Meaning of the word “Art”

Early 13c., "skill as a result of learning or practice," from Old French art
(10c.), from Latin artem (nominative ars) "work of art; practical skill; a
business, craft," from PIE *ar(ə)-ti- (source also of Sanskrit rtih "manner,
mode;" Greek artizein "to prepare"), suffixed form of root *ar- "to fit
together." Etymologically akin to Latin arma "weapons."

Expounded meanings
• In Middle English usually with a sense of "skill in scholarship and
learning" (c. 1300), especially in the seven sciences, or liberal arts.
This sense remains in Bachelor of Arts, etc.

• Meaning "human workmanship" (as opposed to nature) is from late

14c.

• Meaning "system of rules and traditions for performing certain

actions" is from late 15c. Sense of "skill in cunning and trickery" first
attested late 16c. (the sense in artful, artless).

• Meaning "skill in creative arts" is first recorded 1610s; especially of

painting, sculpture, etc., from 1660s.

Origins of Art

1. History of Stone Age Art (2.5 million-3,000 BCE)

Prehistoric art comes from three epochs of prehistory: Paleolithic,
Mesolithic and Neolithic.

 Paleolithic
• The earliest recorded art(Paleolithic) is the Bhimbetka petroglyphs
found in a quartzite rock shelter known as Auditorium cave at
Bhimbetka in central India, dating from at least 290,000 BCE.
However, it may turn out to be much older (c.700,000 BCE).
• This primitive rock art was followed, no later than 250,000 BCE, by
simple figurines (eg. Venus of Berekhat Ram [Golan Heights] and
Venus of Tan-Tan [Morocco]), and from 80,000 BCE by the Blombos
cave stone engravings, and the cupules at the Dordogne rock shelter
at La Ferrassie.

• Prehistoric culture and creativity is closely associated with brain-

size and efficiency which impacts directly on "higher" functions such
as language, creative expression and ultimately aesthetics.

• However, the greatest art of prehistory is the cave painting at

Chauvet, Lascaux and Altamira.

Lascaux cave, France

Bhimbekta stone shelter, India

  Mesolithic Art (c.10, 000-4,000 BCE)

Against a background of a new climate, improved living conditions

and consequent behaviour patterns, Mesolithic art focused more on:

• human figures, shows keener observation, and greater narrative in

its paintings.

• warmer weather moved from caves to outdoor sites in numerous

locations across Europe, Asia, Africa, Australasia and the Americas.

• Mesolithic artworks include the bushman rock paintings in the

Waterberg area of South Africa, the paintings in the Rock Shelters of
Bhimbetka in India, and Australian Aboriginal art from Arnhem
Land.

 Neolithic Art (c.4,000-2,000 BCE)

• Neolithic era saw a growth in crafts like pottery and weaving. This
originated from about 9,000 BCE in the villages of southern Asia,
after which it flourished along the Yellow and Yangtze river valleys in
China (c.7,500 BCE)

• This was followed in the fertile crescent of the Tigris and Euphrates
river valleys in the Middle East (c.7,000) - the 'cradle of civilization' -
before spreading to India (c.5,000), Europe (c.4,000), China (3,500)
and the Americas (c.2,500). Although most art remained functional in
nature, there was a greater focus on ornamentation and
decoration. For example, calligraphy - one of the great examples of
Chinese art - first appears during this period.

• Neolithic art also features free standing sculpture, bronze statuettes

(notably by the Indus Valley Civilization), primitive jewelry and
decorative designs on a variety of artifacts. The most spectacular
form of late Neolithic art was architecture: featuring large-stone
structures known as megaliths, ranging from the Egyptian
 pyramids, to the passage tombs of Northern Europe - such as
Newgrange and Knowth in Ireland - and the assemblages of large
upright stones (menhirs) such as those at the Stonehenge Stone
Circle and Avebury Circle in England.

Neolithic Pottery, Pre-dynastic Egypt

2. Bronze Age Art (In Europe: 3000-1200 BCE)

• The most famous examples of Bronze Age art appeared in the 'cradle
of civilization' around the Mediterranean in the Near East, during the
rise of Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), Greece, Crete (Minoan
civilization) and Egypt. The emergence of cities, the use of written
languages and the development of more sophisticated tools led the
creation of a far wider range of monumental and portable artworks.

 Egyptian Art (from 3100 BCE)

Egypt, arguably the greatest civilization in the history of ancient art, was
the first culture to adopt a recognizable style of art:
• Egyptian painters depicted the head, legs and feet of their human
subjects in profile, while portraying the eye, shoulders, arms and torso
from the front.

• Other artistic conventions laid down how Gods, Pharaohs and ordinary
people should be depicted, regulating such elements as size, colour and
figurative position.

• In addition, the unique style of Egyptian architecture featured a range of

massive stone burial chambers, called Pyramids. Egyptian expertise in
stone had a huge impact on later Greek architecture.

Ancient Egyptian Art

 Sumerian Art (from 3500 BCE)

• In Mesopotamia and Ancient Persia, Sumerians were developing their
own unique building - an alternative form of stepped pyramid called a
ziggurat. These were not burial chambers but man-made mountains
designed to bring rulers and people closer to their gods who according
to legend lived high up in mountains to the east. Ziggurats were built
from clay bricks, typically decorated with coloured glazes(c.4500-2270
BCE).
 Sumerian Ziggurat

 Persian Art (from 3500 BCE)

The art of ancient Persia was closely intertwined with that of its
neighbours, especially Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), and influenced -
and was influenced by - Greek art. Early Persian works of portable art
feature the intricate ceramics from Susa and Persepolis (c.3000 BCE), but
the two important periods of Persian art were the Achaemenid Era (c.550-
330 BCE) - exemplified by:

• The monumental palaces at Persepolis and Susa, decorated with

sculpture, stone reliefs, and the famous "Frieze of Archers" created out
of enameled brick - and the Sassanid Era (226-650 CE) - noted for its
highly decorative stone mosaics, gold and silver dishes, frescoes and
illuminated manuscripts, crafts like carpet-making and silk-
weaving.
• The greatest relics of Sassanian art are the rock sculptures carved out
of steep limestone cliffs at Taq-i-Bustan, Shahpur, Naqsh-e Rostam and
Naqsh-e Rajab.

Persian Frieze of Archers

 Ancient Greek Art (c.1100-100 BCE)

There are many eras in classifying ancient Greek Art

However nearly all Greek painting and a huge proportion of
Greek sculpture has been lost, leaving us with a collection of
ruins or Roman copies. Greek architecture, too, is largely
known to us through its ruins. Despite this tiny legacy, Greek
artists remain highly revered, which demonstrates how truly
advanced they were.
• Like all craftsmen of the Mediterranean area, the ancient
Greeks borrowed a number of important artistic techniques
from their neighbours and trading partners. Even so, by the
death of the Macedonian Emperor Alexander the Great in
 323 BCE, Greek art was regarded in general as the finest
ever made.

Greek amphitheater

 Roman Art (c.200 BCE-400 CE)

Architecture
• Unlike their intellectual Greek neighbours, the Romans were
primarily practical people with a natural affinity for
engineering, military matters, and Empire building. Roman
architecture was designed to:

• Awe
• Entertain
• Cater for a growing population both in Italy and throughout
their Empire.
Roman architectural achievements are exemplified by:
• Drainage systems
• Aqueducts
• Bridges
• Public baths
• Sports facilities
• Roads
• Amphitheatres (eg. the Colosseum 72-80 CE), characterized
by major advances in materials (eg. the invention of concrete)
and in the construction of arches and roof domes. The latter
not only allowed the roofing of larger buildings, but also gave
the exterior far greater grandeur and majesty. All this
revolutionized the Greek-dominated field of architecture, at
least in form and size, if not in creativity, and provided endless
opportunity for embellishment in the way of scultural reliefs,
statues, fresco murals, and mosaics. The most famous examples
of Roman architecture include: the massive Colosseum, the
Arch of Titus, and Trajan's Column.

Roman structures
Roman Painting and Sculpture
• Roman architecture was uniquely grandiose, its paintings and
sculptures continued to imitate the Greek style,
• Main purpose was the glorification of Rome's power and
majesty. Early Roman art (c.200-27 BCE) was detailed,
unidealized and realistic, while later Imperial styles (c.27 BCE -
200 CE) were more heroic.
• Mediocre painting flourished in the form of interior-design
standard fresco murals, while higher quality panel painting
was executed in tempera or in encaustic pigments.
• Roman sculpture quality: as well as tens of thousands of
average quality portrait busts of Emperors and other
dignitaries, Roman sculptors also produced some marvellous
historical relief sculptures, such as the spiral bas relief
sculpture on Trajan's Column, celebrating the Emperor's
victory in the Dacian war.
Roman sculpture SPQR