HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF

ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE
- Architecture's history is almost as long as humanity's, and it's probably just as complicated. The
beginning of architecture can be traced back to the Neolithic period, circa 10 000 BC, or simply
to the time when humans stopped living in caves and began deciding how they wanted their
homes to appear and feel. The architecture we're discussing today is frequently evaluated in
visual terms and subject to ocular perception, yet the desire to create an architectural object
was motivated by much more than a desire for aesthetic appeal.
EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
- Egypt was the first great civilization to arise in the Mediterranean region (c.3100-2040 BCE).
- It produced a unique style of Egyptian architecture, mostly consisting of gigantic burial
chambers in the shape of Pyramids (at Giza) and underground tombs, in addition to its own
written language, religion, and royal ruling class (in the desolate Valley of the Kings, Luxor).
- Although Egyptian stone knowledge had a great influence on subsequent Greek architecture,
the design was colossal but not structurally sophisticated, and used pillars and lintels rather
than arches.
- The Step Pyramid of Djoser (c.2630 BCE), created by Imhotep - one of the greatest architects
of the ancient world - and The Great Pyramid at Giza (c.2550 BCE), also known as the Pyramid
of Khufu or 'Pyramid of Cheops' - the earliest of the Seven Wonders of the World, according to
Antipater of Sidon (170-120 BCE).
- The Egyptians later built a succession of palaces at Karnak throughout the Middle and Late
Kingdoms (c.2040-300 CE) (eg. Temple of Amon, 1530 BCE onwards).
- Murals, panel paintings, sculptures, and metalwork representing many Gods, goddesses, rulers,
and symbolic animals in the unique Egyptian hieratic style of art, as well as hieroglyphic
inscriptions, were adorning these structures, of which only a few survive.
SUMERIAN ARCHITECTURE
- The Sumerian civilisation was producing its own distinctive architecture - a form of stepped
pyramid known as a ziggurat - in Mesopotamia and Persia (c.3200-323 BCE).
- Unlike the Egyptian Pharaohs' pyramids, ziggurats were created as man-made mountains to
bring Sumerian rulers and people closer to their Gods, who were said to live far up in the
mountains to the east.
- Ziggurats were made of clay-fired bricks that were often glazed with colored glazes.
EARLY IRISH ARCHITECTURE
- Towards the end of the Stone Age, ceremonial megaliths (structures made of large stones),
such as the Knowth megalithic tomb (c.3300 BCE) and the Newgrange passage tomb, began to
appear in Northern Europe. (This form of Megalithic art is exemplified by the Stonehenge stone
circle.) Either arranged upright in the open or buried and roofed over to form a 'dolmen,' these
heavy stone structures are thought by The intricate carvings discovered at Newgrange reflect
the origins of Ireland's visual arts.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
- The Archaic Period (c.600-500 BCE), the Classical Period (c.500-323 BCE), and the Hellenistic
Period (c.500-323 BCE) are the three major periods in Ancient Greek art and architecture
(c.323-27 BCE).
 -Simple post-and-lintel construction techniques were used in Greek architecture. The arch was
not developed until the Roman era in order to cross bigger distances. As a result, Greek
architects had to use a lot more stone columns to support the short horizontal beams above
them.
- Large blocks of limestone or a light porous stone known as tuff were utilized in the standard
construction format, which was used in public buildings like the Hephaesteum in Athens.
- Greek architects began to abandon the rigidly rectangular layout of conventional temples in
favor of a circular construction (the tholos) decorated with black marble to emphasize
particular architectural details and give dramatic color contrasts in the late 4th and 5th century
BCE.
- These structures were known for their figurative Greek sculpture, which included pedimental
works, friezes, reliefs, and numerous types of free-standing statues representing mythical
heroes and events in Greek history and culture.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
- The Romans were mainly practical people with a talent for engineering, building, and military
concerns, unlike the more imaginative and intellectual Greeks. They borrowed greatly from
both the Etruscans (for example, in their use of hydraulics for swamp-clearing and the
construction of arches) and the Greeks, whom they viewed as superiors in the visual arts, in
their architecture and art.
- The Roman state wanted to dazzle, amuse, and cater a rapidly growing population in very
restricted urban regions, therefore Roman architecture fulfilled that purpose.
- This, along with Rome's goal to expand its authority and grandeur across Italy and beyond,
necessitated majestic, large-scale, and highly functional public structures.
- Roman architectural achievements in drainage systems, aqueducts (e.g., the aqueduct at
Segovia, 100 CE, and over 11 aqueducts in Rome itself, such as Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus),
bridges (e.g., the Pont du Gard), roads, municipal structures such as public baths (e.g., the Baths
of Caracalla and the Baths of Diocletian), sports facilities and amphitheatres (e.
- There were also several temples and theatres constructed. Later, as their empire grew, Roman
architects took use of the chance to build new towns from the ground up, developing urban
grid-plans centered on two large streets: a north-south axis (the cardo) and an east-west axis
(the acropolis) (the decumanus).
- Major advancements in design and new materials aided Roman building. Architectural
advancements in the creation of arches and roof domes improved the design. Arches increased
the efficiency and capability of bridges and aqueducts (fewer support columns were required
to support the structure), while domed roofs not only allowed for the construction of larger
open areas under cover, but also gave the exterior an impressive appearance of grandeur and
majesty, as seen in the Pantheon and other important secular and Christian basilicas.
- The Roman Emperor Constantine I designated Byzantium (later renamed Constantinople, now
Istanbul in Turkey) to be the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 CE, about the time St Peter's
Basilica was constructed.
- Following Emperor Theodosius' death in 395 CE, the empire was divided into two halves: a
Western half centered in Rome until it was sacked in the 5th century CE, and an Eastern half
based in Alexandria.

BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE
- During the era of early Christian art, Byzantine architects - including many Italians who had
moved to the new capital from Italy - continued the free-flowing tradition of Roman
architecture, constructing a number of magnificent churches and religious buildings, such as
 the Chora Church (c.333), the Hagia Irene (c.360), and the Church of St. Sergius and Bacchus,
all in Istanbul; the Church of St. Sophia in Sofia, Bulgaria (527-65), and the awesome Hag.
- The use of concave triangular masonry portions known as pendentives to bear the weight of
the ceiling dome to corner piers was a new architectural method. As a result, larger and more
majestic domes were built, as well as more open space inside the structure, as seen in the Hagia
Sophia.
- The introduction of brilliant mosaics made of glass, rather than the stone employed by the
Romans, was one of the new ornamental ways.
- Byzantine art was also used to embellish the inside of churches, such as gilding, paintings, and
relief sculptures - but not statues, which were not considered icons.
- Following the Early Period (c.300-600), which was largely a continuation of Roman architecture,
came the Middle Period (c.600-1100), notable only for the popularity of the cross-in-square
type architectural church design (examples include the monastery of Hosios Lukas in Greece
(c.1000), and the Daphni Monastery near Athens (c.1050); after this came the Comnenian and
Paleologan periods (c.1
- As the Eastern Roman Empire expanded, Byzantine architecture became more influenced by
eastern building and decorating traditions.
- Buildings became more geometrically complicated as brick and plaster were used for aesthetic
reasons alongside stone, such as the exterior zig-zag patterns.
- The preceding 'Classical Orders' or styles were more freely interpreted, and windows diffused
light through thin sheets of alabaster to give softer lighting.
- The basilican, or axial, type (for example, the basilica of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem) and
the circular, or central, type (eg. the great octagonal church at Antioch).
- Byzantine designs impacted the European aesthetic revivals of Carolingian Art (750-900) and
Ottonian Art (900-1050), which led to Romanesque and Gothic architecture in the West.
- It continued to have an impact on early Islamic art and architecture in the East, as seen by the
Umayyad Great Mosque of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, while it lasted
much longer in Bulgaria, Russia, Serbia, Georgia, Ukraine, and other Orthodox nations.

ROMANESQUE STYLE
- The word Romanesque architecture is frequently used to refer to all direct derivations of
Roman architecture in the West from the fall of Rome to the blooming of the Gothic style about
1200.
- The Romanesque resurgence of medieval Christian art started in 800, when Pope Leo III
crowned Charlemagne I, King of the Franks, as Holy Roman Emperor in St. Peter's Rome.
- Known for his Carolingian art, his biggest architectural work, the Palatine Chapel in Aachen
(about 800), was influenced by the octagonal Byzantine-style Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna
rather than St Peter's or other buildings in Rome.
- Otto 1 (Holy Roman Emperor 936-73) maintained Charlemagne's pre-Romanesque
architectural works in a style known as Ottonian Art, which gave birth to the fully fledged
'Romanesque' (Note: the Romanesque style in England and Ireland is commonly referred to as
Norman architecture.)
- The blooming of the Romanesque style in the 11th century coincided with Rome's reassertion
as Christianity's capital, and its influence on secular authority led to the Christian re-conquest
of Spain (which began in 1031) and the Crusades to liberate the Holy Land from Islamic
dominion.
- The Crusaders' capture of Holy Relics, along with the fervor inspired by their battles, sparked
the construction of a flood of new churches and cathedrals across Europe.
 - Although they borrowed some design elements from Greek and Roman Antiquity, Romanesque
builders lacked the Greeks' inventiveness and the Romans' engineering competence. For
example, much of Europe has lost touch with Roman brick and stone building skills. Thick walls,
round arches, piers, columnsgroin vaults, small slit-windows, huge towers, and elaborate
arcading were common features of the architecture.
- Interiors were heavy on stone, with dark illumination and plain, unadorned lines compared to
subsequent Gothic forms. Romanesque churches have a distinct shape and are easily
recognized throughout Europe.
- Except along trade routes, indications of Byzantine or Eastern influence were scarce. The
domed St Mark's Basilica in Venice is a famous example.
- Despite its simplicity of design, Romanesque architecture reintroduced two significant types of
fine art: sculpture (which had mostly vanished since Rome's destruction) and stained glass.
- Given the size of the windows in Romanesque style structures, the latter remained a minor
aspect in Medieval art until the introduction of Gothic designs.
- Romanesque Revival architecture was popularized in the nineteenth century by architects such
as Louisiana-born Henry Hobson Richardson (1838-86), who was responsible for
"Richardsonian Romanesque" buildings such as the Marshall Field Wholesale Store in Chicago
(1885-87).
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
- From the mid-12th century through the mid-15th century, the name "Gothic" denoted a style
of architecture and art that succeeded Romanesque.
- The Gothic art style is characterized by the use of pointed arches, thinner walls, ribbed vaults,
flying buttresses, huge stained glass windows, and elaborate tracery. It was coined as an insult
by Italian Renaissance artists and others like Christopher Wren to describe the type of Medieval
architecture they considered barbaric, as if to suggest it was created by Gothic tribes who had
destroyed classical art of Antiquity.
- The Gothic style is often separated into two variations: Rayonnant Gothic Architecture (c.1200-
1350) and Flamboyant Gothic Architecture (1375-1500). Modern commentators such as John
Ruskin admired the Gothic aesthetic.
- The pointed arch is the main characteristic of Gothic architecture, which many scholars think
originated in Assyrian and later Islamic building. This feature, which funneled the weight of the
ceiling onto weight-bearing piers or columns at a far steeper angle than was previously
achievable with Romanesque 'circular' arches, allowed builders to elevate vaults much higher,
creating the illusion of'reaching for heaven.'
- It also resulted in the acceptance of a slew of additional features. Instead of immensely thick
walls, little windows, and murky interiors, the new Gothic architecture featured thin walls,
typically supported by flying buttresses, and vast stained glass windows, as Sainte Chapelle
(1241-48) in Paris exemplifies.
- Soaring ceilings and greater lighting transformed the interiors of many cathedrals into
inspirational sanctuaries, revolutionizing ecclesistical design.
RENAISSANCE-STYLE ARCHITECTURE
- The rediscovery of Ancient Roman architectural styles and philosophies fueled Renaissance
architecture.
- Filippo Brunellesci (1377-1446), a Florentine architect and artist, had began researching old
Roman designs and was persuaded that optimum building proportions could be determined
using mathematical and geometrical concepts. Brunellesci's spectacular 1418 design for the
dome of Florence Cathedral (1420-36), today considered the earliest example of Renaissance
 architecture, ushered in a new style based on the long-forgotten placement and proportion
standards of Classical Antiquity.
- Simply said, Renaissance structures were inspired by Greek and Roman classical architecture
while retaining new aspects of Byzantine and Gothic design, such as intricate domes and
towers.
- Furthermore, in addition to duplicating and expanding on Classical sculpture, they added
contemporary mosaics and stained glass, as well as excellent fresco paintings.
- Many examples of Renaissance architecture can be found in churches, cathedrals, and
municipal buildings throughout Europe (for example, in many French Chateaux, such as
Fontainebleau Chateau, home of the Fontainebleau School: 1528-1610), and its style has been
reapplied in later ages to famous structures as diverse as the US Capitol and the UK National
Gallery. (In the United Kingdom, the style is commonly referred to as Elizabethan architecture.)
BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE
- The theological, political, and philosophical certainty that had reigned during the Early (c.1400-
85) and High (1486-1520) Renaissance periods began to unravel as the 16th century
progressed.
- Martin Luther began the Protestant Reformation in 1517, throwing doubt on the Roman
Church's integrity and doctrine throughout Europe.
- This sparked multiple battles involving France, Italy, Spain, and England, and led directly to
Rome's Counter-Reformation effort, which sought to sway the masses away from
Protestantism.
- Renewed support for the visual arts and architecture was a significant tool in this propaganda
drive, resulting in a bigger, more dramatic style in both.
- For the rest of the century, this more dynamic style was referred to as Mannerism (style-
ishness), and later, Baroque - a name derived from the Portuguese word barocco, which means
"an uneven pearl."
- Baroque architecture may be thought of as a more complicated, detailed, rich, and embellished
version of Renaissance architecture. More swirls, more complicated light, color, texture, and
perspective manipulation.
- The entire thing was meant to captivate, if not dazzling, the viewer.
- Baroque architecture was an emotive style that capitalized on the dramatic possibilities of the
urban landscape.
ROCOCO ARCHITECTURE
- Rococo was obsessed with interior design.
- This was due to the fact that it arose and remained centered in France, where wealthy patrons
preferred to refurbish rather than rebuild mansions and chateaux.
- For the exteriors of religious and municipal buildings, the design was far too fanciful and
lighthearted.
- As a result, Rococo architects - in effect, interior designers - were limited to creating elaborately
decorated rooms whose plasterwork, murals, tapestries, furniture, mirrors, porcelain, silks,
chinoiserie, and other embellishments provided the visitor with a complete aesthetic
experience - a total work of art (but hardly architecture)
- The depraved indolence and degeneracy of the French Royal Court and High Society was well
mirrored in ococo. Perhaps as a result, while it extended from France to Germany, where it was
more popular among Catholics than Protestants, it was less well welcomed in other European
countries like as England, the Low Countries, Spain, and even Italy.
- The French Revolution and the sterner Neoclassicism that signaled a return to Classical
principles and styles more in line with the Age of Enlightenment and Reason drove it away.
19TH CENTURY ARCHITECTURE
- There were no new significant design trends or schools of thought in 19th-century architecture
in Europe or America. Instead, a number of revivals of previous styles occurred.
- Neo-Gothic and Jacobethan were popular Victorian styles. The tower is a massive facsimile of
a viaduct pylon made mainly of iron girders. The sole notable exception to the preceding
Revivalist trends was the fin de siecle arrival of Art Nouveau architecture, pioneered by Antoni
Gaudi (1852-1926), Victor Horta (1861-1947), and Hector Guimard (1867-1942), as well as
Secessionists such as Viennese architect Joseph Maria Olbrich (1867-1908).
20TH CENTURY ARCHITECTURE
- The Modernist architectural movement attempted to build a nonhistorical architecture of
Functionalism in which a new feeling of space would be produced using current materials.
Modernism, a reaction to the 19th century's aesthetic heterogeneity, was also colored by the
conviction that the 20th century had given birth to "modern man," who would require a
completely new type of architecture.
- Antonio Sant'Elia, an Italian architect from the early twentieth century, was a part of the
Futurist movement. He planned a spectacular future metropolis called "Città nuova" ("New
City"), influenced by American industrial towns and the Viennese architects Otto Wagner and
Adolf Loos, the designs for which were displayed in Milan in 1914.
- It heralded a break from the rigorous norms of classical architecture in the early twentieth
century, allowing form to follow function and aesthetics to develop from the beauty of raw
materials and good design. "No better word than'modern' has yet been found for what has
come to be the typical architecture of the twentieth century," architectural historian Henry-
Russell Hitchcock said.
ST
21 CENTURY ARCHITECTURE
- Contemporary architecture refers to construction styles used in the twenty-first century that
employ modern techniques and materials.
- The movement has a wide range of distinct inspirations, adopting bits and pieces from other
styles and eras.
- Contemporary design has grown in popularity as the housing market has improved, and it is
quickly becoming one of the most important design trends.
- When the option to renovate presents itself to many homeowners these days, they think
outside the box. It's not just about rebuilding or expanding room, but also about creating
something inspirational.
- As a result, architects and designers are being challenged to discover innovative solutions that
are not limited by the constraints of traditional techniques or styles.