented in terms of dimensionless parameter known as air mass ma . It
is defined as the ratio of optical thickness of the atmosphere ( through which beam radiation passes to the
surface) to its optical thickness if the sun were at the zenith( Directly above). Thus ma = 0 means
extraterrestrial , ma=1 indicates sea level on the earth when sun is at zenith ma = 2 when sun is at zenith
angle equal to 600. The air mass and zenith angle are related by ma = ( cosz) -1. The available terrestrial
solar energy at a given time and place is influenced not only by time of the day or year, location and
scattering but also by cloudiness . All effects may be combined in one parameter called clearness index Ci.
It is defined as the ratio of the average radiation on a horizontal surface for a given period to the average
extraterrestrial radiation for the same period. The values of Ci varies widely from nearly 30 to 70% in some
localities on the earth, with its value going down to zero in some location because of bad weather even in
the day time.
The total amount of extraterrestrial power Pe received is given by the solar constant S times the projected
area of the earth.
Pe = SR2
Where R = Radius of the earth = 6.378 x 106 m, S = 1.353 KW / m2 ,
Pe = 1.353 x  x (6.378 x 106 ) 2 = 1.73 x 1014 KW
Energy per year = 1.73 x 1014 x 8766 h/year
= 1.516 x 1018 KWh / Year
= 1.516 x 1018 x 3.6 = 5.47 x 1018 MJ / year
Under favourable atmosphere conditions the maximum intensity observed at noon on an oriented surface
at sea level is 1 KW / m2 at an altitude of 1000 m. The value rises to about 0.5 KW / m2, and in higher
mountains values slightly above 1.1 KW / m2 are obtained compared with 1.353 KW / m2 in outer space.
The upper curve represents the outer limit of atmosphere. The other lower curve applies to earth’s surface
during clear days for a sea level location. Dotted curve shown for a black body at 59000 K . The lower two
curves are for diffuse components for some haze and clear sky conditions respectively.
Solar radiation measurement:
Pyrometers: Pyrometers are the instruments which are used for measuring the solar radiation.
Measurements of solar radiation are important because of the increasing number of solar cooling
applications and the need for accurate solar radiation data to predict performance .Two basic types of
instruments are used for solar radiation measurement.
1) A Pyrheliometer: Which is used for measuring radiation to determine the beam intensity as a
function of incident angle.
2) A Pyranometer : This instrument measures the total solar radiation. The pyranometers are the most
common.
Pyrheliometer: In this type of instrument sensor disc located at the base of the tube whose axis is aligned
with the direction of the sun’s rays. Thus diffuse radiation is completely blocked from the sensor surface.
Three different types of Pyrhelliometers are widely used 1) The Angstrom Pyrheliometer 2) Silver disc
pyrheliometer 3) Eppley pyrheliometer.
Angstrom pyrheliometer:
In this type of pyrheliometer , a thin blackened shaded manganin strip is heated electrically until it is at the
same temperature as similar strip which is exposed to solar radiation. Under steady state condition the
energy used for heating is equal to the absorbed solar energy . The thermocouple on the back of the each
strip , connected to galvanometer . The energy H of direct solar radition is calculated by means of thye
formula.
Hdn = Ki2.
Hdn is direct radiation incident on an area normal to sun’s rays , I heating current in amperes, K is a
dimension and instrument constant = R / W
R – is the resistance / unit length of the absorbing strip
 is the absorbing coefficient of the absorbing strip.
Pyranometer:
This instrument measures total or global radiation over a hemispherical field of view. In most
pyranometrers , the sun’s radiation is allowed to fall on a black surface to which the hot junctions of a
thermocouple are attached . The cold junctions of a thermocouple are attached. The cold junctions of the
thermocouple are located in such way that they do not receive the radiation. As a result an emf proportional
to the solar radiation is generated. This emf (0 to 10 mV) recorded over a period of time there are following
types of pyranometers.
1) Eppley Pyranometer 2) Yellot Solarimeter ( Photovoltalic cell) 3) Mol – Gorczyhelki solarimeter 4)
Bimetallic action graphs of the Rabitzsch type
Eppley pyranometer :
It works on the principle of thermocouple . There is a temperature difference between the black and white
surface. The detection of the temperature difference is achieved by thermocouple . Some models are made
up wedges . The disks or wedges are enclosed in a hemispherical glass cover.
Flat plate collectors (Liquid or air)

Flat plate collectors are suitable for the applications which are having operating temperatures 90 0C and
below. Generally these are non concentrating type. They are made up of rectangular panels of about 1.7 to
2.9 sq m in area and are relatively simple to construct and erect. Flat plate collectors can absorb both direct
and diffuse radiation, hence these are effective even on cloudy days when there is no direct radiation.
Flat plate collectors are of two different types 1) Liquid heating collectors 2) Air or gas heating collectors
All flat plate collectors have five main components.
1) A transparent cover which may be one or more sheets of glass or radiation transmitting plastic film
or sheet.
2) Tubes, fins passages or channels are integral with the collector absorber plate. which carry the
water, air or other fluid.
3) The absorber plate , normally metallic or with a black surface .
4) Insulation Which should be provided at the back and sides to minimize the heat losses. Standard
insulating materials such as fiber glass or styro – foam are used for this purpose.
5) Casing or container which enclose the other components and protects them from the weather.
Liquid flat plate collector:

It consists of a flat surface with high absorptivity for solar radiation, called adsorbing surface. Absorber
metal plate is made up of copper, steel or aluminum.. Thickness of the metal sheet 1 to 2 mm, while tubes,
which are also made from a metal, range in diameter from 1 to 1.5 cm. They are soldered, brazed or clamped
to the bottom of the absorber plate with pitch ranging from 5 to 15 cm. The most widely used material for
the absorber plate is corrugated galvanized sheet.
The use of conventional standard panel radiators shown in the figure. The methods of bonding and clamping
tubes to flat or corrugated sheet are shown in fig
Heat is transferred from the absorber plate to a point of use by circulation of fluid across the solar heated
surface. Thermal insulation of 5 to 10 cm thickness is usually placed behind the absorber plate to prevent
the heat losses from the rear surface. The front covers are generally glass that is transparent to in coming
solar radiation and opaque to the infra-red re-radiation from the absorber. Glass is generally used for the
transparent covers but certain plastic films may also be used. The thickness of 3 and 4 mm are commonly
used. Usual practice is to have two covers. Air space between the cover and the absorber plate largely
prevents loss of heat from the plate by convection. Cover glass permits the passage of solar radiations with
smaller wave lengths but opaque to larger wavelength. As a result heat is trapped in the air space between
the cover and the absorber plate in a manner similar to to green house. The loss of solar radiation due to
absorption in cover plate can be minimized by using clear glass with low iron content.. The generated in
the absorber is removed by continuous flow of a heat transparent medium, either water or air. When water
is used it is most commonly passed through metal tubes with either circular or rectangular cross section.
The tubes are connected to a common header at each end of the collector. In order to maximize the exposure
to solar radiation, collectors are almost invariably sloped. Cooler water enters at the bottom header, flows
upward through the tubes where it is warmed by the absorber, and leaves by way of the top header.
Some of the problems associated with liquid (Water) collectors are

i) Freezing of water during cold nights
j) ii) Corrosion of metal tubes by the water. Corrosion can be minimized by using copper or Aluminum
tubes.
k) iii) Leaks in a water circulation system require immediate attention.
Air collector or Solar air heaters:
Fig shows the solar air heater where an air stream is heated by the back side of the collector plate. Contact
surface can be increased by attaching fins. Back side of the collector is insulated with mineral wool. The
most favorable orientation of the collector, for heating only is facing due south at an inclination angle to
the horizontal equal to the latitude plus 150.
Air used as heat transport medium in solar collectors have some advantages over water. 1) It eliminates
both freezing and corrosion problems ii) Small air leaks are less concern than water leaks iii) It can be
directly used for space heating . The air may passed through a space between the absorber plate and
insulator with baffles arranged to provide a long flow path as shown in the fig.
Possible applications of solar heaters are drying or curing of agriculture products, space heating for comfort,
regeneration of dehumidifying agents, seasoning of timber, curing of industrial products such as plastics.
The flow of air may be straight through, serpentine, above or below or on both sides of the absorber plate
or through porous absorber material.
Air heaters are classified in the following two categories.
1) Non porous absorber 2) Porous absorber
1) Non Porous absorber solar air heater: In this type of solar air heater air stream does not flow through
the absorber plate. Air may flow above and or behind the absorber plate. Transmission of solar radiation is
similar to that of liquid type flat plate collector but due to heat transfer coefficients efficiencies are lower
than liquid solar heaters. Some of the non porous type air heaters are shown below.
2) Porous absorber solar air heater:

Porous absorber solar air heaters are used for overcoming the difficulties faced in non-porous solar air
heaters. Important problems faced in porous type are 1) Excessive radioactive losses 2) Pressure drop along
the duct formed 3) Larger amount of energy required to push the air through.
Some of the porous absorber type air heaters are shown below.
Applications of solar air heaters:
1) Heating buildings
2) Heating in green houses
3) Air conditioning buildings .
4) Using as the source of heat for a heat engine such as Brayton or Stirling cycle
5) Drying agricultural produce
Advantages of flat plate collectors:

1) Both beam and diffuse radiation can be used.
2) They do not require orientation towards the sun.
3) They require little maintenance.
4) They are mechanically simpler than concentrating reflectors .
Focusing collectors
1) Modified Flat Plate Collector
By providing plane reflectors at the edges of flat plate collector to reflect additional radiation into the
receiver, the concentration of solar radiation can be improved. These mirrors are also called as booster
mirrors. The concentration ratio of these concentrators has a maximum value of 4. Such a design (V-trough)
is aligned in East-West direction and requires periodic tilt adjustment. Different optimum depth to base
width ratio and cone angles are possible depending on the frequency of seasonal tilt adjustment.
2) Compound Parabolic Concentrator
Consists of two parabolic mirror segments attached to a flat receiver. The segments are oriented such that
the focus of one is located at the bottom end point of the other in contact with the receiver. It has a large
acceptance angle and needs to be adjusted intermittently. Rays in the central region of the aperture reach
the absorber directly whereas, those near the edges undergo one or more reflections before reaching the
observer.CR achieved from this collector is in the range of 3 – 7.
3. Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator
It consists of a cylindrical parabolic trough reflector and a metal tube receiver at its focal line. The receiver
tube is blackened at the outside surface to increase absorption. It is rotated about one axis to track the sun.
The heat transfer fluid flows through the receiver tube, carrying the thermal energy to the next stage of the
system. This type may be oriented in any one of the three directions: East-West, North-South or polar. The
polar configuration intercepts more solar radiation per unit area as compared other modes. CR achieved
from this collector is in the range of 5 – 30.
4. Fixed Mirror Solar Concentrator
Due to practical difficulty in manufacturing a large mirror in a single piece in cylindrical parabolic shape,
long narrow mirror strips are used in this concentrator. The concentrator consists of fixed mirror strips
arranged on a circular reference cylinder with a tracking receiver tube .The receiver tube is made to rotate
about the center of curvature of reflector module to track the sun. The image width at the absorber is ideally
the same as the projected width of a mirror element; CR achieved is approximately the same as the number
of mirror strips.
5.Linear Fresnel lens Collector
A Fresnel lens, which consists of fine, linear grooves on the surface of refracting material (generally optical
quality plastic) on one side and flat on the other side, is used. The angle of each groove is designed to make
the optical behavior similar to a spherical lens. The beam radiation which is incident normally, converges
on focal line where a receiver tube is provided to absorb the radiation.CR of 15 – 30 may be realized which
yields temperatures between 150 – 300 oC
6.Paraboloidal Dish Collector
When a parabola is rotated about its optical axis, a paraboloidal surface is produced. The beam radiation is
focused at a point in the paraboloid. This requires two-axis tracking. It can have CR ranging from 10 to
few thousands and can yield temperature up to 3000oC. Paraboloidal Dish Collectors of 6 – 7 m in diameter
are commercially manufactured.
7. Hemispherical Bowl Mirror Concentrator
Consists of hemispherical fixed mirror, a tracking absorber and supporting structure .All rays entering the
hemisphere after reflection cross the paraxial line at some point between the focus and the mirror surface.
Therefore a linear absorber pivoted about the center of curvature of the hemisphere intercepts all reflected
rays. The absorber is to be moved so that its axis is always aligned with solar rays passing through the
centre of the sphere. This requires two-axis tracking.
8.Circular Fresnel Lens Concentrator
These lenses are generally used where high flux is desired, such as with silicon solar cells or with gallium
arsenide solar cells as receiver. It is divided into a number of thin circular zones. The tilt of each zone is so
adjusted that optically, the lens approximates a thin spherical lens.CR may be as high as 2000, but is less
than that obtained from a paraboloidal reflector. In solar cell applications, tracking is required to keep the
small solar image centered on the receiver.
9.Central Tower Receiver
The receiver is located at the top of a tower. Beam radiation is reflected on it from a large number of
independently controlled, almost flat mirrors, known as heliostats, spread over a large area on the ground,
surrounding the tower. Thousands of such heliostats track the sun to direct the beam radiation on the
receiver from all sides. The heliostats, together act like a dilute paraboloid of very big size.CR may be as
high as 3,000. The absorbed energy can be extracted from the receiver and delivered at a temperature and
pressure suitable for driving turbines for power generation.
Solar power generation:

Solar power generation can be done using two different methods
1) Indirect method
2) Direct method.
1) Indirect methods
Indirect method of power generation is classified into three different types of cycles
a) Low temperature cycles
b) Medium temperature cycle
c) High tempearutre cycle.
a)Low temperature cycle:

In low temperature power generation cycle the energy of the sun is collected by the water flowing through
the array of flat plate collectors. In order to maximize the temperature of water booster mirrors are used.
The hot water at temperature close to 100 degree centigrade is stored in the well-insulated storage
tank.From storage tank it flows through the vapour generator through which the working fluid also passed.
The working fluid has a low boiling point . Vapour at 900C and a pressure of a few atmospheres leaves the
vapour generator.Vapour of working fluid runs the turbine as turbine in turn connected to electric generator
it generates electricity. Vapour leaving the generator condensed in the condenser .The condensed vapour
of organic fluid such as methyl chloride and toluene pumped back in to the vapour generator for repletion
of cycle. Efficiency is low .Temperature difference is around 55 0C only. The Rankine cycle efficiency is
around 7 to 8 percent. The collector efficiency is around 25 % .Overall efficiency of only 2 % can be
achieved.
Low temperature solar power generation cycle( solar chimney)
It consists of tall central chimney .Chimney is surrounded by a greenhouse consisting of a transparent cover
supported a few meters above the ground by a metal frame Sunlight passing through the transparent cover
causes the air trapped in the green house to heat up. A convection system is set up in which hot air is
drawn up through the central chimney, turning a turbine located near the base of the chimney. The hot air
is continuously replenished by fresh air drawn in at the periphery of the green house.
b) Medium temperature solar power generation cycle
Parabolic collector technology is used in the medium temperature power generation cycle. The collectors
heat synthetic oil to a temperature of 4000C with a collector efficiency of about 0.7 for beam radiation. The
synthetic oil is used for generating super-heated steam which executes Rankine cycle with an efficiency of
38%. The plant generally produce electricity for about eight hours a day and is coupled with natural gas for
continuous operation. Heated oil in the collector first allowed to flow through the super heater. In the super
heater steam is converted in to superheated steam. In the steam generator steam is generated by utilizing
heat energy present in the synthetic oil coming out of the steam super heater. Preheater rises the temperature
of feed water. Part of the hot synthetic oil is circulated through the steam reheater. Superheated steam is
expanded in the high pressure turbine. The exhaust steam from HP turbine is reheated in the rehater and
then supplied in to the LP turbine. The steam coming out of the LP turbine is condensed in the condenser.
Turbine converts the heat energy in to mechanical energy. Generator coupled to the turbine generates
electricity. Condensate is pumped back in to the preheater for repeating cycle.
c) High temperature solar power generation cycle
Two concepts re used in the high temperature solar power generation cycle 1) parboloidal dish concept 2)
Central tower receiver concept. In paraboloidal dish concept fluid flowing through the receiver at the focus
heated and this heat is used to drive the prime mover. Sterling engines have been favoured. Near Hyderabad
one 20 KW power station is operating on this principle. There is limitation in the size of the concentrator
.The power we can generate in terms of KW only instead of MW.
In central receiver power plants, solar radiation reflected from arrays of large mirrors is concentrated on a
receiver situated at the top of a supporting tower fluid flowing through the receiver absorbs the concentrate
solar radiation and transports it to the ground where it is used to operate a Rankine power cycle. In the
above arrangement water is converted in to steam in the receiver itself. Alternatively the receiver is used
to heat a liquid metal or a molten salt and this fluid is passed through the heat exchanger in which the steam
for power cycle is generated.
•
Solar energy storage:

Storing of solar energy is necessary due to the following reasons.
1) It helps in absorbing solar energy when it is highest and the later used when the need is greatest.
2) It makes possible to meet electrical load demand during the times when insolation is below normal
or non existent.
3) It improves the reliability
4) It permits better match between solar energy input and demand output.
Solar energy storage may be broadly classified as
1) Thermal storage :
i) Sensible heat a) Water storage b) Pebble bed storage
ii) Latent heat
2) Electrical storage
i) Capacitor storage
ii) Inductor storage
iii) Battery storage
3) Chemical storage i) Chemical ii) Thermo chemical
4) Mechanical energy storage
i) Pumped hydro electric storage
ii) Compressed air
iii) Fly wheel
5) Electromagnetic storage
Thermal energy storage:

In this method energy is stored by heating melting or vaporization of the material, and the energy becomes
available as heat , when the process is reversed. In two different ways thermal energy can be stored
i) As Sensible heat: Energy storage result in the rising of material temperature without changing
phase.
ii) As Latent heat : Energy storage results only in the phase change without rising the temperature.
Sensible Heat storage:
Fig
Sensible heat storage involves no change in phase over the temperature change in the storage system. The
basic equation governing the energy storage system operating over a finite temperature difference is
Qs = mCp (T1-T2)
Where Qs = Total thermal energy capacity for a system
m = Mass of the storage medium in kg
Cp = Specific heat of storage system
T1, T2 = Temperature limits of storage medium
The ability to store thermal energy in a given container of volume V is Qs / V =  Cp T
Where  is the density of the storage medium. Materials which are generally used for this type energy
storage i) Water ii) Rock, gravel or crushed stone iii) Iron shot iv) Iron, red iron oxide or iron ore (magnetic)
v) Concrete vi) Refractory materials like magnesium oxide , Aluminum oxide and silicon oxide.
The easiest way to store thermal energy is by storing the water directly in well insulated tank. Water storage
is having several advantages over the other methods
1) It is an inexpensive, easily available.
2) It has high thermal storage capacity.
3) Pumping cost is small
4) No other heat transferring fluid is required.
Rocks can also be used for storing heat. Rocks does have the following advantages over water.
1) Rock is more easily contained than water.
2) The system cost is low.
3) Much higher temperatures can be stored.
4) Heat transfer coefficients between solid and air is high.
5) The of storage material is low.
Latent heat storage:
A typical latent heat storage arrangement is shown in fig in which, the storage material is placed in long
thin containers e.g cylinders, and the gas is passed through narrow spaces between the tubes. The advantage
is that this system is more compact than the sensible heat system.
In this method heat is stored in a material when it melts and extracted from the material when it freezes .
The material which is used for latent heat storage must satisfy the following criteria
1) Phase change must accompanied by high latent heat.
2) Phase change must be reversible.
3) The cost of materials and its containers must be reasonable.
4) It must have the capacity to store large quantity of heat.
5) Preparation of material must simple.
6) Must be harmless.
7) The material must have high thermal conductivity.
8) Containment of the material, transfer of heat into it and out of it must be easy.
If these criteria can be met then reduction in volume and weight in storage system is possible.
The materials which are having the ability to store latent heat are Glauber’s salt ( Na2SO4. 10H20), Water,
Fe(No3)2 6 H20, and salt eutectics are mostly used.
Solar pond:
Solar ponds is very shallow, 5cm to 2m deep with a absorbing black surface at the bottom. Bottom of the
pond is well insulated against the loss of heat to the ground. Transparent fibre glass cover provided over
the pond permits the solar radiation but reduces losses by radiation and convection. If pure water is used in
the pond temperature rise is limited only to a few degrees due to loss of energy in natural convection
currents. The temperature in the pond can be increased by using salt water with increasing salinity towards
the bottom from top. In this method pure water is placed at the top of the pond which acts as the insulator
against the loss of thermal energy. Salts like magnesium chloride, sodium chloride or sodium nitrate are
dissolved in the water, the concentration varying from 20 to 30% at the bottom to almost zero at the top. In
salt solar pond has three zones with following salinity with depth. I) Surface convection zone (0.3 – 0.5 m)
, salinity <5% ii) Non convective zone 1 to 1.5 m , salinity increases with depth iii) Storage zone or lower
convective zone 1.5 to 2 m, salinity  20% . Typical value of salt concentration at the top surface is 20 Kg/
m3, increasing to 300 and 260 Kg/m3, for magnesium chloride and sodium chloride respectively at the
bottom. The salt water next to the absorbing surface when heated its density decreases but this density still
remains higher than that of the water above. This avoids the mixing of the bottom hot salt water with the
top less salinity water .It helps in maintenance of the stability of the solar pond. Hence the top surface of
the solar pond remains cooler compared to bottom and acts as the insulator against the loss of energy stored.
In this method it is possible to achieve the temperatures as large as 93oC. Thus solar pond can be defined
as the artificially constructed pond in which significant temperature rises are caused to occur in the lower
regions by preventing convection. It is necessary to add periodically concentrated solutions at the bottom,
and wash the surface with fresh water to maintain the concentration gradient in the presence of diffusion
effects.
Applications of solar pond:

1) Heating and cooling of buildings
2) Production of power.
3) Industrial process heat.
4) Desalination .
5) Heating animal housing and drying crops on farms.
Heat fro biomass conversion.
Generation of electrical energy from solar ponds
The solar energy from the solar pond is used to drive a Rankine cycle heat engine. Hot water from the
bottom level of the pond is pumped to the evaporator where the organic fluid is vapourised . The vapour
than flows under pressure to the turbine where it expands and work thus obtained runs an electric generator
producing electricity. The exhaust vapour is then condensed in a condenser and the liquid is pumped back
to the evaporator and the cycle is repeated.
Direct generation of power:

The most popular method of generating electrical power from sunlight is by means of photovoltaic
conversion.
Photovoltaic conversion:
Photovoltaic energy conversion is a direct conversion technology that produces electricity directly from
sunlight without the use of a working fluid such as steam or gas and a mechanical cycles such as Rankine
or Brayton. The basic unit of a photovoltaic system is the solar cell. Solar cells are usually made up of
silicon. A combination of solar cells designed to increase the electric power output is called a solar module
or solar array.
Principle of operation of solar cell (Photovoltaic effect)
Solar cell consists of combination of p-type and n-type semiconductors. N- Type semiconductor has excess
number of electrons , whereas p-type semiconductor has deficiency of electrons or holes. Such a piece of
semiconductor with one side of the p-type and the other of the n-type is called a p-n junction. In this junction
after the photons are absorbed the free electrons of the n-side will tend to flow to the p-side, and the holes
of p-side will tend to flow to the n region to compensate for their respective deficiencies. This diffusion
will create an electric field flowing from the n- region to the p- region. If electrical contacts are made with
the two semiconductors materials and the contacts are connected through an external electrical conductor,
free electrons will flow from n-type material through conductor to the p-type material.. The flow of
electrons through the external conductor constitutes an electric current which will continue as long as
more free electrons and holes are being formed by solar radiation
Solar cells or photovoltaic cells generate electricity when they absorb light by means of the photovoltaic
effect that is conversion of light in to electricity. As photons are received, free electrical charges are
generated that can be collected on contacts applied to the surfaces of the semiconductors. The theoretical
efficiencies are in the order of 25%. But actual operating efficiencies are less than half of this value.
Photovoltaic cells could be used in either small or large power plants. The cost of energy storage and power
conditioning equipments result in power generation by large power stations uneconomical. Solar cells can
be used to operate irrigation pumps, navigational signals, highway call systems, rail road crossing warnings
etc. A photovoltaic system consists of i) Solar cell array ii) Load leveler iii) Storage system iv) Tracking
system. All solar cells are interconnected in certain series/ parallel combinations to form modules. These
modules are sealed to protect against the corrosion, moisture, pollution and weathering. Solar PV system
can produce an output only if sunlight is present. If it is required to be used during non sunshine hours, a
suitable systems of storage batteries will be required
ENERGY FROM BIO MASS
Photosynthesis and oxygen production: Photosynthesis is the process in which radiant solar energy of
sun is absorbed by the green pigment chlorophyll in the plant and is stored within the plant in the form of
energy rich compounds like sugars and starches. So we can harvest and burn such plants to burn to produce
steam in a similar manner as in thermal power stations ultimate to produce electric power. Such an energy
plantation would be a renewable resource and an economical means of harnessing solar energy. How ever
photosynthesis concept is less attractive as the average efficiency of solar energy conversion in plants is
about 1% compared to 10% for photovoltaic cells. In photosynthesis reaction , water and CO2 molecules
broken down and a carbohydrate is formed with the release of pure oxygen with the absorption of sunlight
by the chlorophyll in plants. The process can be expressed as
CO2 + H2O + Light + Chlorophyll (H2CO)6 + O2 + Chlorophyll

Or 6CO2 + 12H2O C6 H12 O6+ 6H2O + 6O2
The chlorophyll activated by the absorption of sun light and passes its energy on to the water molecules.
The hydrogen atom is then released and reacts with the carbon dioxide molecule to produce H2CO and
oxygen. H2CO is the basic molecule in the formation of carbohydrate. The necessary conditions for photo
synthesis are
1) Light : Only a part of the solar radiation (40 -45%) of 400 700 Ao wave length is used in
photosynthesis. This range of light is called photo synthetically active radiation (PAR) .
2) CO2 concentration: Carbon dioxide is the primary raw material for photo synthesis. It is observed
that if CO2 concentration is increased , increase in the yield of several crops , upto a certain limit.
3) Temperature: Photosynthesis is restricted to the temperature range which can be tolerated by the
proteins i.e. 0oC to 60oC .
The process of photosynthesis has two main steps:
1) Spliting of H2O molecule into H2 and O2 under the influence of chlorophyll and sunlight. This
phase reaction is called light reaction. O2 escapes and H2 is transformed in to unknown compounds.
2) In the second phase , hydrogen is transformed from this unknown compound to CO2 to form starch
or sugar. Formation of starch or sugar are dark reaction not requiring sunlight.
Energy plantation:
Energy plantation is the method of tapping maximum solar energy by growing plants. Photosynthesis
occurring in naturally , stores more than ten times much energy annually , in plant farm than is consumed
by all mankind. But very little of this energy is tapped. Fuel wood accounts for about 60% of all energy
consumed in the country . Social forestry programme comprises the schemes a) Mixed plantation on waste
lands, and b) Reforestration of degraded forests. Jojaba evergreen shrub around 1.7 m height grows wild
in the semi-arid region of USA . Its seeds contain about 50 to 80% of oil and its plantation in USA . The
tree species namely Acacia, Tortila, Albizzia , Lebbak, Prasois, Juliflora and likewise have been identified
adaptable to the hot – arid regions in our country. The plant namely Erythrina and Leocaena which are
known to be fast growing plants are proposed for the subtropical regions . Ethyl alcohol , the most
promising compound, for mixing with gasoline, can be easily prepared from starch and carbohydrates
available from plants on other sources of biomass. Sycamore is a promising tree that yield up to 16 ton /
acre per year . All of it is used except the foliage, which contains nutrients and is returned to the soil. A
harvesting sycamore produces a number of sprouts that are themselves ready for harvesting in 2 to 3 years.
Up to 1990-91 over 14 lakh family size bio gas plants have been set up in the country by DNES only. Its
annual production of 1100 million cubic meters of gas equivalent to 38.18 lakh fuel wood is saved . The
benefits to society from the biogas plants already in excess of Rs 300 corers per year. Under programme
on improved chulhas (NPIC) 42 lakh tones of wood saved . The value of this is equivalent to 168 corers
per year. The DNES taken up projects worth 5 MW aggregate capacity split into mechanical and electrical
application systems through gasifiers/ stirling engines working on biomass at various locations in the
country. Under the biomass programme energy plantation projects have been taken up with a view to fulfill
the needs of fuel , fodder , and power generation together with good potential for rural employment. Very
encouraging results have been obtained in the production of fast growing species of biomass in the arid
areas.
Bio gas production from organic wastes by anaerobic fermentation

Bio gas is the mixture containing 55-65 % of methane, 30 -40 % of carbon dioxide and the rest being the
impurities. Bio gas can produced from anaerobic decomposition of plant and human waste. Its calorific
value is between 20935 KJ/Kg to 23028 KJ/ kg or 38131 KJ / m3 . Bio gas is produced by digestion,
pyrolysis or hydrogasification. Digestion is a biological process that occurs in the absence of oxygen and
in the presence of anaerobic organisms at ambient pressures and temperatures of 35 – 70oC. The container
in which this digestion takes place is known as the digester. Bio gas is generated through fermentation or
bio digestion of various wastes by a variety of anaerobic and facultative organisms. Anerobic fermentation
produces CO2, CH4, H2 and traces of other gases along with a decomposed mass. In bio gas plant the main
is to generate methane and hence anaerobic digestion is used. Here comlex organic molecule is broken
down to sugar , alcohols, pesticides and amino acids by acid producing bacteria. These products are then
used to produce methane. By another category of bacteria. The anaerobic digestion or fermentation consists
of three phases.
1) Enzymatic hydrolysis: Where fats, starches and proteins contained in cellulosic biomass are
broken down into simple compounds.
2) Acid formation : Where the micro organisms of facultative and anaerobic group collectively called
as acid farmers, hydrolyse and ferment used to break simple compounds in to acids and volatile
solids. The initial acid phase of digestion may last about two weeks and during this period a large
amount of carbon dioxide is given off.
3) Methane formation: Where organic acids formed above are then converted into methane and
carbon dioxide by the anaerobic bacteria called methane fermentors. For the efficient fermentation
these acid farmers and methane fermentors must remain in a state of dynamic equilibrium. The
methane forming bacteria are sensitive to pH ,and conditions should be mildly acidic (pH 6.6 to
7.0)
The general equation for anaerobic digestion is
CxHyOz + [ x – y/4 – z /2] H2O [ x/2 – y/8 + z/4 ] CO2 + x/2 +y/8 – z/4] CH4
Foe cellulose this becomes
(C6H10O5)n + n H2O 3n Co2 + 3n CH4
Some organic material (lignin) and all inorganic inclusions do not digest. The reaction is exothermic. Gas
yield is about 0.2 to 0.4 m3 per kg dry digestible input at STP .
Advantages of anaerobic digestion:

1) The bio gas generated is having appreciable value of calorific value and can therefore , be used as
an energy source to produce steam or hot water.
2) It produces smaller quantity of excess sludge.
3) The running cost are very less compared to aerobic conversion.
4) Since the system is enclosed the odours are contained.
5) A well adopted anaerobic sludge can be presented unfed for a considerable period of time without
appreciable deterioration.
6) It reduces the number of pathogens produces , so reducing subsequent disposal problems.
7) The sludge produced has higher nitrogen content giving it increasing value as a fertilizer.
8) The nutrient requirement is low.
Bio gas plants:

Bio gas plats are mainly classified as
1) Continuous and batch type.
2) The dome and drum type.
3) Different variations in the drum type.
Continuous and batch type
Continuous plant:
In continuous plant there is a single digester in which raw material are charged regularly and the process
goes on without interruption except for their repair and cleaning etc. The continuous process may be
completed in a single stage or separated in two stage.
i) Single stage: process:
The entire process of conversion complex organic compounds into biogas is completed in a single chamber.
This chamber is regularly fed with raw material while the spent residue keeps moving out. The biogas is
stored at the top portion of the chamber. The collected gas is regularly tapped for using in different
applications.
ii) Double stage process: Acedogenic stage methanogenic stages are separated into two chambers. Thus
the first stage of acid production is carried out in separate chamber and only the diluted acids are fed into
the second chamber where bio- methanisation takes place and the biogas can be collected from the second
chamber.
Batch plant
The feeding is between intervals , the plant is emptied once the process of digestion is complete. In this
type several digesters are charged along with lime, urea etc. and allowed to produce gas for 40-50 days.
These are charged and emptied one by one in a synchronous manner which maintains a regular supply of
the gas through the a common gas holder. Obviously such a plant would be expensive to install and unless
operated on large scale it would not be economical. The main features of the batch plant are gas production
is intermittent, several digesters are needed, it is best suitable for fibrous material, needs addition of
fermented slurry, plant is expensive and has more problems compared to continuous type.
2) Dome and drum type
In dome type of bio gas plants , digester and the gas holder both are combined . The fixed dome is best
suited for batch process especially when daily feeding is adopted in small quantities. The fixed dome
digester is usually built below ground level and is suitable for cooler regions. In drum type , digester and
gas holder both are separated. Digester is of masonry construction and gas holder is of M.S plates. The
fixed dome plant is called Chinese plant. There are different shapes in both the designs, cylindrical ,
rectangular spherical etc. The digester may be vertical or horizontal. They can be constructed above the
ground or below the ground.
3) Different variations in the drum type: There are two main variations in the floating drum design. One
with water seal and the other without water seal. Water sealing makes the plant completely anaerobic and
corrosion of the gas holder drum is also reduced. The horizontal plats are suited for high ground water level
or rocky areas.
Floating drum biogas plant: (KVIC)
It mainly consists of two parts 1) Digester or pit 2) The gas holder or the gas collector.
Digester:
Digester is also called fermentation plant, it is a sort of well of masonry work, dug and built below the
ground level. The depth of this well varies from 3.5 m to 6 meters, and diameter from 1.35 m to 6m ,
depending on the gas generating capacity and the quantity of raw material fed for each day. The digester
well is divided in to two semi cylindrical compartments by means of partition wall . The level of the
partition wall is lower than the level of the digester rim .Two slanting cement pipes reach the bottom of
the well on either side of the partition wall. One pipe serves as the inlet and the other as outlet. An inlet
chamber near the digester at the surface level serves for mixing dung and water which is done mechanical
or manually. The mixture of dung and water in the proportions of 4:5 by volume, called slurry, flows down
the inlet pipe to the bottom of the primary compartment of the digester. The digester is designed to hold
the 60 days raw material. The outlet chamber is again at surface level, just a few cms below the level of the
inlet chamber. If both compartments of the digester are full and more slurry is added from the inlet, then
equivalent amount of fermented slurry flows out of the outlet and discharged in to the composite pit.
Gas holder : It is a drum constructed of mild steel sheets, cylindrical in shape with a conical top and radial
supports at the bottom. It sinks into the slurry due to its own weight and rests upon the ring constructed for
this purpose . As the gas is generated the holder rises and floats freely on the surface of the slurry. As the
pipe is provided at the top of the holder for flow of the gas for usage. To prevent the holder from tilting a
central guide pipe is fitted to the frame and is fixed at the bottom in the masonry work . The holder is
capable of holding pressure equivalent upto 9 cms of water column. The holder also acts as the seal for
the gas .
The construction of this plant is very simple and the gas comes out with constant pressure. The only
maintenance required is the painting of the gas collector at regular intervals
Advantages:
1) It has less scum trouble.
2) No separate pressure equalizing devices are required.
3) In it the danger of mixing oxygen with the gas to form an explosive mixture is minimized.
4) Higher gas production per cum of the digester volume is achieved..
5) No problem of gas leakage.
6) Constant gas pressure.
Disadvantage:
1) It has higher cost , as cost is dependent steel and cement.
2) It has poor insulation aginst heat and hence it troubles in colder regions and periods.
3) Gas holder requires painting once or twice in a year .
4) The overall maintenance cost of the plant is more compared to fixed dome type.
2) Fixed dome or Chinese digester:

.
The Chinese digester or Janata model or fixed dome digester is a drum less type similar in construction to
the KVIC model except that the steel drum is replaced by fixed dome roof of masonry construction. The
dome roof in Chinese model requires specialized design and skilled masonry construction . A poorly
constructed roof generally leads to leakage from top and junction of the roof with the digester wall, thereby
causing drop in gas yield. Therefore, at least three layers of extra careful plasters are must to prevent any
gas leakage. The cement plaster work is very laborious and also adds to the cost of construction. More ever
quality and correct proportions of the raw materials during the construction have to be maintained properly
to achieve biogas impermeability. In areas where soil swell and shrink considerably there are chances of
developing cracks in the brick masonry construction.
Advantages:
1) It has low cost compared to floating drum type.
2) It has no corrosion problem.
3) The plant is well insulated against the heat and hence constant temperature can be maintained.
4) Almost all bio mass can be fed.
5) No maintenance.
Disadvantages:
1) This plant construction requires skilled masons.
2) Gas production per cum of the digester volume is less.
3) Scum formation is problem as no stirring arrangement.
4) It has variable gas pressure.
Bio gas plant for water hyacinth
Behavior of water hyacinth under biodegradation is different from that of cattle dung. Cattle dung has a
specific gravity almost equal to water and remains wherever it has been fed into the digester while water
hyacinth floats over water surface when fresh and as digestion proceeds partially and fully decomposed
material settles down at the bottom. So, traditional bio gas plants based on cattle dung as feed material
could not be used for water hyacinth . It sis observed that deliberate attempts are required to bring an
intimate contact of microbes with fresh and floating material for decomposition. The final decomposed
material obtained is in powder form. The main modifications done to traditional biogas plant using cow
dung are.
1) The inlet is provided near the top of the digester with proper sealing..
2) The slurry outlet is provided from the bottom of the digester. The bottom should be hopper to
facilitate the discharge of digested slurry.
3) There is stirring arrangement to bring the intimate of microbes with substrate.
In this plant , the 550 gms chopped dried water hyacinth is fed daily with 20 litres of water. 400 litres of
bio gas generated. Chopped wet water hyacinth initially mixed with digested slurry from a continuously
operated gobar gas plant. Bio gas plant based on dried water hyacinth would be very useful substituting
the conventional fuel for cooking.
Kachra gas plant:
A family size biogas plant based on continuous fermentation process was designed and tested at Gujarat
Agricultural University Ananad. This plant was named as “ Kachra gas plant”. The plant is as shown in
the fig. The brief description of the plant is as follows.
Feeding: The feeding material must be chopped to few cm sized pieces when it consists of fresh water
plant materials. The feeding material can charged in any position. For example , paddy straw or wheat
straw or water hyacinth was pushed with a stick at the rate of 10 kg chopped material every day through
the corner of the digester. Thus the problem of slurry making in the beginning is not involved.
Stirring: Stirring is the most important operation , since the material floats in a thick layer (30-40cm) . The
stirring should be so designed that it should be able to submerge the floating material. In the above plant
horizontal stirrer is provided which is mounted on a 4 cm dia water pipe shaft.
Operation of the plant : The plant is initially filled with water in which few buckets of cow dung or dirty
drain water or well rotten compost are added. The fresh fibrous plant material is processed through the
chaff cutter and about 10 kg chopped material is spread on the ground . This is frequently sprayed with
water to keep it moist. Thus the material is charged in to the digester after ten days of decomposition .
About one kg of urea may also be added to the digester . The evolved gas is regularly let out into air for
about a week. During this period the gas never be tested for burning due to possible danger of its explosion
and accident.
Problems related to Bio-gas plants:

1) Handling of effluent is major problems if the person is not having sufficient open space or compost
pits to get the slurry dry.
2) The methanogenic bacteria are sensitive to the temperature variations . During winter as the
temperature falls , there is decrease in the activity of the methanogenic bacteria and subsequently
fall in the gas production rate. Many methods have been suggested to overcome this temperature
problem. 1) Using solar heated hot water to make slurry 2) Green house effect 3) Manual or auto
stirring 4) Addition of nutrients 5) Covering the bio gas plant by straw bags .
3) Improper way of preparing slurry may results failure of bio gas plant due to accumulation of fatty
acids and drop in pH .
4) Some persons add urea fertilizer in large quantities due to which toxity of ammonia nitrogen may
cause a decrease in gas production.
5) pH and fatty acids play an important role in anaerobic digestion and should remain under optimum
range otherwise this may cause upsetting of digester and even its failure.
6) Leakage of gas from gas holder especially in case of Janata type biogas plants is a major and very
common problem. The immediate detection and repair of gas leakage is always required .
Factors affecting the Bio gas generation:

1) pH or hydrogen ion concentration : To maintain a constant supply of gas, it is necessary to maintain
a suitable pH range in the digester. The ideal value of pH is 7 to 7.5 for sewage and slightly higher value
of 8.2 for digestion of raw animal or plant wastes.
2) Temperature:The Methane bacteria work best at a temperature of between 35 – 38 degree centigrade.
The gas production starts declining at 200C and stops at 100C.
3) Total solid content of the feed material : The adjustment of the total solid content helps in biodigesting
the material at the faster rate, and also in deciding the mixing of the various crop residues weeds plants etc.
4) Loading rate: Loading rate is defined as the amount of raw material fed to the digester per day per unit
volume.If a digester is loaded with too much raw material at a time, acids will accumulate and fermentation
will stop.
5) Seeding: The number of methane formers can be increased by seeding the plant with digested sludge
that is rich in methane formers. But beyond certain range it leads to decrease in the gas production.
6) Diameter to depth ratio: Gas production will be maximum when the diameter to depth ratio is in the
range of 0.66 to 1.00.
7) Nutrients: The major nutrients required by the bacteria in the digester are C, H2, O2, N2, P these
nutrients are added to along with the cow dung to obtain maximum production gas.
8) Stirring or agitation of the content of the digester: Since the bacteria in the digester have very limited
reach to their food, it is necessary that the slurry is properly mixed and bacteria get their food supply.
9) Retention time or rate of feeding: The period of retention of the material for biogas generation, inside
the digester is known as the retention period.This period depends on the type of feed stocks and the
temperature. Normal value of the retention period is between 30 and 45 days and in some cases 60 days.
10) Toxity: The digested slurry , if allowed to remain in the digester beyond a certain time, becomes toxic
to the micro organisms and might cause fall in the fermentation rate.
11) Pressure: The fermentation process is affected by the high pressures. It has been reported to be better
at lower pressures.
12) Type of feed stocks: When feed stock is woody , then biodigestion becomes very difficult. The cow
and buffalo dung, human excreta, poultry droppings , pig dung, waste materials of plants etc can be used
as feed stocks.
Application of bio gas
The bio gas can be utilized effectively for household cooking, lighting, operating small engines, utilizing
power or pumping water, chaffing fodder and grinding flour by using already known technology. In the
rural areas popularizing the bio gas is the only way to save house wife from the irritating smoke of the dung
cakes and wood. It helps solving the several health hazard problems like respiratory diseases and trachoma
of eyes. Bio gas can be burned using bio gas burners with mixing ratio of bio gas and air (1:10). Bio gas
lamp needs a mantle, which is made of a Ramic fibre . With one cum of bio gas we can save electricity
equivalent to burn 60 watt lamp for 6 hours.
One horse power engine can work for two hours roughly with a one cum of bio gas. This quantity of gas
can cook three meals for family of about five. It is possible to build power house at the places of bio gas
generation so that electricity can be produced and the same supplied to the grid. Bio gas can be used to
operate both CI and SI engines . 425 litres of bio gas is required to operate 1 HP engine for one hour.
In sewage treatment plants the gas is utilized as fuel for the boilers that supply hot water for heating the
digesters, for running gas engines which may be coupled to pumps, blowers or generators.
The other main product of the biogas plant is the organic manure. This comes out at outlet as slurry which
is quite rich in nitrogen . When the slurry can not be used with irrigation water it can be used for rapid
fermentation of compost.
Application of biogas engines:
Bio gas can be used to operate both CI and SI engines. CI engines can run on dual fuel(biogas + diesel)
and injection of the diesel is necessary for igniting the mixture of air and bio gas inside the cylinder. But
the starting of the engine is carried out using only diesel. SI engine can be operated on biogas after initially
starting on petrol. The existing diesel engines can be directly converted to use biogas , with slight
modification, saving thereby 80% of diesel oil. It is possible to reduce the diesel oil consumption by further
research. The petrol engines can be used to burn the bio gas by simple modification of carburetor. The SI
engine needs following modification. It includes the provisions for the entry of bio gas , throttling of intake
air and advancing the ignition timing. Bio gas can be admitted to a stationary SI engine through the intake
manifold and air flow control valve can be provided on the air cleaner pipe connecting the air cleaner and
caburettor for throttling the intake air, as shown in the fig. In this case the intake air is required to be
manual throttled in the initial stage.
The CI engine which is running on the dual fuel needs necessary engine modifications includes provision
for the entry of biogas with intake air, advancing the injection timing and provision of a system to reduce
diesel supply. The entry of biogas and mixing of gas with intake air can be achieved by providing a mixing
of biogas with air before entering into the cylinder. The admittance of bio gas in to the engine cylinder
increases the engine speed and therefore , a suitable system to reduce the diesel supply by actuating the
control rack needs to be incorporated.
It is concluded that
i) Bio gas is a suitable for conventional engine fuels with little modifications in both SI and CI engines .
petrol replacement of the order of 100% and diesel replacement of about 80% is possible using bio gas
ii) SI engines develop 85% of rated power where as CI engine develop full power on biogas. Thus
application of biogas in CI engine is a better alternative.
iii) By reducing the CO2 content in bio gas the engine performance can be improved .
iv) The injection timing of SI engine using bio gas fuel can be advanced by 4-5 degrees for better engine
performance.
v) The injection timing CI engines operating on dual fuel shall be kept between 31-33 degrees before TDC
for better performance.
vi) It is economical to use biogas in engine keeping in view the present trend of increase in prices of
conventional fuel and their shortage.
vii) In sewage treatment plants the biogas engines are used for running the compressors, pumps, blowers
or generators.
Thermo chemical route on bio mass :

Thermo chemical conversion of bio mass is carried out by heating the bio mass with limited oxygen to
produce low heating value gas or reacting it with steam and oxygen at high pressure and temperature to
produce medium heating value gas. The later may be used as fuel directly or used in liquefaction by
converting it to methanol or ethanol or it may be converted to high heating value gas .
In what is known as a gasifier, a solid fuel is converted by a series of thermo chemical processes like drying
, pyrolysis, oxidation, and reduction to a gaseous fuel – producer gas. The gas can be used for generation
of motive power either in dual fuel engines or in diesel engines with some modifications.. In spark ignition
system engines can be made run entirely on producer gas, where as those using compression ignition system
can be made to operate with about 60 -80% fuel oil replacement by the gas. In the larger systems gas can
be burnt directly .
The advantages of gasifiers are 1) It is very easy to operate the gasifier 2) Its maintenance is easy. 3) It is
sturdy in construction and 4) Reliable in operation.
Gasification method is having several advantages over the other methods.
1) High flexibility
2) High thermo chemical conversion efficiencies
3) The area requirement is low
4) The gasification equipment has high turn down ratios comparable to biogas and higher than steam turbine
systems.
5) Gasification output are suitable as fuel to all types of internal combustion engines.
Types of gasifiers:
The gasifiers are classified as per the

1) The direction of the gas flow
i) Updraft ( Up ward flow)
ii) Down draft ( Down ward flow))
iii) Cross draft.
2) Out put or capacity of the gasifiers
i) Small size gasifiers(10 KW)
ii) Medium sizegasifiers (10 to 50 KW)
iii) Large size gasifiers ( 50 to 300KW)
iv) Very large gasifiers( 300 KW and above)
3) Type of the bed
i) Fixed bed gasifiers a) Up draught b) Down draught c) Cross draught
ii) Fluidised bed gasifiers
1) Up Draught Gasifiers:
In updraft gasifiers air enters below the combustion zone and the producer gas leaves near the top of the
gasifier. This type of gasifier is easy to build and operate. The gas produced is free from ash but contains
tar and water vapour .Hence updraft gasifiers are suitable for tar free fuels like char –coal , especially in
stationary engines.
2)Down draught gasifiers:
In this type of gasifiers air enters at the combustion zone and the gas produced leaves near the bottom of
the gasifier . Tar and volatiles are also converted in to gas because they are allowed to pass through the
reaction zone before leaving the gasifier.Also construction provided in the hearth i.e., throat ensures that
the gaseous products pass through the hottest zone,the gas produced contains less of tar and more of
ash.These gasifiers are suitable for fuels like wood and agricultural wastes. They may be used for power
generation upto above 150 KW.
The partial combustion takes place in the zone in fron of the tuyere openings. The heat generated pyrolyzes
the fuel immediately above and the hot gases proceed downward through the firebox construction, and exit
through the graate. The throat forces the gases to pass through a high temperature zone so that un burnt
pyrolysis products can be converted into gaseous hydro carbons , thus relatively clean gas .The down
darft gasifier , also called the cocurrent moving bed gasifier, is most commonly used for engine,
applications because of its ability to produce clean gas .
3) Cross Draught Gasifiers:
In this type of gasifiers, the gas produced passes upwards in the annualar space around the gasifier that is
filled with charcoal. The charcoal acts as an insulator and a dust filter. They are usually suitable for for
power generation up to 50 KW. Air enters the cross draft gasifier through a water cooled nozzle mounted
on one side of the firebox. The gas is produced in the horizontal zone in front of the nozzle and passes
through a vertical grate into the hot gas port on the opposite side. The cross draft gassifier is not commonly
used.
Fluidized bed gasifiers:
Selection of type of the gasifier depends on the actual application. The performance of the fixed bed
gasifiers depends on the fuel properties, such as chemical analysis, volatile contents, calorific value, size
distribution and ash characteristics. On the contrast, a fluidized bed gasifier in most versatile any bio mass
can be gasified using this type of gasifier. It provides means of burning any combustible material from wet
sewage sludge to refuse , with high efficiency and minimal pollution. Fluidized bed generally contain
either inert material or reactive material . These aid heat transfer and provide catalytic or gas clearing gas .
Normally the operating temperature of the bed is maintained within the range of 750 -950 0C, so that the
ash zones do not get heated to its initial deformation temperature and this prevents clinkering or slagging.
Advantages:
1) Fuel flexibility 2) Good heat storage capacity 3) Quick start up 4) High combustion efficiency 5) High
output rate. 6) Rapid response to fuel input changes 7) Requires less space. 8) Reduces emission of harmful
nitrous oxide.
Module-3
Geothermal energy.
“Geo” means earth and “therm” means heat energy i.e. geothermal energy is heat energy from the earth.
Geothermal energy is recoverable in some form such as steam or hot water. The earth crust now averages
about 20 to 40 km in thickness. Below that crust, the molten mass called magma , is still in the process of
cooling. Earth tremors caused the magma to come close to the earth’s surface in certain places and crust
fissures to open up . The hot magma near the surface thus causes active volcanoes ,hot springs and geysers
where water exists. It also causes the steam to vent through the fissures ( fumaroles) . A typical geothermal
field is shown in the figure.
The hot magma near the surface (A) solidifies into igneous rock (B). The heat of the magma is conducted
upward to this igneous rock. The ground water that finds its way down to this rock through fissures in it
will be heated by the heat of the rock or by mixing with hot gases and steam emanating from the magma
. The heated water will then rise convectively upward and into a porous and permeable reservoir C above
the igneous rock. This reservoir is capped by a layer of impermeable solid rock D that traps the hot water
in the reservoir . The solid rock however has fissures E that acts as vent of the giant underground boiler
. The vents show up at the surface as geysers, fumaroles F . or hot springs G. A well H traps steam from
the fissures for use in a geothermal power plant. It can be seen that geothermal steam is of two kinds: that
originating from the magma itself , called magma tic steam , and that from the ground water heated by the
magma called meteoritic steam. The latter is the largest source of geothermal steam.
There are three basic kinds geothermal sources a) Hydrothermal b) Geopressured and c) Petrothermal
a) Hydrothermal sources:
Hydrothermal sources are those in which water is heated by contact with the hot rock. Hydrothermal
systems are in turn subdivided into 1) Vapor dominated and 2) Liquid dominated.
1) Vapor dominated:
In these systems the water is vaporized into steam that reaches the surface in a relatively dry condition at
about 2050C and rarely above 8 bar. This system is the most suitable for use in turboelectric power plants,
with least cost. It does, however, suffer problems similar to those encountered by all geothermal systems,
namely , the presence of corrosive gases and erosive material and environmental problems . Vapor
dominated systems, however , are a rarity . These systems account for about 5 percent of all geothermal
sources.
Vapor dominated power plant:
Vapor dominated geothermal systems are the most developed of all geothermal systems. They have the
lowest cost and the least number of problems. The vapor dominated power plant is as shown in the fig.
Dry steam from the well (1) at 2000C is used . It is nearly saturated and may have a shut off pressure up to
35 bar. Pressure drops through the well causes it to slightly superheat at the well head 2. The pressure
there rarely exceeds 7 bar . It then goes through a centrifugal separator to remove particulate matter and
then enters the turbine after additional pressure drop 3. Processes 1-2 and 2-3 are essentially throttling
process with constant enthalpy. The steam expands through the turbine and enters the condenser at 4. The
condenser used is of direct contact type. Turbine exhaust steam at 4 mixes with cooling water (7) that
comes from a cooling tower. The mixture of 7 and 4 is saturated water (5) that is pumped to the cooling
tower (6) . The greater part of the cooled water at 7 is recircualted to the condenser. The balance, which
would normally be returned to the cycle in a conventional plant, is rejected in to the ground either before
or after the cooling tower. No make up water is necessary.
2) Liquid dominated systems:

In these systems the hot water circulating and trapped underground is at a temperature range 174 to 3150C.
When tapped by wells drilled in the right places and to the right depths, the water flows either naturally to
the surface or is pumped up to it . The drop in pressure usually to 8 bar or less , causes it to partially flash
to a two phase mixture of low quality , liquid dominated. It contains relatively large concentrations of
dissolved solids ranging between 3000 to 25000 ppm and sometimes higher. The power production is
adversely affected by these solids due to formation of scaling, reducing flow and heat transfer . The liquid
dominated systems , however are much more plentiful than vapor dominated systems .
Liquid dominated power plants:

The two different methods are used for generating power
i) The flashed system
ii) Binary cycle system.
i) The flashed system:

The schematic diagram of this system is as shown in the figure. The water from the underground reservoir
at 1 reaches the well head at 2 at a lower pressure. Process 1-2 is essentially a constant enthalpy throttling
process that results in two phase mixture of low quality at 2. This is further throttled in flash separator
resulting in a still low but slightly higher quality at 3. This mixture is now separated in to dry saturated
steam at 4 and saturated brine at 5. The latter is rejected in to the ground. The dry steam usually at pressure
of less than 8 bar , is expanded in a turbine to 6 and mixed with cooling water in direct contact condenser
with mixture at 7 is going to a cooling tower. The greater part of the cooled water at 7 is recircualted to
the condenser. Remaining portion of the mixture is rejected in the ground. In order to improve the efficiency
in splashing two stage flashing is used instead of single stage flashing (double flash)
ii) Binary cycle system
The figure shows the schematic diagram of binary cycle system. Hot water or brine from the underground
reservoir circulates through a heat exchanger and is pumped back to the ground. In the heat exchanger it
transfers its heat to the organic fluid thus converting it to superheated vapor that is used in a standard closed
Rankine cycle . The vapor drives the turbine and is condensed in a surface condenser ; the condensate is
pumped back to the heat exchanger . The condenser is cooled by the water from the natural source, if
available, or a cooling tower circulation system. The blow down from the tower may be rejected to the
ground with cooled brine. Makeup of the cooling tower water must be provided. In binary cycle there is
no problems of corrosion or scaling . Such problems are confined to well casing and the heat exchanger .
The heat exchanger is shell and tube unit so that no contact between brine and working fluid takes place.
b) Geo pressured systems

Geopressured systems are sources of water, or brine, that has been heated in a manner similar to
hydrothermal water, except that geopressured water is trapped in much deeper underground acquifers, at
depth between 2400 m to 9100 m . This water is relatively at low temperature(1600C) and under very high
pressure of 1000 bar. It has relatively high salinity. In addition , it is saturated with natural gas , mostly
methane CH4 . Such water is thought to have thermal and mechanical potential to generate electricity .
Temperature , however is not high enough and the depth so great that there is little economic justification
of drilling for this water for its thermal potential alone. How ever it is possible to generate electricity by
recovering dissolved methane.
Petrothermal systems:
Magma lying close the earth’s surface heats overlying rock . When no ground water exists, there is simply
hot, dry rock(HDR) . The known temperatures of HDR vary between 150 to 2900C . This energy is called
petrothermal energy , represents by far the largest source of geothermal energy of any type. Much of the
HDR occurs at relatively moderate depths, but it is largely impermeable. In order to extract thermal energy
out of it , water will have to be pumped into it and back out to the surface. It is necessary for the heat
transport mechanism that a way be found to render the impermeable rock into a permeable structure with
a large heat transfer surface. Rendering the rock permeable is to be done by fracturing it. Fracturing
methods that have been considered involve drilling wells into the rock and then fracturing by (1) high
pressure water (2) Nuclear explosives.
High pressure water method:

Fracturing by high pressure water is done by injecting water into HDR at very high pressure. This water
widens existing fractures and creates new ones through rock displacement. This method is successfully
used by the oil industry to facilitate the path of under ground oil.
Nuclear explosives:
Fracturing by nuclear explosives is scheme that has been considered as part of a program for using such
explosives for peaceful uses, such as natural gas estimation and oil stimulation, creating cavities for large
storage, canal and harbor construction and many other applications. The principal hazards associated with
this are the ground shocks , the danger of radioactivity releases to the environment, and the radioactive
material that would surface with heated water and steam.
Geothermal plants in the world.

Some of the important geothermal plants in the world are
1) 540MW plant at Larderello, Italy.
2) USA generating 1514 MW of power using geothermal sources (Claifornia, 50MW)
3) New Zealand , 353 MW ( Wairakei power station ,175 MW)
4) Japan, 266 MW.(
5) Mexico 180 MW
6) El Salvador 95 MW
7) Iceland 63 MW
8) USSR 211 MW ( Muntnovsky power station, 200 MW)
9) Phillipines , 665 MW ( Tiwi power station, 55MW)
10) Turkey , 0.5 MW
11) Hungary, 363 MW
12) France , 5 MW
Problems associated with geothermal conversion:
Environmental problems: Some effluents contain boron, fluorine and arsenic. All these are very harmful
to plants and animal life in concentrations as low as two parts per million. Suitable waste treatment plants
to prevent degradation of water quality will have to be installed to treat these new and increased sources of
pollution. Before entry of steam in to the turbines removal of condensable gases such as CO2, Methane,
H2, N2, NH3 and H2S is necessary it requires additional equipments.
Re injection: Re injection is necessary to avoid discharging large quantities of heat into rivers , with
consequent hazards to fisheries and farming activities, endanger down stream drinking water supplies.
Huge quantity of underground water removal cause land subsidence.
Noise: Noise is another problem.. The noise cause a serious health hazard Workers on new well sites have
to wear ear plugs or muff lest their hearing damaged.
Water borne poisons: The in wet fields some times contain toxic mercury , arsenic, ammonia etc, which
would if discharged could contaminate water down stream.
Air borne poisons: From various points harmful substances may escape into the air at thermal sites. These
may contain radioactive materials also. Systematic monitoring is advisable in this case.
Heat pollution: Geothermal power plants produce large quantity of waste heat . The proper way of
discharging this heat is necessary y to avoid damage to local climate, water bodies fisheries etc.
Silica: Reinjection of the silica loaded water could affect the permeability of the substrate thus it requires
construction of settlement ponds .
Subsidence: The withdrawal of huge quantities of underground fluids cause substantial ground subsidence,
which could cause fitting and stressing of pipelines and surface structures. The remedy for this problem to
some extent is the reinjection. However large extractions and reinjections also pose the possibility of
seismic disturbances
Seismity: Some fears have been expressed that prolonged geothermal exploitation could trigger off
earthquakes especially at the zones of high shear stress .
Escaping steam: Huge volumes of flash steam escaping into the air could cause dense fog to occur, which
may drift across to nearly roads and cause traffic hazards.
Erosion: The water with sand cause scaling and erosion problems in the pipe lines.
Application of geothermal energy:

There are three main applications of the steam and hot water from the wet geothermal reservoirs.
1) Generation of electric power

2) Industrial process heat and
3) Space heating for various kinds of buildings.
The major benefit of geothermal energy is its varied application and versatility.
Advantages:
1) Geothermal energy is renewable source of energy.
2) Geothermal energy is least polluting compared to other conventional energy sources.
3) Geothermal plants have higher annual load factors.
4) It is cheaper compared to the energies obtained from other sources.
5) The greatest advantage of geothermal power is that it can be used in multiple uses.
Disadvantages:
1) Overall efficiency for power production is low.
2) The withdrawal of large amounts of steam or water from a hydrothermal reservoir may result in
surface subsidence.
3) The gases present in the steam must be removed by chemical action before discharging into
atmosphere.
4) Drilling operation is noisy.
5) Large areas are needed for exploitation of geo thermal energy as much of it is diffused.
TIDAL POWER
Introduction: Wind generates large ocean waves with energies that can be used to generate power. Ocean
wave energy is said to be solar energy twice removed. Ocean waves vary widely with time and place on
amplitude and frequency, and hence in their energies, much like the wind that causes them. Tides are
primarily cause by lunar , and only secondarily by solar , gravitational forces acting together with those of
the earth on the ocean waters to create tidal flows. These manifest themselves in the rise and fall of waters
with ranges that vary daily and seasonally and come at different times from day to day. They also vary
widely from place to place , being as low as few centimeters but may exceed 8 to 10 m in some parts of
the world. The potential energy of the tides can be trapped to generate power , but at extremely high
capital costs.
Mechanics of tides:
Tides are produced mainly by the gravitational attraction of the sun and the moon on the water of ocean.
Major part of the tides about 70% are produced due to the moon and 30% to the sun. As the earth rotates
, the position of a given area to the moon changes, and so also do the tides. There are thus a periodic
succession of high and low tides. A high tide will be experienced at a point which is directly under the
moon. At the same time diametrically opposite point on the earth’s surface also experiences a high tide
due to dynamic balancing . Thus a full moon as well as no moon produce a high tide. In a period of 24 hrs
50 minutes, there are therefore , two high tides and two low tides; These are called semi – diurnal tides.
The rise and fall of the water level follows sinusoidal curve, shown with point A indicating the high tide
point and point B indicating the low tide point . The difference between high and low water level is called
the range of the tide.
At full moon , when sun, moon and earth are approximately in a line, the tidal range is exceptionally large,
the high tides are higher and low tides are lower than average. These high tides are called spring tides, on
the other hand , near the first and third quarters of the moon, when sun and moon are at right angles with
respect to the earth, neap tides occur. The tidal range is then exceptionally small: the high tides are lower
and low tides are higher than the average. Hence range is not constant.
Fig
The tidal ranges vary from one earth location to another.

Harnessing tidal energy:
The power generation from tides involves flow between an artificially developed basin and the basic
scheme can be elaborated by having two or more basins. Accordingly we can have two different types of
arrangements .
1) Single basin arrangement 2) Double basin arrangement.
1) Single basin or pool system
The simple – pool tidal system has one pool or basin behind a dam that is filled from the ocean at high tide
and emptied to it at low to tides. Both filling and emptying processes take place during short periods of
time: the filling when ocean is at high tide while the water in the pool is at low tide level, the emptying
when the ocean is at low tide and the pool at high tide level. The flow of water in both directions is used
to drive a number of reversible water turbines, each driving an electrical generator. Electric power would
thus be generated during two short periods during each tidal period, of 12 h, 25 min or once every 6h, 12.5
min.
The generation of power in a single basin system can be carried out either as
a) Single ebb – cycle system or
b) Single tide cycle system or
c) Double cycle system.
a) Single ebb – cycle system.

When high tide comes , the sluice gates are opened to permit the sea water to enter the basin or reservoir,
while the turbines sets are shut. The reservoir thus starts filling while its level rises, till the maximum tide
level is reached. At the beginning of the ebb tide the sluice gates are closed. Then the generation of power
takes place when the sea is ebbing (Flowing back of tide) and the water from the basin flows through the
turbine in to the lower level sea. The generation of power can be continued till there is sufficient head
difference between the level of water in the reservoir and the sea. The turbines are closed when the level
of water becomes same on both the sides; sluice gates are opened to repeat the cycle.
b) Single tide cycle system:
In a single tide cycle system , the generation of power is carried out when sea at flood tide. The water of
the sea is admitted in to the basin through the turbines. As the flood tide period is over and the sea level
starts falling again, the generation is stopped. The basin is drained in to the sea through the sluice ways.
This system needs large size plant, operating for short period and hence less efficient as compared to ebb
tide operation.
c) Double cycle system

In this system power generation is carried out during both high tide as well as ebb tides. The flow of water
in both the directions is used to drive a number of reversible water turbines, each driving an electrical
generator. Electric power would thus be generated during two short period during each tidal period of 12
h, 25 min or once every 6h, 12.5 min
Fig
Though the double cycle system has only short duration interruptions in the turbine operation, yet a
continuous generation of power is still not possible. Further the periods of power generation coincide
occasionally with periods of peak demand.
2) Double basin arrangement:
Two basin system is one that is much less dependent on tidal fluctuation but at the expense of more
complex and hence more costly dam construction. A inland basin is enclosed by dam A and divides into
a high pool and a low pool by dam B. By proper gating in the dam A, the high pool gets periodically filled
at high tide from the ocean and the low pool gets periodically emptied at low tide. Water flows from the
high to the low pool through the turbines that are situated in the dam B. The power generation thus continue
simultaneously with the filling up the high pool The capacities of these two pools are large enough in
relation to the water flow between them that the fluctuations in the head are minimized, which results in
continuous and much more uniform power generation. At the end of the flood tide when high pool is full
and the water level in it is maximum, its sluice gates are closed. When ebb tide level gets lower than the
water level in lo pool , its sluice gates are opened whereby the water level in low pool, which was rising
and reducing the operating head, starts falling with the ebb. This continues until the head and water level
in high pool is sufficient to run the turbines. With the next flood tide cycle repeats. With this twin pool
system , a longer and more continuous period of generation per day is possible.
Estimation of power in the single basin system:
For tidal rang R , and an intermediate head h at a given time during the emptying process, the differential
work done by the water is equal to the potential energy at the tine or
Area A High tide level

dh
Range R
Basin
h
Ocean at low tide
Reversible turbine and gates
dW = dm.h g/gc (1)

But dm = -.A. dh (2)
So that dW = - .A. h dh g/gc (3)
Where W = work done by the water
g = Acceleration due to gravity
m= Mass of water flowing through the turbine Kg
h = head in m
 = Water density , A = Basin surface area , considered
The total theoretical work during a full emptying period is obtained by integrating equation 3
0 0
W =  dW = - .A. g/gc  h dh = .A. g R2 /2gc (4)
R R
Thus the work is proportional to the square of the tidal range. The average theoretical power delivered by
the water is W divided by the total time it takes each period to repeat itself or 6 h, 12.5 min or 22,350 s thus
Pav = .A. g R2 /(44700gc ) .
Assuming average sea water density = 1025 kg/ m3 , the average power per unit basin area is given by
Pav /A = 9.80 x 1025 R2 / 44700 = 0.225 R2
The actual power generated by the real tidal system is less than the average theoretical power. The actual
power generated may be about 25 to 30 percent of the theoretical power.

Estimation of power in double cycle system
Let V be the volume of the basin

V = A ho (1)
Where A is the average cross sectional area of the basin in M2 , and ho is the difference between maximum
and minimum water levels.
 Average discharge Q = A ho / t (2)
t is the total duration of generation in one filling / emptying operation.
Now power generated at any instant
P = Qh x o x 0.736 / 75 KW (3)
H is the available head at the instant , then the total energy
t t
=  P dt =  Qh x o x 0.736 / 75 Kw per tidal cycle (4)
0 0
Then yearly power generation
t
=  Qh x o x 0.736 x 705 / 75 KW h / year (5)
0
Advantages of tidal power:

1) Tidal power is inexhaustible in nature.
2) Tidal power generation is free from pollution.
3) The requirement of valuable land is less.
4) Peak power demand can be met if it effectively works in combination with hydroelectric or thermal
system.
5) It can provide better recreational facilities to visitors and holiday makers , in addition to the
possibility of fish farming in the tidal basins.
Limitations:
1) Generating power is always dependent on the tidal range.
2) The generating efficiency of the turbines affected by the variations in the operating head.
3) Power generation is intermittent in nature.
4) The selecting of suitable turbine operating under varying head condition is difficult.
5) Load sharing of power with the grid is very difficult due variation in power cycle.
6) Maintenance cost of the machinery is high due to the corrosive nature of sea water.
7) Construction in sea is found difficult
8) Cost of power generation is not favourable compared to other sources of energy.
9) It may affect fishing and navigation.
WIND ENERGY
Introduction: Wind energy is rightfully an indirect form of solar energy since wind is induced chiefly by
the uneven heating of the earth’s crust by the sun. Winds can classified as planetary and local. Planetary
winds are caused by greater heating of the earth’s surface near the equator than near the northern or southern
poles. Local winds are caused by two mechanisms first is the differential heating of the land and water.
During the day land mass becomes hotter than water, air near to the surface of the land heats up and rises,
the cooler heavier air above the water moves in to replace it. This is the mechanism of shore breeze. In the
night direction of the breeze reversed. The second mechanism of local wind is caused by the hills and
mountains. The air above the slopes heats up during the day and cools down at night, more rapidly than the

air above the low lands. This causes heated air during the day to rise along the slopes and relatively cool
heavy air to flow down at night.
It has been estimated that about 2 percent of all solar radiation falling on the face of the earth is converted
to kinetic energy in the atmosphere and that 30 percent of this kinetic energy occurs in the lowest 1000m
of elevation.. It is thus said that total kinetic energy of the wind in this lowest kilometer, if harnessed , can
satisfy several times the energy demand of a country. It is also claimed that wind power is pollution free
and that its source of energy is free. Solar energy is cyclic and predictable, and even dependable in some
parts of the globe, wind energy . However, is erratic, unsteady, and often not reliable , except in very few
areas.
Properties of wind:
1) Wind power is pollution free.
2) Fuel provisions and transport are not required in wind power systems.
3) Wind energy is a renewable source of energy.
4) Wind energy when produced on small scale is cheaper, but competitive with conventional power
generating systems when produced on large scale.
5) Wind energy is highly erratic in nature.
6) Wind energy is unsteady.
7) Due to its irregularity it needs storage devices.
8) Wind power generating systems produce ample noise.
9) Wind speeds increases with height.
10) Average wind speeds are greater in hilly and coastal areas than they are well inland.
11) Velocity of wind over the water remains almost constant.
Applications Of wind energy:
1) Electrical energy production: Through the use of wind turbines, the wind's kinetic energy can be
transformed into mechanical energy and this, in turn, into electrical energy.
2) Pumping water: Wind energy can be used to extract water from the ground using wind pumps,
which are turbines capable of pumping up to six hundred liters per hour, which is enough to meet
the needs of a small farm.
3) Renewable hydrogen: Wind energy is used to produce the continuous electrical current that is
needed to produce renewable hydrogen. This type of hydrogen is used, for example, to produce
synthetic fuels or eco-fuels.
4) Utility interconnected wind turbines generate power which is synchronous with the grid and are
used to reduce utility bills by displacing the utility power used in the household and by selling the
excess power back to the electric company.
5) Wind turbines for remote homes (off the grid) generate DC current for battery charging.
Advantages of wind energy:

1) Wind energy is a renewable energy source that comes from the wind and helps in reducing
CO2 emissions being released into the atmosphere.( Non pollutant)
2) Wind farms can be easily dismantled once they are no longer needed, without leaving an
environmental footprint, so the land can be reused for other purposes.
3) It comes from a natural source, the wind, which makes it 100% renewable.
4) The wind is found all over the world, so wind power means countries can generate energy
independently.
5) By reducing energy imports, it contributes to the development of local employment and wealth
creation.

6) Technological advances have made it possible to lower the cost of generating wind power.
7) The gestation period is low and power generation starts from commissioning once generation
starts, cost free power is available.
8) They can generate power immediately after installation.
9) Power generation is cheaper because there is no shortage of input cost and recurring expenses are
almost nil.
10) Generation is continuous unlike in diesel power. Investment is never idle.
Disadvantage of Wind energy

1) Wind power is not consistent and steady, which makes the complications in designing the whole
plant.
2) The wind is a very hazard one. Special and costly designs and controls are always required.
3) The cost factor, which has restricted the development of wind power in large scale for feeding to
the existing grid.
4) It has low power coefficient.
5) Careful survey is necessary for plant location.
6) Noise level is high.
7) It could be threat to wild life nearby.
8) It suited to a particular site only.
9) Wind conditions can never be predicted.
Availability of wind in energy in India
Data quoted by some scientist that for India wind speed value lies between 5 Km/hr to 15-20 Km/hr. These
low seasonal winds imply high cost of exploitation of wind energy. India has potential of over 45,000 MW
for power generation and rank one of the promising courtiers for tapping this source Wind power projects
aggregate capacity of 8MW including 7 wind farms projects of capacity 6.85 MW have been established
in different parts of the country of which 3MW capacity has been completed in 1989 by DNES. Wind
farms are operating successfully and have already fed 150 lakh units of electricity to the respective grids.
Over 25 MW additional power capacity from wind is under implementation. Under demonstration program
271 wind pumps have been installed up to 1989. Sixty small wind battery chargers of capacity 300 watt to
4KW are under installation. Likewise to stand alone wind electric generators of 10 to 25 KW are under
installation.
Wind velocity and power from the wind

Wind posse’s energy by virtue of its motion. A device which is capable of absorbing this energy and
converting in to useful work is known as the wind converter or wind turbine. The power out put from the
wind energy converter is dependent on the i) The wind speed ii) The cross section wind swept by the rotor
iii) The overall conversion efficiency of the rotor., transmission system and generator or pump.
Wind mill works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the wind in to mechanical energy. The
total power of a wind stream is equal to the rate of incoming kinetic energy of that stream KE or

Ptot = m KEi = m Vi2 / 2gc (1)

Where Ptot = Total power , W
M = Mass flow rate
Vi = Incoming wind velocity , m/s
gc = Conversion factor = 1.0 kg / (N.s2)
The mass flow rate is given by the continuity equation m = AVi
Where  = Density of incoming wind , A = Cross sectional area of stream , m2
Thus Ptot = AVi3 / 2gc (2)
Thus the total power of a wind stream is directly proportional to its density, area, and the cube of its velocity
. Generally the swept area is circular of diameter D in horizontal axis aero turbines, then A =  D2
/4
Using this in equation 2
Available total wind power Ptot =  D2 Vi3 / 8gc (3)
Thus doubling the diameter of the rotor will result in a four fold increase in the available wind power. The
combined effect of wind speed and rotor diameter variations are shown in fig.
60m
4
Total power in MW
Rotor diameter
40 m
2
20 m
0 5 10 15
Wind speed in m/s
Wind machines intended for generating substantial amounts of power should have large rotors and be
located in areas of high wind speed.
In wind turbines only fraction of the power available in the wind can be converted in to useful power. As
the wind passes through the rotor , rotor absorbs fraction of the kinetic energy available with wind and its
speed decreases to a minimum in the rotor wake. Subsequently wind regains its speed and energy at a
sufficient distance from the rotor . While the speed is decreasing , air pressure in the wind stream changes
in different manner It first increases as the wind approaches the rotor and then drops sharply by an amount
p as it passes through and energy is transferred to the rotor. Finally pressure increases to ambient pressure
.

Turbine wheel
Pa
Pressure Pi Pe
Pb
i a b e
Vi
Va
Velocity
Vt Vt
Vb
Ve
i Distance e
Maximum power:
Consider a horizontal axis , propeller type wind mill or turbine has thickness a-b , incoming wind pressure
and velocity , far upstream of the turbine , are Pi and Vi and that exit wind pressure and velocity , far
down stream of the turbine , are Pe and Ve, respectively. Ve is less than Vi because kinetic energy is
extracted by the turbine.
Assumptions:
1) Incoming air between I and a as a thermodynamic system.
2) Density remains constant.
3) Change in potential energy is zero.
4) No heat or work added or removed between i and a
The general energy equation reduces to kinetic and flow energy terms only. Thus energy equation between
i and a
Piv + Vi2 / 2gc = Pav + Va2 / 2gc (1)
Or Pi + Vi2 / 2gc = Pav + Va2 / 2gc (2)
Where v and  are the specific volume and its reciprocal, the density, respectively both considered constant.
Similarly for the exit region b-e
Pb + Vb2 / 2gc = Pev + Vb2 / 2gc (3)

As the pressure of wind is high at the entry and low at exit, the equations 2 and 3 can be written as

Pa – Pb = [Pi + (Vi2 - Va2) / 2gc] - [Pe + (Ve2 – Vb2) / 2gc] (4)

It is reasonable to assume that, far from the turbine at e, the wind pressure returns to ambient or Pe= Pi
Velocity within the turbine, Vt , does not change because the blade width a-b is thin compared with the
total distance considered, so that equation 4 reduces to
Pa – Pb = (Vi2 – Ve2 ) / 2gc (5)
The axial force Fx , in the direction of the wind stream , on a turbine wheel with projected area ,
perpendicular to the stream A is given by
Fx = (Pa – Pb)A = A (Vi2 – Ve2 ) / 2gc (6)
This force equal to the momentum of the wind (From Newton’s second law)
Fx = (mV) / gc Where m is the mass flow rate is given by
m = AVt (7)
Thus Fx = AVt ( Vi-Ve) / gc (8)
Equating equations 6 and 8
Vt = (Vi +Ve) / 2gc (9)
Assuming no changes in potential, internal energies and system between i and e as adiabatic, the general
energy equation reduces to steady flow work
W = Kei –Ke = (Vi2 – Ve2) / 2gc (10)
The power P is the rate of work
P = m (Vi2 – Ve2 ) / 2gc = AVt (Vi2 – Ve2 ) / 2gc (11)
Using equation 10
P = A( Vi +Ve) (Vi2 – Ve2 ) / 4gc (12)
The optimum value of Ve can be calculated by differentiating equation 12 with respect to Ve for a given
value of VI and equating to zero. i.e., dp/dVe = 0 which gives
3Ve2 + 2ViVe – Vi2 = 0
This is solved for a positive Ve to give Ve.opt ( The quadratic equation gives two solution i.e., Ve = Vi and
Ve = 1/3 Vi , only second solution is physically acceptable ).
Ve.opt = Vi /3 (13)
Combining equation 12 gives
Pmax = A( Vi +Vi /3 ) [Vi2 – (1/3 Vi )2 ] / 4gc
= [A (4Vi/ 3) x ( 8 Vi2 / 9 )] / 4gc
= (A Vi3 8)/ 27gc
Fraction of the wind power that can be extracted by the rotor is called the power coefficient thus
max = Power to the wind rotor / power available in the wind
= 16/27gc [ AVi3 / 2gc ]
= 16/27 Ptot
= 0.5926 (14)
Forces on the blades and thrust on turbines:

Two different types of forces are acting on the blades they are circumferential forces in the direction of
wheel rotation that provide the troque and the axial forces in the direction of the wind stream that provide
an axial thrust that must be counteracted by proper mechanical design.
Circumferential force or torque T is obtained from T = P/  = P / (DN)
Where T – Torque , N
 = Angular velocity of the turbine wheel m/s
D = Diameter of the turbine wheel = (4/)1/2 A , m
N = Wheel speed in rpm
The real efficiency  = P / Ptot = AVi3 / 2gc
Or P = AVi3 / 2gc (1)
For a turbine operating at power P, the torque T is given by

T = AVi3 / (2gc DN )

= (  D2 /4)Vi3 / (2gc DN )
=  DVi3 / (8gc N ) (2)
At maximum efficiency (max = 16/27) , the torque has maximum value Tmax which is equal to
Tmax = 2  DVi3 / (27gc N ) (3)
The axial force or axial thrust given by
Fx =A (Vi2 – Ve2 ) / 2gc =  D2 (Vi2 – Ve2 ) / (8 gc) (4)
The axial force on a turbine wheel operating at maximum efficiency where Ve = Vi/3
Fxmax = 4AVi2/ (9gc) =  D2 Vi2/ (9gc) (5)
From the above equation it is clear that axial forces are proportional to the square of the diameter of the
turbine wheel, this limits turbine wheel diameter of large size.
Coefficient of performance (COP) or Power co-efficient
COP is defined as the ratio of power delivered by the rotor to maximum power available in the wind.
COP = power delivered by the rotor / maximum power available in the wind
 The actual or maximum wind power available in the wind is obtained by rotor diameter, wind speed
and air density.
 The value of power coefficient should not exceed 0.593, except under specific conditions.
Problems associated with the wind power:

1) Location of the site The selected site must be gig enough with reasonable average high wind
velocity.
2) Variation in the wind velocity : Wind velocity varies with the time and varies in direction and
also varies from the bottom to top of a large rotor . This causes fatigue in blades.
3) Need of storage system: At zero wind velocity conditions, the power generated will be zero and
this means some storage system will have to be incorporated along with the wind mill.
4) Strong supporting structures: Since the wind mill generator will have to be located at height, the
supporting structure will have to be designed with stand high wind velocity and impacts . This will
add to the initial costs of the wind mill.
5) Occupation of large areas of the land: Large areas of land will become unavailable due to wind
mill gardens. The whole area will have to be protected to avoid accidents.
6) Nature of ground: Ground surface should be stable . Erosion problem should not be there, as it
could possible later wash out the foundations of WECS, destroying the whole system.
7) Wind structure at the proposed site: For better performance of the wind turbine velocity (Vt)
curve must flat,i.e., a smooth steady wind that blows all the time is necessary. But a typical site is
always less than ideal Wind specially near the ground is turbulent and gusty, and changes rapidly
in direction and in velocity.
8) Availability of the wind curve :It determines the maximum energy in the wind and hence the
principal initially controlling factor in predicting the electrical output and hence revenue return
from the WECS machine. If there are long periods of calm the WECS reliability will be lower than
if the calm periods are short.. In making such reliability estimates it is desirable to have measured
Vt curve over about 5 year period for the highest confidence level in the reliability estimates.
9) Availability of high average wind speed: Wind velocity is the critical parameter. The power in
the wind Ptot, through cross sectional area for a uniform wind velocity V, is P = K Vi3 . It is evident
,because of the cubic dependence on wind velocity that small increases in Vi remarkably affects
the power in the wind.
10) Other problems: Other problems like icing, salt spray or blowing dust should not present at the
site , as they may affect aero turbine blades .

Type of the wind machine and their characteristics:
All the win machines are classified as

I) Based on the axis of rotor rotation
1) Horizontal axis wind machine : Axis of rotation is horizontal , aero turbine plane is vertical facing
the wind
2) Vertical axis wind machines : The axis of rotation is vertical Ex Darrieus wind mill
II) According to size :
1) Small scale (up to 2KW ) : These might be used on farms remote applications, and other places
requiring relatively low power.
2) Medium size machines: ( 2-100 KW) These turbines are used for supplying electricity to several
residence and local use.
3) Large scale(100 KW and above) They are used to generate power for distribution in central
power grids
III) According to out put power
1) DC output : Dc generator, alternator rectifier
2) AC out put : i) Variable frequency ii) Constant frequency
IV) According to rotational speed:
1) Constant sped with variable pitch blades
2) Nearly constant speed with fixed pitch blades
3) Variable speed with fixed pitch blades.
V) According to utilization
1) Battery storage.
2) Direct connection
3) Other forms of storage
4) Interconnection with conventional electric utility grids.
Horizontal axis machines:

1) Horizontal axis machine with two aerodynamic blades:

This machine schematically shown in the figure. In this type rotor drives a generator through a step up gear
box. The components are mounted on a bed plate which is attached on a pintle at the top of the tower. When
machine is in operation blades are subjected to aerodynamic , gravitational and inertial loads. If the blades
are made up of metal , flexing reduces fatigue life which may cause serious damage to both blades and
tower. If the vibrational frequency of the rotor coincides with the natural frequency of the tower , the system
may shake itself in to pieces. On economical point of view more than two blades are not recommended.
Rotors which are having more than two would have slightly higher power coefficients.
2) Horizontal axis propeller type with single blade:
In this arrangement a long blade is mounted on a rigid hub. Induction generator and gear box are also
shown. Extremely long blades create various problems like gravity and sudden shifts in wind directions.
To reduce rotor cost , use of low cost counter weight is used which balance long blade centrifugally.
Advantages :
1) Simple blade controls, lower blade weight and cost, lower gear box cost.
2) Counter weight costs less than a second blade.
3) Counter weight can be inclined to reduce blade coning.
4) Pitch gearing do not carry centrifugal force.
Disadvantages:
1) Vibration level is too high.
2) Unconventional appearance.
3) Large blade root bending moment.
4) Staring torque is reduced.
5) One per rev coriolis torque produced due to flapping.
3) Three bladed horizontal axis wind turbine

In this type rotor drives a generator through a step up gear box. The components are mounted on a bed
plate which is attached on a pintle at the top of the tower. When machine is in operation blades are subjected
to aerodynamic, gravitational and inertial loads. If the blades are made up of metal, flexing reduces fatigue
life which may cause serious damage to both blades and tower. If the vibrational frequency of the rotor
coincides with the natural frequency of the tower, the system may break itself in to pieces. On economical
point of view more than two blades are not recommended. Rotors which are having more than two would
have slightly higher power coefficients
4) Horizontal axis multi bladed type
Multi bladed horizontal axis wind turbine is shown in the fig . Blades are made from sheet metal or
aluminum. The rotors have high strength to weight ratios and have been known to service hours of
freewheeling operation in 60 Km/hr winds. They have good power coefficients, high starting torque and
added advantage of simplicity and low cost.
4) Horizontal axis Dutch type:

Dutch type wind machine is shown in the figure. This is one of the oldest designs . The blade surfaces are
made from an array of wooden slats which rotates at high speeds.
5) Sail type :
It is of recent origin. The blade surface is made from cloth, nylon or plastics arranged as mast and pole or
sail wings. There is also variation in the number of sail used.
Vertical axis Wind machines

One of the main advantage of the vertical axis type wind machine is that they do not have to be turned in
to the wind stream as the wind direction changes. Because their operation is independent of wind direction,
vertical axis machines are called panemones. Most of the vertical axis machines are drag devices. Such
devices have relatively high starting torque compared to lift devices , but have low, tip to wind speeds and
lower power outputs per given rotor size, weight and cost. Vertical axis machines are difficult to control in
strong winds The transmission and generator are on the ground rather than at the top of a tall tower.
Advantages:
1) They will react to the wind in any direction and therefore they do not need yawing equipment to
turn the rotor in to the wind.
2) They require less structural support..
3) Rotors are not subjected to cyclic gravity loads.
4) Installation and maintenance is simple.
Two different types of vertical axis rotors are common ,Savonius and Darrieus
Savonius Rotor:
It consists of two half cylinders facing opposite directions such a way as to have almost an S – shaped
cross section. These two semi-circular drums are mounted on a vertical axis perpendicular to the wind
direction with a gap at the axis between the two drums. Irrespective of the wind direction the rotor rotates
such as to make the convex sides of the buckets head in to the wind. Form the rotor shaft we can take the
power for use like water pumping , battery charging etc. The force of the wind is greater on the cupped
face than the rounded face. The wind curving around the back side of the cupped face exerts a reduced
pressure much as the wind does over the top of an air foil and this helps to drive the rotor.
Characteristics of Savonius Rotor

1) Self starting 2) Low speed 3) Low efficiency

Advantages:
1) It eliminates the expensive power transmission system from the rotor to axis.
2) It has its low cut in speed.
3) Cost of the vertical axis wind turbine is lower than that of standard wind turbines.
4) It has simple structure , hence easy to manufacture .
5) Overall weight of the turbine may be substantially less than that of conventional system.
6) Yaw and pitch controls are not needed to bring it into the wind or operate in high winds.
Disadvantages:
1) This type of machine is too solid it leads to excessive weight.
2) It is useful for a very tall installation .
Darrieus Type machine :
It has two or three , thin curved blades with airfoil cross section and constant chord length. Both ends of
the blades are attached to a vertical shaft. Thus the force on the blade due to rotation is pure tension This
provide stiffness to help withstand the forces it experiences. The blades can thus be made lighter than in
the propeller type. When rotating these airfoil blades provide a torque about the central shaft in response
to a wind stream. This shaft torque being transmitted to a generator at the base of the central shaft for power
generation. Darrieus type rotors are lift devices, characterized by curved blades with airfoil cross section.
They have low solidity, but high tip to wind speeds and , therefore relatively high power outputs per given
rotor weight and cost.
Characteristics:
1) No self starting
2) High speed
3) High efficiency
4) Potentially low capital cost.
Advantages:
1) The rotor blades can accept wind from any direction.
2) It eliminates tower structure and can be operated close to the ground level.
3) It eliminates the yaw control requirement for its rotor to capture wind energy.
4) Pitch control is not required this reduces the cost.
5) The tip speed ratio and power coefficients are considerably better than those of the S – rotor .

Disadvantage:
1) It requires external mechanical aids for start up .
2) Wind energy conversion system is some what lower than that of conventional horizontal rotor.
3) The less energy out put.
4) Vibratory stresses level encountered are high.
5) Special high torque breaking system is needed
Design principles of Horizontal axis wind turbines

Some of the main design considerations of the horizontal axis wind turbines are outlined below.
Rotor: A wind turbine rotor may have any number of blades which may be made from wood, metal or
composites of several materials. From a performance point of view, taller the tower better because wind
speeds increase with height. Horizontal axis rotors can be either lift or drag devices. Lift devices are
generally preferred because they develop more power than the drag devices. Lift devices use slender blades
with an aerofoil section that generate aerodynamic lift when placed in an air current. Small rotors can rote
at higher speeds with blade tip speed 8-10 times that of wind speeds. Drag devices are less efficient wind
energy converters and always turn more slowly than the wind. Drag devices are capable of generating
higher torques. They are less suitable for power generation. For lift type devices solidity ratio is usually
kept lower (0.1 to 0.01). Solidity ratio is the ratio of projected area of the rotor to swept area of the rotor.
Lift type rotors often use tapered and/ or twisted blades to reduce the bending strains on the roots of the
blades. Maximum efficiency can be achieved by maintaining high lift and drag ratio. The ratio of the speed
of the rotor blade tips to the speed of the wind is called the tip – speed ratio. . Maximum efficiency can be
achieved when ever the tip-speed ratio is at optimum level. The tip speed ratio calculated numerically as
TSR = Vtip / Vi Where Vtip = Speed of the rotor tip, Vi = Free wind speed.
Rotor with high TSR needs less material and can have relatively slender blades. Rotor with low TSR needs
more number of blades. As the TSR value increases the number of blades required decreases. Numerically
solidity can be expressed as
S= NC / D (1)
Where N is the number of blades
C is the average breadth of a blade
D is the diameter of the circle described by a blade.
If the characteristics of both load and rotor torque speed are known, the system performance can be defined.
Torque coefficient T = T / Tmax (2)
Where T = Shaft torque, Tmax is the torque at the maximum efficiency
For a propeller turbine of radius R
Tmax = F max R (3)
And Fmax = Ai Vi / 2 2
(4)
So Tmax = Ai Vi R/ 2
2
(5)
For a working machine the torque T = T Tmax
We know tip speed ration  = Vt / Vi = R / Vi (6)

Using equation 4 and 5
Tmax = Ai Vi2  Vi / 2
= Ptot  /  (7)
Shaft power derived from turbine P so
P = T (8)
= T Tmax
Now from equation P = Ptot  thus using 2 , 3 and 8 becomes
Ptot  = T Tmax

= T Ptot 
 = T 
Note that in practice power coefficient  and torque coefficients T will both be function of  and are
not constants .
By the Betz criterion the maximum value of  is 0.593, so in the ideal case
max = 0.593/  (9)
Machine with higher speeds have slightly higher maximum  but much lower T , particularly for starting
.The choice of the rotor is made mainly on the pump’s load characteristics.
Number of blades:
Wind turbine have been built with up to six propeller type blades but two and three bladed propellers are
most common . One bladed rotor with counterweight has advantages , including lower weight and cost and
simpler controls, over multi blade type. Two bladed systems are receiving major attention.
Blade design:
Wind turbine blades have an airfoil type cross section and a variable pitch. They are slightly twisted from
the outer tip to the root . Better performance can be obtained with blades that are narrower at the tip than
at the root.
As shown in the fig the force that propels the blades of conventional wind mill comes from the chord of
the airfoil, being tilted away from the direction of motion. In large two bladed wind turbines , the blades
are inclined at a small angle called the coming angles to the vertical This design decreases the bending load
and helps in avoiding damage to supporting tower under severe wind conditions. The design of the blade
must be capable withstanding several forces like , Vibrational, gravitational , forces arising from variation
in wind speeds , turbulence , pressure etc. Consequently aerodynamic performance is sacrificed to sum
extent in the design of a rotor with adequate strength. The limiting dimensions of the blade depend on the
design and constructional materials , but the maximum practical diameter of a two rotor may perhaps be in
the range of 90 to 110 m . For small rotors blades are made of laminated wood, covered with skin of
aluminum . It possible to construct the blades up to 34 m in diameter using plastic reinforced with glass
fibre. The very largest rotor blades have been made of steel to provide adequate strength.
Yaw control:

The area of the wind streams swept by the wind turbine is maximum,, when blades face in to the wind.
This achieved by control arrangement , is which when the wind direction changes , motor rotates the turbine
slowly about the vertical axis so as to face the blades in to the wind.
Numericals on wind:
Determine the diameter of the wind mill required to develop power 500KW. The wind speed available is
10 m/s and power coefficient is 0.45 b) Find the power produced by the wind mill per year if its effective
use is 2500 hrs per year c) The torque when the rotor is rotating at 300 rpm.(Density of air = 1.205 Kg/m3
Soln: Data: η = Cp= 0.45 , P = 500 KW, Vi = 10m/s
Total hrs/year = 2500 hrs, N= 300 rpm,ρ=1.205 Kg/m3
2) A wind turbine of 10 m diameter develops 2.5 KW when the wind speed is 5.5 m/s. Find the efficiency
of the wind mill and axial force acting on the wind turbine. (ρ=1.2 Kg/m3 )
Soln: Data- Vi = 5.5 m/s, P = 2.5 KW, D = 10 m
3) A wind turbine of 50 m diameter is to be located at a height of 60 m from sea level where pressure and
temperature of air are 0.96 bar 200C. The wind speed at that location is 12.5 m/s. Find the power produced
by the turbine if the overall efficiency is 42.5% and power density.
Soln:Data: D = 50m, P1 = 0.96 bar, T = 200C , Vi = 12.5 m/s , η = 42.5%

4) A multi blade wind mill is to be designed for running a irrigation pump which supplies the water at the
rate of 9 m3/hr with a total lift of 5 m. The wind speed available at the site is 600 m/min. find the speed of
the rotor required for the purpose. Take the following data density of water = 1000 kg/m3, Pump efficiency
= 45%, Efficiency of the wind mill tyo pump = 80%, Power coefficient = 0.32, Speed ratio = 1.1, Air
density = 1.21 Kg/m3
5)An electric generator operated by wind generates 1.5 KW when the wind speed is 25 km/hr. and when
air pressure and temperature are 1.01325 bar and 200C. Determine the change in the output of the same
system when it is operated at 200m height where air pressure is 0.92 bar and temperature is 100C and wind
velocity is 40 km /hr. Assume overall efficiency of generation is 40 % at both places.
Soln: Data-P1= 1.5 KW, P1 = 1.01325 bar , T1 = 200C, P2 = 0.92 bar, T2 = 100C, Vi1 = 10 Km/hr , Vi2 =
40 Km/hr

6) Wind at 1 standard atmospheric pressure at 15oC has velocity of 15 m/s, calculate

i). The total power density in the wind stream
ii. The maximum obtainable power density
iii). A reasonably obtainable power density
iv). Total power
v). The torque and axial thrust
Given: Turbine diameter 120 m, and turbine operating speed= 40 rpm at maximum efficiency. Propeller
type wind turbine is to be considered
Data: Propeller type wind turbine, Turbine diameter, D = 120 m,
Turbine operating speed, N = 40 rpm at maximum efficiency
Atmospheric pressure,


7) Wind blows with velocity of 16 m/s and 15 oC. Assume 1 standard atmospheric pressure and turbine
diameter = 115 m with operating speed = 40 rpm at maximum efficiency.
Calculate
i). The total power density in the wind stream
ii. The maximum obtainable power density
iii). A reasonably obtainable power density
iv). Total power
v). The torque and axial thrust
ENERGY FROM THE OCEANS
Ocean waves mechanics:
Ocean waves are caused directly by the indirect solar energy like the wind. Wave energy at its most active,
however, can be much more concentrated than the solar energy. Devices that convert energy from waves
can therefore produce much higher power densities that solar devices. Up to now no major development
programme has been carried out through any country .Small devices are available however , and are in
limited use as power supplies for buoys and navigational aids. Some of the important sites of wave energy
are Molakai and Alenihaha channels in the Hawaian islands, where 2 to 3 m high waves are typical during
the normal trade wind periods, Pacific coast of north America, the Arabian sea of India and Pakistan , the
north Atlantic coast of Scotland .
Advantages:
1) The degree of power concentration is 10 to 100 times larger than wind energy.
2) It is free and renewable energy source.
3) Wave energy devices do not use up large ;and masses unlike solar or wind.
4) These devices are relatively pollution free.
Disadvantages:

1) The construction cost is more , life time and reliability is less .

2) Wave energy converting devices must be capable of with standing severe peak stresses in storms.
3) Wave energy devices construction is relatively complicated.
4) Capital investment need is very large compared to other types of plant.
Energy and power from the waves:
y
Crest
y a
dx l x
l /2
Trough
Wave at time 0
nq /m l /2 + nq /m  + nq /m x
Wave at time q
A typical wave , a = amplitude , l = Wave lenght, showing two diemsional wave and amplitude at time 0 and at time q
A two dimensional sinusoidal progressive wave as shown in fig . is represented by the sinusoidal simple
harmonic wave shown at time t = 0 and at time t. The wave may be expressed by the following relation
involving some parameters
y = a sin [ 2x /  - 2t /  ]
Where y = height above its mean level in m, a= Amplitude in m ,  = Wave length in m, t = time in seconds
,  = Periods in seconds
2 = [ x / - t /  ] = phase angle
The relationship between wave length and periods is approximately
 = 1.56 2 (1)
The above expression can be written as
y = a sin(mx – nt) (2)
Where m = 2 /  and n = 2 /  = phase rate.
2a = height (From Crest to trough)
Energy and power from waves:
Total energy of wave is the sum of its potential and kinetic energies.
Potential energy:

The potential energy arises from the elevation of the water above the (y = 0) considering the differential
volume ydx, it will have a mean height y/2. Thus the potential energy is
dPE = mgy/2gc
= (ydxL) gy/(2gc)
= gy2L dx / (2gc) (3)
Where m = mass of the liquid in y dx, Kg
g = Gravitational acceleration , m/s2
gc = Conversion factor (1.0 kg.m / ( N.s2)
 = Water density k/m3
L = Arbitrary width of the two dimensional wave , perpendicular to the direction or wave
propagation x, m
Combining equations 2 and 3 we get

PE = (ga2L) / (2gc)  sin2(mx – nt)dx
0

2
PE = (ga L) / (2gc) [1/2 (mx ) – (1/4) sin2mx ]
0
= (ga2L) / (4gc) (4)

The potential energy ensity per unit area
A = L
PE / A = (ga2) / (4gc) (5)
Kinetic energy:
Kinetic energy of the wave is that of the liquid between two vertical planes perpendicular to the direction
of wave propagation x and placed one wave length apart. From hydrodynamic theory it can be expressed
as
KE = (ga2L) / (4gc) (6)
2
Kinetic energy density = KE/A = (ga ) / (4gc) (7)
Total energy and power density can be written as
E/A = (ga2) / (2gc)
P/A = (ga2) / (2gc) x f (8)
Where P is the energy per unit time , f is the frequency .
Wave energy conversion devices:

Several types of wave energy conversion devices are used some of the important devices are
1) Wave energy conversion by floats:
The wave motion is basically horizontal but the motion of water is primarily vertical. This latter motion
is made use of by floats to obtain mechanical power. A square float moves up and down with the water,
guided by four vertical manifolds that are part of the platform. The platform is stabilized within the water
by four large under water floatation tanks so that it is supported by buoyancy forces and no significant
.vertical or horizontal displacement of the platform due to wave action occurs. Attached to the float there
is a piston that moves up and down inside a cylinder that is attached to the platform and is therefore
relatively stationary .The piston cylinder arrangement is used as a reciprocating air compressor. The
downward movement of the piston draws air in to the cylinder via an inlet check valve.

The upward motion compresses the air and sends it through an outlet check valve to the four under water
floatation tanks via four manifolds. The floatation tanks serve dual purpose of buoyancy and air storage .
The compressed air in the buoyancy storage tanks is in turn used to drive an air turbine that drives an
electrical generator . The electric current is transmitted to the shore via underwater cable.
2) High pressure accumulator wave machine

In hydraulic accumulator , the main large piston moves inside a submerged cylindrical generator while the
small piston moves inside a power cylinder , Wave water enters and leaves through openings at the bottom,
thus causing the main piston to move up and down. A closed water loop exists above the small piston .
Pressure inside this equipment is magnified atleast twenty five times the amplitude of the wave.
The high pressure water is conducted through a one way up valve to a hydraulic accumulator at the top of
the generator. Two air volume counter balance and act as cushions in a chamber above the main piston and
in a sealed compartment in the hydraulic accumulator . The latter also maintains high pressure . Part of the
high pressure water flows through a Pelton wheel or Francis turbine that drives an electrical generator and
is then discharged to a storage chamber below the turbine. On the trough of the wave, the composite piston
is pushed downward by the gas pressure above the main piston, which thus acts also as a spring. The
turbine exhaust water in the storage volume is now sucked into the pump cylinder via one – way return
valve while the up valve is closed , and the cycle is repeated. The hydraulic accumulator is large enough to
permit continous turbine operation even though the waves are cyclic.
3) High level reservoir wave machine
In these machines, instead of compressing air the water itself is pressurized and stored in a high pressure
accumulator or pumped to a high level reservoir, from which it flows through a water turbine - electrical
generator . This is done by transforming large volumes of low pressure water wave crest into small volumes
of high pressure water by the use of a composite piston. This piston composed of a large diameter main
piston and a small diameter piston at its center. On the trough of the wave , the composite piston is pushed
downward by the gas pressure above the main piston, Which thus acts also as a spring. When there is peak
of the wave piston pressurizes the water and is elevated to a natural reservoir above the wave generator,
which would have to be near a shoreline, or to an artificial water reservoir. The water in the reservoir is
made to flow though a turbine back to sea level . Calculation shows that a 20 m diameter generator of this
type can produce 1 MW.

4) Dolphin type wave power machine
The major components of this system are a dolphin, a float , a connecting rod , and two electrical generators.
The float has two motions . the first is rolling motions about its own fulcrum with connecting rod. The
other is relatively vertical or heaving motion about the connecting rod fulcrum. It causes relative revolving
movements between the connecting rod and the stationary dolphin. In both cases, the movements are
amplified and converted by gears in to continuous rotary motions that drive the two electrical generators.
The system is envisaged to be used for electric power generation, pumping for desalination plant, or for
uranium extraction from sea. Because it completely eliminates waves, it can provide suitable sites for fish
farming , port facilities etc.
4) Dam – Atoll device

It is a massive and robust device that appears to overcome some of the disadvantages of many other
devices, namely, complexity and fragility in heavy seas. It is said to be strong enough to survive any ocean
storm. The principle of operation is based on the observed action of waves as they approach atolls (small
volcanic islands) in an ocean. The waves wraps them selves around the atolls from all the sides , ending in
a spiral in the center, driving a turbine before discharging laterally outward. A module , 80m in diameter
and 20 meter in high, is said to be capable of generating 1 to 1.5 MW in 7 to 10 – s period waves.
Module-4
Hydroelectric power plants

Introduction: The development of the hydroelectric power plant plays an very important role in the
development of country. The power generated by the water is cheapest as it is perpetual source of energy.
Hydroelectric generation plants help for irrigation and flood control in addition to power generation.
Nearly 30 % of the total power of the world is generated using hydro plants.
In hydroelectric power plants the energy of water is utilized to drive the turbine which, in turn, runs the
generator to produce electricity. Rain falling on the earth’s surface has potential energy relative to the
oceans towards which it flows. This energy is converted in to shaft work where it falls through an
appreciable vertical distance. The theoretical power available from falling water can be calculated using
the formula
P= gQH (1)
Where P = Hydraulic power in watts,
g = 9.81 m/s2
 = Density of water, (1000 kg / m3 )
Q = Flow discharge , m3/s
H = Height in meter.
The electrical energy produced in KWh can be written in the form of
W = 1000 x 9.81 x Q x H x  x t
= 9.81 x Q x H x  x t KWh (2)
Where  is the efficiency of turbine generator assembly and t is the time in hours.
From equation 1 and 2 we can observe that the generating capacity of the hydroelectric power plant is
dependent on the quantity of the water and potential head available at that particular site. If the head
available is high then quantity of water required for the power generation is less where as when head
availability is low then quantity of water to be required for per watt of power generation is high . The head
availability depends on the topography of the dam . The quantity of the water available depends on the
rainfall and runoff of the catchment area of the dam.
Run off and its measurements:

The part of the water in the rain fall which is flowing through the catachment area on the surface of the
earth is known as the run off. As the rain falls upon the drainage basin, a portion of it is evaporated directly
by the sun , another large portion is absorbed by the growing plants and crops and some water percolates
into the ground. The remaining portion of the rain fall flows over the surface of the of earth is known as
the run off. In general run off is calculated by
R=P–L,
Where R (Run off) = Rs + Rc ,
Rs- Run off over the surface
Rc is the run off reaching the catachment area through pervious earth.
P = Precipitation by rain fall
L = All losses

Measurement of run off

Run can be measured daily, monthly , yearly. It can be measured by the following methods.
1) From rain fall records.
2) Empirical formulae.
3) Run off curves and tables.
4) Discharge observation method.
1) From rain fall records.

In this method rain fall activity recorded over long period of time and the average of rain fall over catchment
area is determined. Then considering all the factors affecting the run off ,a coefficient is calculated for that
catachment . Now simple equation can be used to find out the run off over the catachment
Run off = Rain fall x coefficient
2) Empirical formulae:
In this method direct relationship between the rain fall and run off is established with fairly accurate
results. Some of the formulas used for calculating the run off are
a) Khosla’s formula: R = P – 4.811T , R- Run off, P – Annual rain fall in mm , T – temp in oC
b) Linglis Formula:
For ghat region R = 0.88 P – 304.8
For plain region R = (P-177.80 P/ 2540
c) Lacey’s formula: R = P/{( 1+ 3084F/PS)}
R- run off in mm , P – Annual rain fall in mm,
F – Monsoon duration factor
S- Catachment area factor
3) Run off curves and tables.

The formulae given above can not be used universally due the variation in characteristics for different
catachment areas and rain fall. How ever for the same region characteristics remain unchanged . Based on
this run off coefficients are derived once for all. Then graph is plotted in which one axis represents rain fall
and other run off . The curves obtained are called run off curves. Alternatively a table can be prepared to
give the run off for a certain value of rain fall for a particular region.
4) Discharge observation method.

By actual measurement of discharge at outlet of a drainage basin run off over a catachment can be
computed . The water flow volume through a selected channel of fixed cross section is measured by
measuring the velocity of water at enough points for different water levels. The mean velocity at each
section is measured with float method or current meter directly. Then run off through the cross section of
the river is given by
Q = A1V1+A2V2+…….. +AnVn
Where A1,A2,..An Are the areas of the sections, V1,V2..Vn are the mean velocities.
Hydro graph
Hydro graph is plot of discharge through a river versus time for specified period. The time period for
discharge hydrograph may be day, week, or month. Each hydro graph has a reference to a particular site.
Besides the variation in flow indicated by a hydrograph , it also indicates the power available from the
stream at different times of the day, week, month or year. Extreme conditions of flow can also be studied
from hydro graph. Behavior of flash stream on a hydrograph is indicated by the steep rise and fall of the
curve. A hydro graph also helps in the studies of the effect of storage on flow. We can obtain the following
information from the hydrographs.

1) Rate of flow at any instant during the duration period 2) Total volume of flow up to that instant . 3)
The mean annual run off or mean run off . 4) Maximum and minimum run –off or mean run off for each
month. 5) The maximum rate of run – off during the floods duration and frequency of the flood.
Crest
Rising limb Falling limb

Discharge in m3 /sec
Time
Flow duration curve
A flow duration curve is another useful form to represent the run off data for the given time. This curve is
plotted between flow available during a period versus the fraction of time. The flow may be expressed in
the form cubic meters per second per week or any other convenient unit of time knowing the available head
of water , total energy of flow can be computed. By changing the ordinate to power instead of discharge ,
the power duration curve is obtained and the area under the curve would then represent the average yield
of power from hydro power project. Thus by flow duration curve it is possible to know the total power
available at the site .

Q, m3/ s
Time %
240
225
210
195
180
165
150
135
Flow rate m3 / s
Flow duration curve

120
105
90 Flow duration line
Qn 75 F Qn
D E
60
45
30
C
15 B
Qm
O A Qm
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of time
Form the fig given above Qm is the minimum flow rate that would be available all the time (100% of
time) .and the area OABC represents the minimum power available always , often termed as primary power.
The additional out put available at higher water flows is called secondary power. If the flow rate of Qn is
required for all the times as indicated by the area under flow demand line DEF, then it would be possible
to meet this uniform demand of flow rate for all the times only if storage equal to area BEF is provided.
An alternative to this is to install a thermal power unit of BF capacity to work as supplement to the hydro
electric power unit. The curve also shows that natural flow sufficient to meet the flow demand Qn is
available for 53.5 percent of time or 195 days in the year of lowest flow of the record. In the absence of
any storage area BCDE represents the secondary power that would be available from the river.

Mass curve:
The mass curve is a plot of cumulative volume of water that can be stored from stream flow versus time
in days, weeks, or months. The unit used for indicating the storage are the cubic meters or the day second
meters. Mass curve is an integral curve of the hydrograph which expresses the area under the hydrograph
from one time to another time. Mathematically the flow mass curve is expressed as
t2
V =  Qt , dt
t1
Where V is the volume of run off and Qt is the discharge in m3/s as a function of time.
A typical mass curve is a shown in figure below. The slope of the curve at any point indicates the rate of
flow at that particular of time. If the curve is horizontal flow is zero and if there is a high rate of flow the
curve rises steeply. Relatively dry periods are indicated as concave depressions on the mass curve.
Cumulative discharge
Time
Calculation of storage capacity from mass curve.

The slope of the straight line AB joining the end points of the mass curve represents the average discharge
over the total period. The straight line CD parallel to AB and tangent to the mass curve at its lowest point
g is called a use line. The storage volume required to supply water continuously is given by the greatest
ordinate between the use line and mass curve. If it is required to determine the required storage for some
other required uniform flow rate, straight lines such as fj, and hi are drawn tangents to the high points of
the mass curve , with a slope equal to the desired flow. The required storage for continuous supply is given
by the maximum ordinate between such lines and mass curve.

B
j
D
f
Accumulated flow
h
Slope of demand line Mass curve
Storage capacity
A C
Time (Years)
Storage and pondage:
The flow rate of stream varies considerably with the time. In rainy season stream is in floods it carries huge
quantity of water as compared to other times of the year when quantity of water carried by it is considerably
less. However the demands for the power do not correspond to such variations of the natural flow of
stream . A such arrangement in the form of storage and pondage of water is required for the regulation of
the flow of water so as it make it available in requisite quantity to meet the power demand at a given time.
Storage:
Storage may be defined as storing of considerable amount of excess run off during seasons of surplus flow
for use in dry seasons. This accomplished by constructing the dam across the stream at suitable site and
building a storage reservoir on the upstream side of the dam. Storage increases the capacity of the river
over an extended period of 6 months as much as 2 years. The following figure shows the location of the
storage with respect to the power house.

River
Storage reservoir
Dam
Hydro power house
River
Pondage:
Pndage may be defined as a regulating body of water in the form of a relatively small pond or reservoir
provided at the plant. The Pondage is used to regulate the variable water flow to meet power demand. It
takes care of short term fluctuations which may occur due to a) Sudden increase or decrease of load on
the turbine. B) Sudden changes in the flow of water, say by breaches in the conveyance channel c) Change
of water demand by turbines and the natural flow of water from time to time. Pondage increases the
capacity of a river over a short time , such as a week. The following figure shows the location of the
pondage with respect to the power house.
River
Power channel
Intake Weir
Hydro power house
Tail race
Fore bay to provide
Pondage
Short
Penstocks
Pondage fig:
Classification of hydroelectric power plants

Hydro electric power stations may be classified as follows.
1) According to availability of head.
a) High head power plants
b) Medium head power plants

c) Low head power plants

2) According to nature load
a) Base load plants
b) Peak load plants.
3.According to the quantity of water available.
a) Pump storage plants
b) Storage type plants
c) Mini and micro hydel plants
d) Plant with pondage.
e) Plant without pondage.
1) According to availability of head.

a) High head plants
In high head plants operating head is 100 m and above. Water is usually stored in lakes on high mountains
during the rainy season . The rate of water discharge from the dam is maintained at such a rate that water
must available throughout the year.
The above figure shows the high head power plant layout. In order to maintain the safety of the dam surplus
water is discharged through the spillway. Flow is controlled by the head gates at the tunnel intake .Tunnel
is constructed through the mountain with surge chamber at near exit. . Butterfly valves are used to regulate
the water in the penstocks , and gate valves at the turbines. This type of the plant can also constructed under
ground. Pelton wheel is the common prime mover used in the high head power plants.
b) Medium head power plants.

These plants operate under the heads varying from 30 m to 100 m. Forebay is constructed at the beginning
of the penstock serves as water reservoir. This type of the plant commonly uses Fracis turbine as the prime
mover. In such plants water is carried in open canals from main reservoir to the fore bay and then to the
power house through the penstocks. The forebay itself works as the surge tank in this plant.

c) Low head power plant.

In low head power plants working head is less than 30 m. A dam is constructed across a river and a sideway
stream diverges from the river at the dam. Over this stream power house is constructed. Later this channel
joins the river further down stream. This type of plant uses vertical shaft Francis turbine or Kaplan turbine.
2) According to nature of load
a) Base load plant: These plants supply constant power to the grid without any interruption. They work
throughout the day. Base load plants are often remote controlled with which least staff required for such
plants. Run –of-river plants without pondage may sometimes work as base load plant but the capacity is
less.
b) Peak load plats: They supply power only during the certain hours of the day when the load is more than
the average. Thermal power plants work with hydel plants in tandem to meet the base load and peak load
during various seasons. Some of such plants supply the power during the average load but also supply
peak load as and when it is there. The run-off river plants may be made for peak load by providing
pondage.
Pump storage plants

Water after working in the turbine stored in the tail race pond. During low load periods this water is pumped
back in to the head reservoir using an extra power available. This water can be again used for generating

power during peak load periods. Pumping of water may be done seasonally or daily depending upon the
conditions of the site and the nature of the load on the plant. Such plants are usually interconnected with
steam or diesel engine plants so that off peak capacity of interconnecting stations is use in pumping water
and the same is used during the peak load periods.
Advantages:
1) There will be an increase in the plant capacity with low cost.
2) Operating efficiency of the plant is high.
3) There is an improvement in the load factor.
4) The hydroelectric plant becomes partly independent of stream flow conditions. In this type of plants
reversible turbine pump units are used. These units can be used as turbine while generating power and as
pump while pumping water to storage. With the use of reversible turbine pump sets, additional capital
investment on pump and its motor can be saved .
Essential elements of the hydroelectric power plants

The following are the essential elements of the hydro electric power plants
1) Catchment area
2) Dam
3) Reservoir
4) Spill ways
5) Penstock
6) Surge tanks
7) Draft tubes
8) power house
9) Switch yard for power transmission.
Catachment area: The whole area behind the dam draining into a stream or river across which the dam
has been constructed is called the catchment area.
Dam:A dam performs the following two basic functions.
1) It develops reservoir of desired capacity to store water
2) It builds up a head for power generation.
Various types of the dams are used depending on the requirement and geographical area.
1) Gravity dams: These dams are constructed in stone masonry or in concrete.
2) Earth dams: For small projects of up to 70 m height , dams constructed of earth fill or embankment are
used.
3) Rock fill dams: It is made up of all sizes and has a trapezoidal shape with a wide base, having water tight
section to reduce seepage.

Spill ways: When water level in the reservoir rises, the stability of the dam is endangered. To relive the
reservoir of this excess water, a structure is provided in the body of a dam or close to it. This safe guarding
structure is called spillway. Variety of spill ways are used example Overall spillway , Chute or trough
spillway, Side channel spillway, saddle spillway, Shaft spillway and Siphon spillway.
Penstocks:
It is an closed conduit used for supplying water to the turbine from forebay under pressure. Penstocks are
used where slope is too great for canal . Surge tanks or other measures are necessary to prevent damage in
closed conduits due to abnormal pressures. The regulating forebay has a small storage capacity to care for
minor flow fluctuations . It has an automatic spillway to discharge overflow when turbine shut down
suddenly. In different ways we can arrange to supply water to the turbines.
i) One penstock for one turbine. In such a case water is supplied independently to each turbine from a
separate penstock
ii) Single penstock for the entire plant.: In this case penstock should have as many branches as the number
of hydraulic turbines.
iii) Multiple penstocks but each penstock should supply water to at least two hydraulic turbines.
Penstock materials and their suitability.

i) Reinforced concrete: These penstocks are suitable up to 18 m head . Beyond this pressure concrete can
not with stand the pressure.
ii) Wood stave penstocks: In this type of penstocks treated wood is placed side by side to form cylinder
and held together by the steel hoops. These penstocks are used for heads up to about 75 m.
iii) Steel penstocks: Penstocks made up of steel can be used for any head , with the thickness varying with
the pressure and diameter. The strength of the penstocks can be expressed as horse power it can carry.
High pressure penstocks are fabricated in 6 to 8 meters lengths in order to minimize transportation
difficulties. Welded joints are used instead of riveted joints because of the higher frictional losses in latter
case. Penstocks are generally supported by concrete piers cadles., although they may be laid on or in
ground.
Water hammer
Water hammer is defined as the change in pressure rapidly above or below normal pressure caused by
sudden changes in the rate of water flow through the pipe according to the demand of prime mover. When
the gates supplying the water to the turbines are suddenly closed owing to the action of governor , when
the load on the generator is suddenly reduced, there is sudden rise in pressure in the upstream of the pipe
supplying the water to the turbine. This sudden change of pressure and its fluctuations in the pipe line

during reduction of load on the turbine is known as water hammer. The turbine gates suddenly opens
because turbine needs more water due to increased demand on the generator and therefore, during increased
load conditions , water has to rush through the pipe and there is tendency to cause a vacuum in the pipe
supplying the water.
The pipe supplying the water must have the capacity with stand variations in the water pressures. The water
hammer can occurs at all points in the penstock between the forebay or surge tank and the turbines.
Surge tank
Surge tank is open reservoir or tank in which the water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings so
that they are not transmitted in full to a closed circuit. Important functions of the surge tank are
1) It reduces the distances between the free water surface and turbine thereby reducing the water hammer
effect of the penstock and also protect the up stream tunnel from high pressure rises.
2) It serves as the supply tank to the turbine when the water in the pipe is accelerating during increased
load conditions as a storage tank when the water is decelerating during the reduced load conditions.
3) It acts as relief valve when ever there is variations in water pressure in the penstocks.
Surge tank should be located as near to the power house as is feasible to reduce the length of the penstock
thereby reducing water hammer effect. It is generally located at the junction of tunnel and penstock in
order reduce its height.
Types of surge tanks.
1) Simple surge tank.
The simple surge tank is cylindrical in shape and attached to the penstock as shown in the figure. It is
always desirable to place the surge tank over the ground surface on the penstock pipe. If suitable site is not
available the height of the tank should be increased with the help of a support. This type of the surge tank
is uneconomical due to its large size and its action is also sluggish as compared with other types of
tanks. It is most expensive and seldom used in preference to other types.
2) Inclined surge tank.
When a surge tank is inclined at an angle to the horizontal its effective water surface area increases and
therefore , lesser height surge tanks are required of the same diameter if tit is inclined or lesser diameter
tank is required for the same height. It is more costlier than the ordinary type as construction is difficult
ant it is seldom used unless the topographical conditions are in favors.
3) Expansion chamber surge tank.

This type of surge tank has an expansion tank at top and expansion gallery at the bottom, these expansions
limit the extreme surges. The upper expansion chamber must be above the maximum reservoir level and
bottom gallery must be below the lowest steady running level in the surge tank. In addition the intermediate
shaft should have minimum diameter.
4) Restricted orifice surge tank.
It is also called throttled surge tank. The orifice provided helps in creating appreciable friction loss when
the water is flowing to or from the tank. When the load on the turbine is reduced , the surplus water passes
through the throttle and a retarding head equal to the loss due to throttle is built up in the conduit. The size
of the throttle can be designed for any designed retarding head. The effect of throttle is very limited except
at large change of lad because the additional frictional loss is proportional to the square of the velocity in
the port. The change in the velocity will not be considerable unless the change of load is not large. It is
very rapid in action, but the pressure rises are also equally rapid , therefore, it is less effective than simple
surge tank in relieving the water hammer. The main disadvantage of this type of the surge tank is that ,
considerable portion of water hammer pressure is transmitted directly in to the low pressure conduit..
5) Differential surge tank.
A differential surge tank has riser with a small hole at its lower end through which water enters in it. The
function of the surge tank depends upon the area of hole. With change of load , the water level in the riser
rises or falls very rapidly thus producing a rapid deceleration or acceleration of the conduit flow. Though
rapid in action, the differential surge tank gives reasonably low pressure rises and surges low amplitude.
This type of surge tank is having an advantage of preventing increasing surges under all conditions.

Draft tubes: Draft tube allows the turbine to be set above the tailrace to facilitate inspection and
maintenance and diffuser action regains the major portion of the kinetic energy or velocity head at runner
outlet, which would otherwise go waste as an exit loss. The draft tube can be straight conical tube , or an
elbow type is more common.
Power house: A power house should have a stable structure and its layout should be such that adequate
space is provided around the equipment for convenient dismantling and repair. The power provides the
space for following equipments.
i) Hydraulic turbines ii) Electric generators iii) Governors iv) Gate valves v) Relief valves vi) Water
circulation pumps vii) Air duct viii) Switch board and instruments ix) Storage batteries x) Cranes.
Advantages:
1) Operating cost of the plant including auxiliaries is extremely low.
2) As maintenance cost of the plant is less costly.
3) Less labour is required to operate the plant..
4) No nuisance of smoke , exhaust gases, soot etc exists in this case.
5) The cost of the land required is less.
6) The plant efficiency does not change with age.
7) Plant life is much longer than that of the thermal power plant.
8) Less number of skilled workers are required.
9) In addition to the power generation these plants are also used for flood control and irrigation purposes.
10) No fuel charges.
Disadvantages:
1) Initial cost of the plant including the cost of dam is high.

2) Power production may be curtailed or even discontinued in time of drought. Thus power plant is not
reliable.
3) The suitable sites are always away from the load center and hence transmission losses are more.
4) Vast area of fertile ,agriculture and forest land may be submerged.
5) The plant construction time is long.
Brief Description of some of the important hydel power stations in India.
Important hydro plants in India are
Sl State / Name of the power plant Installed capacity (MW)
No
Andhra Pradesh
1 Machkand (Stage I and II) 114
2 Upper silern 120
3 Lower Silern 600
4 Srisailam 770
5 Narjuna sagar pumped storage 100
Assam
1 Umian 54
Gujrat
1 Ukai 300
Himachal pradesh
1 Baira suil 200
Jammu Kashmir
1 Slal 200
Karnataka
1 Tungabhadra 72
2 Sharavathi 890
3 Kalinadi 396
Kerala
1 Parambikulam Aliyar 185
2 Sabarigiri 300
3 Iddiki 390
Maharastra
1 Koyana 860
Orissa
1 Hirakud 270
2 Balimela 480
Punjab
1 Bhakra nangal 1084
2 Beas sutlej link 780
Rajasthan
1 Chambal 287
Uttar pradesh
1 Rihand 300
2 Yamuna 424
Tamil nadu
1 Kundah 425
2 Kodiar 100

Problems:
1) At a particular site ( in millions of m3) of a river in 12 months from January to December are
30,25,20,0,10,50,80,100,110,65,45 and 30 respectively. i) Draw hydro graph the flow duration curve on
the graph sheet and find the average monthly flow. ii) Estimate the power developed in MW if the available
head is 90 m and the overall efficiency of generation is 87.4% assume each month 30 days.
Soln: H = 90 m, o = 87.4%
Month Discharge in millions of Month Discharge in millions of
cubic meter / month cubic meter / month
January 30 July 80
February 25 August 100
March 20 September 110
April 0 October 65
May 10 November 45
June 50 December 30
Hydro graph

120
110
100
90
Discharge in millions of cubic meter
80
70 Average flow
60 47.083
50
40
30
20
10
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Average discharge for the flow
Qav = (30+25+20+0+10+50+80+100+110+65+45+30) / 12
= 47.0834 millions of cubic meter /month = 47.083 x 106 / ( 30 x 24 x 3600)
=18.165 m3 /s
ii) Flow duration curve
Discharge in millions of cubic Total number of months during Percentage time

meter / month which flow is available
0 12 100
10 11 91.7
20 10 83.3
25 9 75
30 8 66.7
45 6 50
50 4 33.3
80 3 25
100 2 16.7
110 1 8.3

110
100
Discharge in millions of cubic meter per month 90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time ( % )
Flow duration curve
Power developed in MW P = o g Qav H /106
= 0.874 x 1000 x 9.81x 18.165 x 90 / 106
= 14.02 MW
2) The mean monthly discharge for 12 months at a particular site of river is tabulated below
Month Discharge in millions Month Discharge in millions of
of cubic meter / month cubic meter / month
May 500 October 2000
June 200 November 1500
March 1500 December 1500
July 2500 January 1000
August 3000 February 800
September 2400 March 600
i) Draw hydro graph and flow duration curve for the above and find average monthly flow.
ii) Determine the power available at mean flow of water if available head is 80 m at the site
and overall efficiency of generation is 80%. Take 30 days in a month.
Soln: H = 80 m, o = 80%

3000
2800
2600
2400
Discharge in millions of cubic meter / month
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
Average flow
1200 1458.33 millions of cubic meter / month
1000
800
600
400
200
0
A M J J A S O N D J F M
Average monthly flow

Qav = (500+200+1500+2500+3000+2400+2000+1500+1500+1000+800+600) /12
= 1458.33 x 106 m3 / month
= 1458.33 x 106 m3 / (30x24x3600)
= 562.63 m3 /s
Flow duration curve
Discharge in millions of cubic Total number of months during Percentage time
meter / month which flow is available
200 12 100
500 11 91.7
600 10 83.3
800 9 75
1000 8 66.7
1500 7 58.3
2000 4 33.3

2400 3 25
2500 2 16.7
3000 1 8.3
Flow duration curve

3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time ( % )
ii) Power developed in MW P = o g Qav H /106 = 0.80 x 1000 x 9.81x 562.63 x 80 / 106
= 353.24 MW
3) The data for twelve months flow at a particular site is given below.
Month Discharge in millions of Month Discharge in millions of

cubic meter / month cubic meter / month
1 100 7 190
2 50 8 40
3 20 9 30
4 80 10 200
5 10 11 170
6 10 12 80
Find
a) The required reservoir capacity for the uniform flow of 50 millions cu-m per month throughout the
year
b) Spill way capacity.

c) Average flow capacity if whole water is used and required capacity of the reservoir for this condition .
Month Discharge in millions of cubic Cumulative volume in millions

meter / month of cu-m
1 100 100
2 50 150
3 20 170
4 80 250
5 10 260
6 10 270
7 190 460
8 40 500
9 30 530
10 200 730
11 170 900
12 80 980
230 millions cu-m

1000
b
900
800
d
700
34 millions cu-m/m
600
500
82 millions cu -m/m
400 Spill = 86 millions cu-m
300
200 z
100 x y
0
a 1 2 c 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
From the graph storage capacity = 82 x 106 m3

Spill way capacity required = 86 x 106 m3

Join the points a and b then the slope of the line ab represents the uniform discharge throughout the year.
= 980 / 12 x 106 = 81.7 x 106 m3 / month
Draw the line cd parallel to ab which touches the mass curve to its lowest point . The maximum
departure of the line cd from the mass curve represents the required storage capacity for the uniform
supply of 81.7 x 106 m3 / month . In this case , storage capacity required
= 230 millions of cu-m.
Ocean Thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
Introduction:
The concept of ocean temperature energy conversion (OTEC) is based on the utilization of the temperature
difference in a heat engine to generate power. In tropics , the ocean surface temperature often exceeds
25oc , while 1 km below the temperature is usually no higher than 10oC.Water density decreases with
increase in temperature . Thus there will be no thermal convection currents between warmer , lighter water
at the top and deep cooler heavier water so warm water stays at the top and the cool water stays at the
bottom. The maximum temperature difference on the earth is in the tropics and is about 15oC The surface
temperatures vary both with latitude and season, both being maximum in tropical, subtropical, and
equatorial waters i.e., between the two tropics, making these waters the most suitable for OTEC systems.
In OTEC systems the average temperature difference may be 200C compared to 5000C for modern fossil
power plants. Taking the temperature difference of 200C and a surface temperature of 27oC, the Carnot
cycle efficiency would be
c = (T1 – T2) / T1 = 20 / (27 + 273) = 6.67%

The extremely low efficiency of an OTEC system implies extremely large power plant heat exchangers
and components.
There are two basic designs of OTEC system: the open cycle , also known as the claude cycle, and the
closed cycle, also known as the Anderson cycle .
Open cycle or Claude cycle.

The Claude plant used an open cycle in which water itself plays the multiple role of heat source, working
fluid, coolant, and heat sink. Schematic flow and corresponding T-S diagrams are shown in fig. In the cycle
warm surface water admitted into an evaporator in which pressure is maintained at a value slightly below
the saturation pressure corresponding to that water temperature. Water entering the evaporator; therefore,
finds itself superheated at the new pressure. The warm water at 270c has saturation pressure of 0.0356 bar,
point 1. The evaporator pressure is 0.0317 bar. This temporarily superheated water undergoes volume
boiling causing that water to partially flash to steam to an equilibrium two phase condition at new pressure
and temperature 0.0317 bar and 25oC, point 2. Process 1-2 is throttling hence constant enthalpy process.
The low pressure in the evaporator can be maintained by using vacuum pump. The steam is separated from
the water as the saturated vapor at the point 3. The remaining water is saturated at 4 and is discharged as
brine back to ocean. The quality of the steam at 3 is low pressure high specific volume. It expands in a
specially designed turbine, condenser pressure and temperature at 5 are 0.017 bar and 150C . The
condenser used is direct contact type , in which the exhaust at 5 is mixed with cold water from the deep
cold water pipe at 6, which results in a near saturated water at 7. That water is now discharged to ocean.
Disadvantages:
1) Volume flow rates of water required are high.
2) The special types of turbines are required.

3) The size of the turbines required is very large.

4) Use of degasifiers required to remove dissolved gases in the sea water.
5) The cost of the open cycle system is more compared to closed cycle system.
6) The cost of the turbine is about half of the overall cost of power plant.
Closed or Anderson , OTEC cycle.

The closed cycle utilizes the ocean’s warm surface and cold deep waters as heat source and sink,
respectively, but requires a separate working fluid that receives and rejects heat to the source and sink via
heat exchangers. The working fluid may be ammonia, propane or Freon. When high pressure liquid
ammonia enters the evaporator absorbs heat from the water which is circulating and converted in to high
pressure vapour. This vapour expanded in to low pressure vapour in the turbine. Low pressure ammonia
vapour is condensed in to low pressure liquid ammonia in condenser. In order to remove the heat from
vapour in the condenser cold water from depth of sea is used. Low pressure liquid ammonia is converted
in to high pressure liquid ammonia using pump and supplied back in to the evaporator for repeating the
cycle. The operating pressure is much higher compared open cycle thus smaller and hence less costly . But
it requires very large heat exchangers. Instead of usual heavier and more expensive shell and tube heat
exchangers, In Anderson cycle thin plate heat exchangers are used.
Problems associated with OTEC

1) OTEC plants sites are always located away from the load centers .
2) The availability of suitable temperature differences between surface water and deep cold water is
restricted to equatorial regions.
3) The power transmission cost from the OTEC plant to load center is very high.
4) The power generation system gives less efficiency.
5) Large heat exchangers are required and hence the cost of the power generated increases.
6) The bio fouling is a major problem encountered in most power plants.
7) In the manufacture of heat exchangers costly , non corrosive materials must be used this further
increases the overall cost of the plant.

8) The initial investment required is high.

9) Construction of the plant in the rough sea is very difficult.
Module -5 Nuclear energy
Introduction: There is a common trend throughout the world to use nuclear energy as a source of power.
This is because of the rapid depletion of conventional energy sources. Transportation network and large
storage facility are not required which is one of the major hurdle in coal based thermal power plants. How
ever recently there is stiff opposition for the installation of nuclear power plants due to a fear of radiation
hazards.
Atomic structure:
All matter consists of unit particles called atoms. An atom consists of a relatively heavy , positively
charged, electrons orbiting around the nucleus. The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons, which
together are called nucleons. Protons are positively charged , while the neutrons are electrically neutral.
The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number, Z. The total number of nucleons in the
nucleus is called the mass number, A. The atomic mass unit , is a unit of mass approximately equal to
1.66x10-27 kg. Mass of Neutron is 1.008665amu, Protons is 1.007277amu and Electron is 0.005486amu. (
The mass of Protons=1837xmas of Electron, Neutrons = 1839 x Electron. ). An element is distinguished
by its atomic number . Some elements exist in more than one form, with the same atomic number but with
different mass numbers. These are known as the isotopes of an element. For example Uranium exists in
three isotopic forms 92U233, 92U235, 92U238. (Atoms which are having different number of neutrons than the
number of protons are known as isotopes.)
Binding energy: It is the energy required to keep the protons together in the nucleus of an atom or It is
the energy required to overcome the binding forces of nucleus is called as binding energy. The binding
energy is very large compared with chemical bond energy. When two nuclear particles are combined to
form nucleus . It is observed that there is a different mass of the resultant nucleus and the sum of the masses
of the two parent nuclear particles will be different. This decrement of mass is called mass defect Einstein’s
theory of relativity shows that mass is convertible into energy and this energy is given by the formula .
E = mc2 , E – Energy(J), m- mass defect(Kg), c – Velocity of light. (3 x 108 m/s)
Energy can also be measured in electron volt ( 1. e.v = 1.6021 x 10-19 J).
The energy equivalent of 1g of mass is
E = 1x10-3 x (3 x 108 m/s) 2 = 9 x1013 J
Similarly the energy equivalent of 1 amu of mass is
E = 1.66x10-27 x (3 x 108 m/s) 2 = 9 x1013 J

= 14.94 x 10-11 J = 9.31 x 10 8 eV = 931 MeV

Therefore , if 1 amu of mass could be completely converted to energy , 931 MeV would be yielded.
The amount of mass defect is directly proportional to the amount of energy released. Binding energy per
nucleons increases with increase in number of nucleons. For example binding energy per nucleon for H2
is 1.109MeV and for He4 it is 28.24 = 7.05 MeV. A curve representing the variation of nuclear binding
energy per nucleon with the mass number is shown in figure. The curve indicates that peak value of about
8.8 MeV at nearly 60 mass number. As the mass number increases still further , the binding energy curve
falls gradually to 7.6 MeV for U238. An atom with even number of protons of mass number is more stable
because of pairing of protons and neutrons. Example 92U238 atom having 92 protons and 146 neutrons is
quite stable and requires very high energy neutrons for fission, Where as 92U235 atom having 92 protons
and 143 neutrons can be fissioned even by low energy neutrons.
Radioactive decay and half life:
All isotopes of heavier elements less stable emits radiation till a more stable nucleus is reached. Thus a
spontaneous disintegration process , called radioactive decay occurs. For various elements decay time is
different , which follows certain law . This law is known as radioactive decay law. The law states that the
small amount of disintegration of the isotope in a small period is directly proportional to the total number
of radioactive nuclei and proportionality constant.
N= Number of radioactive nuclei present at any time t,
No = Initial number of nuclei,
 = Proportionality constant.
Then according to the decay law
N = -Nt (1)
dN/dt = -N (2)
Negative sign indicates that during disintegration number of nuclei decreasing.
Integrating the equation 2
No dN/N = - o dt
N t
(3)
loge N – loge No = -t
loge N/No = -t
N/No = e-t
N=No e-t (4)
dN/dt = -N = - No e-t (5)
Equation 5 shows that the decay scheme follows the exponential law.
If A = Activity at time t, A1 = Initial activity, k = detection coefficient then
A = k(-dN/dt) = kN = kNo e-t = A e-t (6)
Half life:
Half time represents the rate of decay of the radioactive isotopes. The half life is the time required for half
of the parent nuclei to decay or to disintegrate.
Using N =No/2 and t = t1/2 in equation 6 we get.
No/2 = No e-t1/2
 e-t1/2 = ½
 t1/2 = log e 2 = 0.693
t1/2 = 0.693 /  (7)
Nuclear fission

In this type of process heavy nucleus is divided in two equal number of fragments. Fission can be caused
by bombarding with high energy  particles, Protons, X-rays as well as neutrons. However neutrons are
most suitable for fission, they require less kinetic energy to collide with nuclei. Two or three neutrons are
released for each neutron absorbed in fission, and can thus keep reaction going. Isotopes like U233, U235
and Pu239 can be fissioned by neutrons of all energies , whereas isotopes U238, Th232 and Pu240 are
fissionable by high energy only.
When neutron enters nucleus of U235 the nucleus splits in to two fragments and also releases 2 to 3 neutrons
per fission. The difference in the binding energy between the products of fission and the original nucleus
is evolved during the fission reaction. This is known as nuclear fission. The breaking of U235 can takes place
in different ways, forming a variety of different products. Each way of splitting U 235 nucleus ejects different
numbers of neutrons 1,2,3. As an average of 2.5 neutrons released per neutron absorbed. Out of 2.5
neutrons, nearly 0.2 to 0.3 neutron is lost due to escape at the surface and out of remaining 2.2 neutrons are
allowed to continue chain reaction. The reaction rate will increase exponentially and enormous amount of
heat energy will be released. Such reaction is known as uncontrolled chain reaction. When only one neutron
after every fission is allowed to continue to cause fission reaction, it is known as controlled chain reaction.
This is the type of nuclear fission reaction used for power production and energy evolved remains at
constant level. For sustaining of the chain reaction at least there must be an one neutron available for
absorption. This condition can be conveniently expressed in the form of multiplication product or
reproduction factor of the system which may be defined as
K = No of neutrons in any particular fission/ No.of neutrons in the preceding fission.
If K > 1 , chain reaction will continue and if K<1 , chain reaction cannot be maintained. When K<1 system
is known as sub critical and when K>1 the system is known as super critical and when K=1 , the system is
known as critical and this is the desirable requirement for power reactors.
Prompt gama rays
Fission fragments
U235 Prompt neutron

Incident
Neutron
Fission fragment
Prompt neuttron
Chain reaction figure
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is the process of combining or fusing two lighter nuclei in to a stable and heavier nuclide.
In this process also large quantity of energy released because mass of the product nucleus is less than the
masses of the two nuclei which are fused. Several reactions between nuclei of low mass can be initiated
by accelerating one or the other nucleus in a suitable manner. These are often fusion process accompanied
by release of energy. However the nuclear fusion reaction cannot be regarded as much significance for the

utilization of nuclear energy. To have a practical value fusion reaction must be self-sustaining, i.e., more
energy must be released than is consumed in initiating the reaction. For initiating the nuclear fusion
reaction very high stellar temperature of 30 million 0K is needed.
Above figure shows the schematic diagram of futuristic deuterium-tritium fusion reactor. The plasma is
contained inside an evacuated tube of 4m. The surrounding vacuum wall through which 14 MeV neutrons
from the plasma pass, is maintained at about 7500C. Outside this wall are two concentric regions, viz, the
lithium breeding moderator and magnetic shield. Tritium is manufactured in the lithium blanket. Large
cryogenic superconducting magnets of 7 to 8 m diameter maintain the magnetic shield. The binary vapour
power cycle consists of a potassium topping cycle and a conventional steam cycle. It includes tritium
recovery system.
Advantages of fusion power plants:
1) The supply of deuterium is almost inexhaustible.
2) Radioactive wastes are not produced.
3) It is very safe to operate.
4) High energy conversion efficiency can be achived.
5) Low heat rejection to the environment takes place per KW of electricity generated.
Comparison between nuclear fission and fusion
Fission Fusion
Heavy nucleus splits in to two nuclei of equal mass Lighter nuclei fuse together to form heavy nucleus
and energy released. with the release of energy.
About one thousandth of the mass is converted in It is possible to have four thousandth of mass
to energy. converted in to energy.
Nuclear reaction residual problem is great Residual problem is much less.

Amount of radioactive material in a fission reactor Radioactive material produced is much less than
is high. that of the fission reaction.
Health hazards are high in the event of accidents. Health hazards is much less.
It is possible to construct self-sustained chain It is extremely difficult to construct controlled
reaction reactors. fusion reactors.
Manageable temperatures are obtained Un manageable temperatures
Raw fissionable material is not available in plenty Reserves of deuterium, the fusion element is
available in large quantity.
Fuels used in the reactor:

The fuels which are commonly used are natural uranium containing 0.7% U235 or enriched uranium
containing 1.5 to 2.5 % U235. In addition to natural nuclear fuels some of artificial or manmade fuels such
as Pu239, Pu241,U 233 are also used. Considering the necessary requirement of fission process and its
availability economically the fuels used in reactors are uranium, plutonium and thorium. U 235 is easily
available nature with concentrations up to 0.7% and its content increases up to 90% in enriched uranium.
The nuclear fuels is available in three states solid, liquid and gas. In reactors fuel is mostly used in solid
state or in the form of solution dissolved in water. The liquid metal reactors are in practical use. The fuel
used in the reactors is in the form of rods or plates . The fuel rods are surrounded by the moderator. The
fuel rods are clad with stainless steel or zirconium to prevent oxidation. The minimum amount of fuel
required to maintain chain reaction is known as critical mass. The fuel core must contain at least the critical
mass and more often, slightly larger than the critical mass in order to maintain the chain reaction.
Moderation:
Moderation is a process used to slow down fast moving neutrons in the nuclear reactor. Nuclear reactions
generate neutrons that are too fast to cause fission. They must first be slowed before being absorbed by the
fuel and causing further nuclear reactions. A moderator in a nuclear reactor is a substance that slows
neutrons to a low enough speed to cause fission. As a moderator, early reactors used high-purity graphite.
Now several types of moderators used . A good moderator performs the following duties.
1) It must effectively thermalize neutrons.

2) Neutron absorption should be kept to a bare minimum.
3) It should be non-toxic.
4) It must not be flammable.
Commonly used moderators are regular water, solid graphite, and heavy water are all common
moderators. Beryllium has also been used in some experimental types, and hydrocarbons have been proposed
as a possible alternative.
Breeding
The maintenance of the fission reaction in a reactor depends upon the production of neutrons in the fission
process. If more neutrons are produced than are required to continue the chain reaction, the extra neutrons
may profitably be used to make new fissile atoms by being absorbed in "fertile" atoms, whereby the latter
are converted into fuels. The most important fertile nuclides, Th232 and U238, which abound in nature, are
converted into U233 and PU239, respectively. The process of producing nuclear fuels is loosely called
"breeding." Logically, the term "breeder reactor" should be used to characterize those reactors which
produce fuel nuclides of the same kind as those consumed, and "converter reactor" to characterize those
which produce fuel nuclides different from those consumed. However, in common usage, "breeder" is used

to designate reactors in which more fuel is produced than consumed, regardless of the kinds produced and
consumed, while "converter" designates those that produce less.
Multiplication and thermal utilization factors

Self-sustaining nuclear reaction is must for practical utilisation of nuclear energy. Multiplication factor (k)
is used to determine whether the reaction taking place at steady state, increase or decrease. It defined as the
ratio of number of neutrons generated in any one reaction to number of neutrons in immediate preceding
reaction.
Number of neutrons generated in any one reaction
𝑘=
Number of neutrons in immediate preceding reaction
P
𝑘=
A+E
Where k = Multiplication factor, A = rate of production of neutrons, E = Rate of leakage of neutrons
When k =1 it indicates that reaction taking place at steady state (critical), k>1 states that reaction building
up (super critical) and if k<1 shows that reaction dying down (Sub critical). For given reactor to maintain
self-sustaining reaction the value of k must greater than 1 .
Thermal Utilization Factor (f)
Thermal Utilization Factor (f) is the ratio of the number of thermal neutrons absorbed in the fuel to the
number of thermal neutrons absorbed in any reactor material.
Number of neutrons absorbed by the fuel
𝑓=
Number of thermal neutrons absorbed by the fuel material.
The f value is always less than 1 because of some of thermal neutrons absorbed within the reactor will be
absorbed by the atoms of non-fuel material. f indicates how effectively neutrons absorbed by the fuel.
Elements of the nuclear reactor:

The essential components of nuclear reactor are as follows:
1) Fuel rods
2) Control rods
3) Moderator
4) Reflector.
5) Coolants.
6) Shielding
7) Control mechanisms
8) Measuring systems.

1)Fuel rods
Fuels which are commonly used are natural uranium and enriched uranium cast in the form of rods and
plates. The fuel rods are clad with stainless steel to prevent the oxidation. The fuel rods are surrounded by
the moderator. The minimum amount of the fuel must be maintained in the reactor in order to sustain the
chain reaction this is known as the critical mass. The fuel rods must contain at least the critical mass and
slightly larger than the critical mass in order to maintain the chain reaction.
2) Control rods
The purpose of the control rod is to maintain the value of multiplication factor as one this is the minimum
condition required to maintain the nuclear fission. This maintains the steady state heat generation in the
reactor. The control rod helps to vary the out put according to the load and shut – down the reactor under
emergency conditions. When the shutting down of the reactor is required the control rods, absorb more
number of neutrons than emitted and the fission reaction dies out. The material which are commonly used
for control rods are cadmium, Boron etc. The control rods are automatically operated.
3) Moderator
The function of the moderator is to reduce the energy of the neutrons evolved during fission from 2Mev
to 0.25 Mev in order to maintain the chain reaction. By the slowing down of high energy neutrons,
possibility of escape of neutrons is reduced and possibility of absorption of neutrons to cause further fission
is increased. This also reduces the quantity of the fuel required to maintain the chain reaction. The common
moderators used are ordinary water , heavy water , graphite and beryllium.
4) Reflector
The neutrons which may escape from the surface of the core without taking part in fission can be reflected
back in to the core to take part in the chain reaction . This is done by a reflector. The required properties of
a good reflector are low neutron absorption , high capacity to reflect and resistance to oxidation and
radiation. The moderators which are commonly used also work as reflectors. A blanket of reflector can
reduce the critical mass required to maintain the chain reaction.

5) Coolants
The purpose of the coolants is to transfer the heat generated in the reactor core and use it for steam
generation. The coolant circulated in the reactor core keeps the temperature of the fuel below safe level
by continuous removal of energy from the core. The coolant used must have very high specific heat to
carry more heat per kg of coolant used. It should not absorb neutrons, It must be non corrosive , non
oxidizing and non toxic. Ordinary water , heavy water, sodium, potassium and carbon dioxide are the
common coolants used in power generating reactors.
6) Shielding
The reactor is source of intense radio activity and these radiations are very harm full to the human life.
Therefore it is necessary to prevent the escape of these radiations to the atmosphere. The inner core is
made of 50 to 60cm thick steel plate and it is further thickened by few meters using concrete. The thermal
shield is cooled by circulation of water.
7) Control mechanisms
The control system is also necessary to prevent the chain reaction from becoming violent and consequently
damaging the reactor. It is an essential part of a reactor and serves the following purposes i) Starting
the reactor , ii) Maintaining the reactor at that level ,iii) Shutting down of the reactor during emergency
conditions. The control system works on the principle of absorbing the excess neutrons with the help of
control rods either made up of boron steel or cadmium strips.
8) Measuring systems
Main instruments required in nuclear reactor are thermocouples for measuring temperatures instrument
for determining the thermal neutron flux.
Types of Nuclear reactors:

1) Pressurised water reactor. (PWR)

In pressurized water reactor , heat generated in the nuclear core is removed by water circulating at high
pressure through the primary circuit. The heat is transferred from primary to secondary circuit in a heat
exchanger , or boiler, there by generating the steam in the secondary circuit. As such the steam in the turbine
is not radioactive and need not be shielded. The pressure in the primary circuit maintained high using
pressuriser so that boiling of water will not takes place. In order to vary the pressure in the primary circuit
electric heating coils are used in the pressuriser. PWR produces only saturated steam. By providing separate
furnace steam formed from the reactor could be super heated.
Advantages:
1) The coolant used is cheap and easily available.
2) The reactor is compact, small in size and power density is high.
3) Fission products remain in the reactor and are not circulated.
4) There is a complete freedom to inspect and maintain the turbine, feed water heaters, and condensers
during the operation.
5) Small number of control rods are required.
6) The fuel costs are less as the reactor extracts more energy per unit weight of fuel
Disadvantages:
1) High primary circuit pressure requires strong pressure vessel and so high capital costs.
2) Severe corrosion problems.
3) Reprocessing of fuel is very difficult.
4) The reactor must be shut down for recharging.
5) Fuel fabrication is very difficult.
6) Thermal efficiency of secondary loop is very poor.
7) Designing of the vessel against the thermal stresses is very difficult.
Boiling water reactor (BWR)

Apart from heat source the BWR generation cycle is similar to that found in the thermal power plants. In
this type of reactor , enriched uranium is used as fuel and water is used as coolant, moderator and reflector
like PWR except the steam is generated in the reactor itself instead of separate steam boiler. The plant can
be safely operated using natural convection within the core or forced circulation as shown .
Advantages:
1) The cost of the pressure vessel is less compared to vessel required for PWR.
2) This reactor does not requires separate steam generator therefore the cost is further reduced.
3) The metal temperature remains low for given out put conditions.
4) The reactor is capable of meeting the small fluctuating load requirements.
5) Thermal efficiency is high compared to PWR.
6) BWR is more stable than the PWR.
Disadvantages:
1) Steam leaving the reactor is slightly radioactive therefore shielding of turbine and piping is required.
2) Power density of the reactor is only 50% of PWR.
3) Part of the steam is wasted at low loads.
4) Enrichment of the fuel for the reactor is extremely costly process.
5) More biological protection is required.
6) Possibility of burn out of fuel is more in this reactor than PWR
3) CANDU ( Canadian-Deuterium-Uranium ) Reactor.

CANDU is pressurized heavy water reactor first developed in Canada. The coolant heavy water is passed
through the fuel pressure tubes and heat exchanger. The heavy water is circulated in the primary circuit in
the same way as with a PWR and steam is raised in the secondary circuit transferring the heat in the heat
exchanger to the ordinary water. The reactor is controlled by the moderator level hence control rods are
not required. In CANDU reactor refueling is carried out even as the reactor is in operation. The high
temperature coolant leaving the reactor passes out of the outlet header to a steam generator of conventional
inverted U tube and is then pumped back in to the reactor through the inlet header .The steam is generated
at temperature about 2650C. The reactor vessel and the steam generator system are enclosed by a concrete
containment structure. A water spray in the containment would result from large break in the coolant circuit.
Advantages:
1) The fuel need not be enriched one.
2) The cost of vessel is less.
3) No control rods are required.
4) Low moderator level increases the effectiveness in slowing down of neutrons.
5) Construction time required is less compared to BWR and PWR.
6) The cost of moderator used is less.
Disadvantages:
1) The power density is considerably low compared to BWR and PWR.
2) It requires high standard of design , manufacture and maintenance.
3) The leakage is a major problem.
4) The cost of heavy water is extremely high.
5) The size of the reactor is very large.
Sodium Graphite reactor.(Liquid metal cooled reactor)

Sodium graphite reactor is one of the typical liquid metal reactor. In this reactor sodium works as a coolant
and graphite works as moderator. It consists of three circuits, primary circuit, secondary circuit and Steam
circuit. In primary circuit liquid sodium which circulates through the reactor core and gets heated. This
heated liquid sodium gets cooled in the intermediate heat exchanger and returns to the reactor core . The
secondary circuit has an alloy of sodium and potassium in liquid form. This coolant absorbs heat from the
sodium circulating in the primary circuit in the intermediate heat exchanger. The heated coolant then
passes through the boiler and supplies heat required for generation of steam. The steam generated in this
boiler is super heated. The sodium potassium liquid in the secondary circuit from the boiler is supplied
back in to the intermediate heat exchanger with the help of pump.
Advantages:
1) The thermal efficiency is high .
2) The cost of graphite moderator is low.
3) Excellent heat removal capability.
4) The size of the reactor is small.
5) High temperatures are available at low pressure.
6) Super heating of steam is possible.
7) High conversion ratio.
8) The coolant sodium need not be pressurized.
Disadvantages:
1) Sodium reacts violently with water in the air.
2) Heat exchanger must be leak proof.
3) The problem of thermal stresses can not be maintained.
4) Intermediate system is necessary to prevent the reaction of sodium with water.
5) The leak of sodium is very dangerous as compared with other coolants.

6) It is necessary to shield the primary and secondary circuits with concrete blocks as sodium is highly
radioactive.
Fast breeder reactor.
The fast breeder reactor derives its name from its ability to breed , that is to create more fissionable material
than it consumes. When U235 is fissioned it produces additional heat and neutrons. If some U238 is kept in
the reactor , part of additional neutrons available , after reaction with U235 convert U238 in to fissionable
plutonium.
The general arrangements of the sodium fast breeder reactor is as shown in the figure. In fast breeder
reactor, enriched uranium or plutonium is kept in reactor core without moderator. The vessel is surrounded
by thick blanket of depleted fertile uranium. The ejected excess neutrons are absorbed by the fertile blanket
and converts it in to fissile material. The heat produced in the reactor core is carried by liquid metal sodium.
Advantages:
1) High breeding gain is possible.
2) High power density.
3) It has high boiling point.
4) It has low vapour pressure at most temperatures.
5) Absorption of neutrons is low.
6) High burn – up of fuel is achievable.
7) Small core is sufficient.
8) The moderator is not required.
Disadvantages:
1) Requires highly enriched fuel .
2) Neutron flux is high at the centre of the core.

3) The specific power of the reactor is low.

4) Handling of hot radioactive sodium is major problem.
5) Safety must be provided against the melt down.
Homogeneous graphite reactor and gas cooled reactor.(HGGCR)
In gas cooled reactors most commonly inert gases such as helium and carbon dioxide are used as coolants
and graphite as moderator . The graphite tubes fitted with fuel rods or fuel tubes fitted in tubes or rods made
up of graphite and fuel mixed together are used. The gas is passed through the tubes and carry the heat .
The fuel used is either enriched uranium or natural uranium. Two types of reactors are used .
a) Indirect circuit gas cooled reactor.
The arrangement of this type of reactor is as shown in the fig. The gas is passed through the reactor to carry
the heat generated by fission and the hot gas is further used for generating the super heated steam. The
Hinkley power station in England is working on this principle.
Advantages:
1) Fuel processing is simple.
2) There is no need for limiting the fuel element temperature.
3) Graphite remains stable even at high temperatures under high intensity radiation.
4) There is chances of explosion in the reactor due to the use of carbon dioxide as the coolant.
5) There is no corrosion problem.
6) It gives better neutron economy.
Disadvantages:
1) Power density is too low. Therefore reactor vessel is very large.
2) The leakage of gas is the main problem.
3) The loading of the fuel is more elaborate and costly.
4) The coolant circulation absorbs as large as 10 to 20% of plant capacity where as only 5% is required in
water cooled reactor.
5) The critical mass is high.
6) The control is more complicated.

b) Direct circuit gas cooled reactor.
Direct gas cooled reactor is as shown in the fig. The high pressure , high temperature gas coming out of the
reactor is directly fed in to the gas turbine for power generation. This is similar to the closed Brayton
Cycle except that heat required to heat the fluid is generated in the reactor instead of in the combustion
chamber.
Advantages:
1) Thermal efficiency is high.
2) The capital cost is low.
3) The reactor can be made more compact as high density gas can be used.
4) The use of gas turbine offers greater flexibility for selection of site
Disadvantages:
1) The system design is more complicated.
2) The components must be designed to bear higher stresses as high pressure gases are used. This increases
the capital cost of the plant.
Advantages of Nuclear power plants

1) Nuclear power plants need less space compared to other types of power plants.
2) Better performance at higher load factors.
3)There is saving in cost of the fuel transportation.
4) The operation is more reliable.
5) Nuclear power plants operation is independent of the weather conditions.
6) Advantage is more with large size power plants.
7) The expenditure on metal structures piping , storage mechanisms is much lower for a nuclear power
plant than a coal burning power plant.
8) The nuclear power plants, besides producing large amount of power , produce valuable fissile material
which is produced when the fuel is renewed.
Disadvantages:
1) The capital cost is high.
2) The danger of nuclear radiations always persists in the nuclear plants.
3) The maintenance cost is high.
4) The disposal of fission products is major problem..
5) Working conditions in the power plants always detrimental to heath of workers.

Selection of site for Nuclear power plants:

1) Proximity to load.
2) Population distribution.
3) Land use.
4) Geology.
5) Hydrology
6) Seismology.
7) Safety
Radiation hazards.
Human beings are continuously exposed to radiation from cosmic rays and various radioactive materials
in the earth and air. Small amounts of radiation can be tolerated but exposure to radiations above certain
level is dangerous to health and life.
Living tissues are affected in three different ways when exposed to radiations they are
i) Ionization: The formation of ion – pair in tissue requires 32.5 MeV of energy. About 3100 ion – pairs
are formed when single 1MeV beta particle is stopped by tissue. This absorption results in complete damage
of tissues in the body man, or beast or bird.
ii) Displacement: If the energy of the impinging particle is sufficiently high, an atom in the tissue is
displaced from its normal lattice position with possible adverse effects.
iii) Absorption: Absorption of neutron by a tissue nucleus results in forming a radioactive nucleus and
change the chemical nature of the nucleus. This severe alteration of the tissue causes malfunctioning of the
cell and cell damage may have severe biological disorders including genetic modifications.
Ultimate effect of all these hazards on human being is to damage the living cells of body by ionization.
The result of such damage may be immediate , effects like burns, even death, or delayed effects like
lukaemia , a anemia or cancer or may be genetic giving hereditary effects.
Shielding:
The common nuclear radiation emitting from nuclear reactors are in theform of -rays,neutrons,X-rays,-
Rays and -Rays. The  and  radiations are absorbed in a smaller thickness of the shielding.  radiations
require higher thickness shielding because of their higher high level of energy and frequency they can
penetrate more . Neutrons have high power of penetration and do not follow any defined path through the
shield materials. The shield should be designed to absorb or reduce  and neutron radiations. The nuclear
radiation if it is not prevented , it will have very bad effects on the human life and biological plants. The
desirable properties of the good shielding materials are.
1) It must have ability to absorb more  radiation with minimum thickness.
2) It must be fire resistant.
3) The strength of the material should remain constant under the influence of radiations.
4) It must have high density and it must contain light materials.
5) Density of the material must remain constant.
The use of best neutron absorber shield is beneficial. The combination of light and heavy elements in the
shield is best , the use of laminated construction or the use of iron concrete. The latter consists of iron
mixed in barytes concrete, or alternatively limonite is used partially to replace barytes in the mix.
Example for shielding materials include Water, Iron, cement and concrete, Tantalum, Lead, Bismuth and
Boron.
Nuclear waste disposal

Used fuel in a nuclear power plant is highly radioactive and can contaminate air or water and if absorbed
by a living organisms, it can cause biological damage. Disposal of radioactive waste is therefore a problem
which requires consideration right from the planning stage.

The nuclear wastes from the reactor are classified as i) High level waste( above 1000 Curie) ii) Medium
level waste (100 to 1000 Curie) iii) Low level waste ( below 100 Curie).
The spent fuel is withdrawn from the reactor and placed in a water pond where heat is removed. The pond
water is treated to remove radiations. The spent fuel is then transferred to the processing plant where
cladding that contains the fuel is removed and the fuel is dissolved in the nitric acid. The U235 (20 to 90%
) and Pu239 are then removed leaving the solution the solution known as highly active liquid waste. The
separated U235 and Pu239 are further purified and either stored for future use or fabricated in to fresh fuel
for reactor.
The waste from the cooling fond is the transferred to intermediate storage and kept there for a period of
about 30 to 100 years where most of radioactive nature is reduced to a considerably low level. Then waste
is permanently shifted to the final storage . Various methods used for the disposal of radioactive waste are
given below.
a) Storage in tanks on site. Solid and liquid wastes are stored in concrete or stainless steel tanks at site .
During storage period the radioactivity decays and then the waste is disposed of either in the sea or buried
under the ground.
b) Dilution: Disposal of liquids after dilution to safe limits, in the rivers or sea is also done. Gases are also
left off in air after dilution. Before disposal in the dilutent the radioactivity of the gas or liquid being
discharged is reduced to acceptable levels.
c) Sealed containers: Radioactive liquid and solid wastes are put in sealed containers which prevent the
radioactive contamination . These sealed containers are then disposed of at sea where they are quickly and
completely covered with mud in the bottom.
d) Underground burial. Another alternative is the burial of wastes direct in the ground . How ever burial
ground must be isolated from the public and water must not be able to seep through as it may cause
radioactive contamination of drinking water supplies.
Nuclear power plants in India:

1. Tarapur power plant: Located in Maharastra , has a capacity of 380 MW with the steam pressure and
temperature of 35 bar and 2400C.
2.Rana Pratap Sagar power plant: Located near Kota in Rajasthan, has a capacity of 400 MW with
steam pressure and temperature of 40 bar and 2500C.
3. Kalpakkam power plant: Located near Chennai in Tamilnadu, has a capacity of 470 MW.
4. Narora power plant : located near narora in UP , with , a capacity of 470 MW , steam pressure
temperature of 40 bar and 2500C.
5. Kakrapar atomic power plant : Located near the Surat in Gujarat with a capacity of 470 MW, steam
pressure temperature of 40 bar and 2500C.
6. Kaiga atomic power plant: Kaiga situated near Karwar in Karnataka. With a capacity of 440 MW ,
steam pressure temperature of 40 bar and 2500C.

Problems:
1) Each Fission of U235 yields 190 MeV of useful energy. Assuming that 85% of neutrons absorbed by
U235 cause fission, the rest being absorbed by non fission capture to produce an isotope U-236 , estimate
the fuel consumption of U-235 per day to produce 3000 MW of thermal power.
Soln: Data:- 190 MeV/ fission , P= 3000 MW
Each fission yields 190 x 106ev x 1.60 x10-19 J/ eV = 3.04 x 10 -11 J
Fission rate / W = 1/ 3.04 x 10 -11 = 3.3 x 1010 /s
In one days operation(86400 s) of reactor per MW of thermal power, the number of U 235 nuclei burned
is
= (106 w) ( 3.3 x1010 fission / W-s) ( 86400 s/day) / 0.85 fission / absorption
= 3.35 x 1021 absorptions / day
Mass of Uranium consumed to produce 1 MW power is
= (3.35 x 10 21 / day) (235 g / g mol) / 6.023 x 1023 ( nuclei/g mol)
= 1.3 g /day
Therefore the fuel consumption of U235 to produce 3000 MW is 1.3 x 3000 /1000 = 3.9 Kg / day
2) A nuclear reactor consumes 12 kg of U235 per day. Calculate its power out put if the average energy
released per U235 fission is 200 MeV.
Soln: Data:- m = 12 kg / per day of U235, Average energy released per U235 fission = 200 MeV
Number of atoms in 235 kg of U235 = 6.02x1026 (AN)
Hence number of atoms contained in 12 Kg of U235
= (6.02 x 1026 / 235) x 12 = 3.07 x 1025
Total fission energy produced by these atoms
= 200 x 3.07 x 1025 x 1.60 x10-13 =982.41012 J
Time taken to consume 12 kg of U235
= one day =- 24 x 3600 = 86400 s
 Power produced = 982.41012 J / 86400 = 11.37 x 109 W
3) 500 MW of electrical power is required for a city . If this is to be supplied by a nuclear reactor of
efficiency 20 percent , using U235 as the nuclear fuel, calculate the amount of fuel required for one days
operation.
Soln: Data- P = 500 MW / day ,  = 20%,
Energy consumed by the city in one day = 500 x 106 x 24 x 3600 =4320 x 1010 J
Power to be produced by the reactor = Energy per day / Efficiency
= 4320 x 1010 / 0.2
= 2160 x 1011 J
Energy released per atom = 200 x 1.6 x 10-13
= 32 x 10-12 J
Total number of atoms to be fissioned = Energy to be produced/ Energy released
= 2160 x 1011 J / 32 x 10-12 J
= 67.5 x 1023
6.02 x 10 number of atoms contained in the 235 kg of U235 , hence 67.5 x 1023 atoms are contained in
26
a mass = 235 x 67.5 x 1023 / 6.02 x 1026

= 2.635 kg
4) Calculate the binding energy and mass defect per nucleon of oxygen . Given mp= 1.007277 amu, mn
= 1.008665 amu, me = 0.00055 amu atomic mass of oxygen  16 = 15.99491 amu.
Soln: A molecule of oxygen has 8 proton, 8 neutrons and 8 electrons therefore mass defect m
= 8x 1.007277 + 8 x 1.008665 + 8 x 0.00055 – 15.99491 = 0.13703 amu

Binding energy = m x energy equivaelent of 1 amu

= 0.13703 x 931 = 127.6 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon = Binding energy / Number of nuclei = 127.6 / 16 = 7.97 MeV

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Bangalore Institute of technology Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.STEAM POWER PLANT

Selection of coal for steam generation.

Cross section of belt drive

Indoor storage or Live storage:

Fuel Firing methods

Depending upon the combustion equipments used boilers can be classified as

Solid fuel firing

Over feed stoker.

Types of Over feed stoker

1) Traveling grate stoker

1) Traveling grate stoker

Under feed stoker

1) Single retort stoker

2) Multi retort stoker

Damper Wind box

Pulverized fuel firing system.

Coal handling for pulverized fuel plant is shown in figure

Central or Bin system

Equipments or components of the pulverized coal fired plant.

Single roll crushers

a) Ball and race mill

c) Ball Mill with double classifier

Pulverised fuel burners.

Types of pulverized burners are

1) Long flame burners.

1) Parts of burners are well protected.

1) Crushed coal can be used instead of costly pulverized coal.

Ash handling system

General layout of ash handling system

Ash handling equipment.

1) Mechanical handling system

Mechanical ash handling system.

Hydraulic handling system.

High velocity or high pressure system.

1) The system is clan , dustless, totally enclose and pollution free.

Pneumatic handling system.

Steam jet system

1) It does not requires any auxiliary drivers.

3) Capacity of this system is limited to 15 tons/hr

Mechanical dust collectors.

High pressure boilers.

The unique feature of high pressure boilers are

i) Method of water circulation.

ii) Arrangement of drums and tubing.

iii) Improved method of heating.

The following methods are used to improve the heating.

1) Scale formation is avoided due to the use of high velocity of water.

Accessories for steam generators:

Super heater temperature control

1) By passing the furnace gas around the super heaters.

2) Tilting burner in furnace.

4) Pre condensing control:

6) Twin furnace arrangement.

7) Coil immersion in the boiler drum

2) Gilled tube economizer : (With return bend)

2) Recuperative air preheater:

a) Tubular air preheaters:

Plate type air preheater:

Cooling towers and cooling ponds

Necessity of cooling the condenser water

Natural draught cooling towers

Dry cooling towers: