Prehistoric Art

Art includes various expressions of human imagination and creativity. For example, sculpture,
paintings, pottery, dance, music, and poetry are all forms of art. Early prehistoric art dates back
to 30,000 years BCE. This vast span of time indicates the long-lasting value of artistic work. Art
also records the vision of artists. Moreover, art conveys rich data about the influences that
shaped human civilization.

Fertility Symbol
One of the earliest known works of art is the Venus of Willendorf. It is a carved limestone figure
of a nude woman that was made in what is now Austria around 30,000 BCE. An artist in a group
of hunter-gatherers probably made the small figure, about 4.5 inches in height. The environment
was cold and harsh in those times. The artist exaggerated the proportions of the female body,
perhaps to create an icon for success in reproduction. Therefore, some historians believe that
the carving was a cultural symbol of good health. The sculpture evidently symbolizes the
importance this culture gave to fertility and abundance.

Rock and Cave Art

African rock art and the cave paintings of southern France were created between 30,000 BCE
and 15,000 BCE. They show animals running or grazing. They indicate that the tribes depended
on hunting. The clarity of the drawings indicates that the ancient artists keenly observed life
around them.

You can see two examples of rock art in the animal figures in the Apollo 11 cave (dating back to
25,000 BCE) in Namibia, and the geometric animal engravings in the Wonderwork cave in
South Africa (dating back to 8,200 BCE). The precisely drawn details suggest that ancient
humans were highly intelligent.

There are many examples of ancient art in the cave paintings of Chauvet and Lascaux in
France. The paintings at Chauvet date back to 30,000 BCE. They depict fourteen animal
species, such as horses, bison, lions, wolves, and deer. The paintings at Lascaux, which date
back to 15,000 BCE, show animals such as deer and lions. The bold profiles of the animals
suggest that the artists wished to make them seem powerful or magical. The large size of the
paintings and the remote locations of the caves suggest that the artists may have been involved
in some kind of sacred ceremonies.

Neolithic Era
In the Neolithic era (10,000–2,000 BCE) many works of art reflect specific mythologies and
rituals. Examples include the rock formations at Stonehenge in England, and the town of Catal
Huyuk, in present-day Turkey.

At Stonehenge you can see circles of large rocks arranged in patterns. They seem to reflect
some astronomical phenomena, according to some archeologists. The layout of these rocks
suggests that the ancient craftsmen had an understanding of science as well as architecture.
The formations probably represent ceremonial rituals of that culture.
Catal Huyuk is the site of one of the oldest towns in history. It was active between 7,500 BCE
and 5,700 BCE. On the walls of many homes here, you can find many artistic designs and
sculptures. They include clay figures of people and animals of various sizes. Many figures bear
scratch marks. These marks indicate that they may have been used as symbols to grant wishes
or keep off evil spirits.

Mesopotamian Art
Ancient Mesopotamia (now the Arabian peninsula), was a hub of artistic creativity, beginning
around 4,000 BCE. Four civilizations are linked with Mesopotamia: Sumerian, Akkadian,
Babylonian, and Assyrian. The cultures that evolved in this region are linked to burial rituals in
large tombs and huge temples with decorated walls. The artistic creations in this region include
sculpture and pottery.

The works of sculpture (3000 BCE to 500 BCE) include numerous architectural works, reliefs,
statues, cylinder seals, and mosaic art. Among the architectural monuments, the best known is
the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. It was said to be built by King Nebuchadnezzar II around 600
BCE. However, some scholars believe that the structure was a myth.

The first potter's wheel was invented in Mesopotamia. Some of the finest pottery originated
here. The early signs of urban life in Mesopotamia are linked to Uruk pottery, which is named
after the Sumerian city of Uruk. The art of ceramic pottery evolved dramatically between 4000
BCE and 3100 BCE. This evolution happened because of better kiln and wheel design, and
artists gained finer control of the process.

Ancient Art
Ancient art in Africa and Europe evolved in the works of artists who were part of the civilizations
of Egypt, Greece, and Italy. Let’s study the evolution of Egyptian, Greek, and Roman art in
ancient times.

Egyptian Art
Egypt was ruled by several dynasties of kings (called pharaohs) from 2920 BCE to 330 BCE.
The art of ancient Egypt reflects a highly developed society. Religious and political ideas were
deeply connected. The ruling pharaohs were often glorified as gods. Egyptian artists were
guided by two goals. One goal was to project the kings as gods, and to create enduring images
of human life after death. Most of Egypt's paintings were found in the tombs of the pharaohs and
depict scenes of the afterlife. The second goal was to capture and preserve the culture of the
times. Egyptian life and culture was stable and controlled by kings. The arts, including painting,
sculpture and architecture, reflect a formal and ordered style, rather than chaotic creativity. A
variety of animal figures were used to represent gods. For example, Horus, the sky god, has a
falcon's head, and Anubis, the god of funeral rites, has a jackal's head. One example of
Egyptian art is the painted limestone bust of Nefertiti, an Egyptian queen of the 14th century
BCE. Another is the gold-covered mummy case of Tutankhamun, an Egyptian pharaoh.
Greek Art
Ancient Greek art reflects the Greeks’ democratic society. Individual efforts and achievements of
normal human beings (in addition to gods and kings) were given high significance. Athens, the
capital of Greece, was a center of economic and political power in the fifth century BCE. The
city was reputed to house a grand Doric temple dedicated to the goddess Athena. The temple is
famous for a giant statue of Athena. It was carved out of gold and ivory by the sculptor Pheidias.
The original statue is lost, but it is represented in numerous paintings and small sculptures.

Ancient Greek artists celebrated the idealized human body. Greek art reflects the mythology of
human beings interacting with gods to create dramatic changes in the world. An example of
ancient Greek art is the statue of the Diadoumenos. It was carved by the sculptor Polykleitos.
Greek art became more naturalistic over time, going from stiffly posed, formal figures to sensual
figures covered with flowing drapery.

Roman Art
During the early history of Rome, Roman leaders were preoccupied with military strategies.
Hence ancient Rome was reputed more for its military power, warfare, and conquests of other
lands than for its arts. Rome’s huge architectural designs are a major contribution to the history
of art. Roman architects discovered the use of multiple arches and domed roofs. You can see
these structures in the Colosseum and the Pantheon, parts of which exist to this day. These
large structures rely on precision stonework rather than mortar. Much of Roman art was derived
from the Greeks. Many Roman statues are copies of earlier Greek ones.

The major Greek philosophers also influenced the Romans. Plato and Aristotle recognized the
importance of art and artists, and made the first attempts to classify them. Their efforts signify
the start of art history, and the study of art as an intellectual pursuit. They also set the rules of
formal painting that are used even today. Around the first century CE, artists began to create
formal portraits, either as wall paintings or as funerary art. You can see this trend in Greek and
Roman art, as well as in Egyptian art.

Medieval Art
Medieval art is linked to the growth of Christianity and its religious practices in the churches of
Europe. Almost all medieval art was church (or ecclesiastical) art. Let’s study the changes
during the evolution of medieval art.

Early Christian Art

Roman civilization came to an end around 293 BCE, when barbarians stormed the city of Rome.
The Roman empire was split into a Western part, under Ravenna, and an Eastern part under
Byzantium. The new Christian faith became dominant. The trend is reflected in early Christian
murals of Ravenna at San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. In 402 CE, Ravenna became the capital of
the Western Roman Empire. It continued to be influential in the fifth and sixth centuries. The
murals show how closely religious, political, and artistic cultures were blended at that time. The
murals also show the skill of artists and architects in mosaic art. They reflect the continuing
influence of Greek and Roman traditions. In the span of a few hundred years, the Christian
church became powerful. Many such influential centers of worship sprang up across Europe.

Byzantine Art
The early Christian art of Ravenna differed from the art of Byzantium, which evolved during the
period 400 CE to 600 CE. Byzantine art is found across Europe in decorative mosaics on the
domes and walls of churches, and in fresco paintings. You can see a good example in the
beautiful mosaic artworks in St Mark's Basilica, Venice. In many of the works, the stark Christian
imagery of the crucifixion was often combined with settings of jewels and gold.

The artists in many cases were monks and nuns. They were among the few literate people in
society at the time. They created illuminated manuscripts (hand-written and illustrated
prayer-books). These books helped keep both language and religious ideas alive during the
period known as the Dark Ages. The manuscripts enabled the spread of Christianity to different
places. Many manuscripts were created to support the church-sponsored activities of
conversion.

Secular Art
An exceptional example of medieval art is the Bayeux tapestry. It is secular (not religious) art. It
depicts real events of the Norman conquest of England in 1066 CE. It was probably
commissioned by Queen Matilda, the wife of William the Conqueror, at the time of the
consecration of the city's cathedral. The tapestry is filled with valuable historical information. The
work has nine segments, each designed independently. Apart from the scenes of events
showing the king and other people, the tapestry has images of rural life and the first image of
Halley's Comet.

Gothic Art
You can see the defining art form of the medieval era in the Gothic cathedrals. They are stone
churches built with pointed, soaring ceilings and elaborate stained glass windows. They often
include fearsome statues, called gargoyles. You can see an example of Gothic art in the chapel
at Notre Dame, in Rouen, France.

Renaissance Art
The historical period of the Renaissance (which means rebirth), began in Florence, Italy, around
1400 CE. It lasted for about 200 years. It sparked off an interest in the artistic achievements of
ancient Rome. Specifically, it resulted in a wave of paintings, sculptures, and architectural
designs known as Renaissance art. Artists, art patrons, and the public became interested in the
perfect human form and the spread of art in society. They revived the principles of classical
Greek and Roman art, with a focus on painting and sculpture. This emphasis was dominant in
Western art until the emergence of modernism in the late 19th century.

Renaissance artists revived interest in the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle. They also revived
the myths and legends of Greece and Rome. Their creative activities were also centered around
Christian religious beliefs. Artists depicted both Christian and mythological subjects. You can
see an example of Renaissance art in Botticelli’s painting, The Birth of Venus.

Celebrity Artists
The Renaissance was also the time when particularly skilled artists became celebrities. Popes
and kings patronized them. In Italy, such celebrities included Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo,
and Raphael. These artists all represented Renaissance ideals, but in different ways.

Leonardo was an obsessive scientist, interested in everything about how the world works. His
works are deeply intellectual. Michelangelo was interested in power, strength, and judgment. His
works celebrate the raw beauty and perfection of the human form. Raphael reflects the
Renaissance ideal of the courtier. He represented an intelligent but gentle person.

Examples of works by celebrated artists include Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa and various
scientific drawings (such as the "helical air screw" which many scholars believe was a design
prototype for the first helicopter); Michelangelo’s sculptures such as the statue of David and the
painting The Creation of Man; and Raphael’s fresco, School of Athens, and Portrait of
Baldassare Castiglione (a prominent Italian soldier, courtier, diplomat and writer).

The Northern Renaissance

The Renaissance was not limited to Italy. It spread all through Europe. One hub of artistic
activity was the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany. The works from these regions are
collectively called the art of the northern Renaissance. The artists from this part of Europe were
interested in science, observation, and the human form. They were much less inspired by
ancient civilizations.

The works of the Belgian Jan van Eyck, for example, show a kind of realism that was entirely
new. He created unusual scenes in which real people stand next to gods, angels, and saints. He
used the new medium of oil painting innovatively. He probably used a camera obscura (an
optical device, similar to a camera) to create his highly detailed paintings and drawings. You can
see an example of Jan van Eyck’s work in the Ghent Altarpiece at the Saint Bavo Cathedral in
Ghent, Belgium.

Fine Art Printing

The printing press became popular and the technique of printing was perfected during the
Renaissance. The printing press enabled craftsmen to generate artwork in multiple copies for
the first time. Their work became easily accessible for the public. It was a new way to
communicate to a mass audience.

The printing press played a major role in starting the Protestant Reformation. Many groups of
Christians, particularly in northern Europe, broke away from the Roman Catholic Church and
started their own churches.
The artist and writer Albrecht Durer mastered the techniques of fine art print. His woodcut print
series, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, made in 1497 CE, is said to refer to the political
turbulence of the Reformation.

Baroque Art
The 17th century is known as the era of Baroque Art. Important stylistic differences between
northern and southern Europe persisted from the Renaissance into the Baroque era. These
differences were partly because the societies themselves were very different. The new Dutch
Republic, founded in 1581, defined a change in the evolution of the arts. Dutch citizens had a lot
of freedoms, including a free market and freedom of ideas. Dutch women enjoyed more rights
than the women in any other European nation. The new nation also developed a whole new
market for art. For the first time, art was no longer just made for the churches or the nobility.
Dutch painters, for the first time, produced a variety of art. They created group portraits,
landscapes, still life scenes, and depictions of everyday life. The paintings of 17th century
Holland convey a rich style and a sense of calmness. Examples include Rembrandt’s The Night
Watch, Johannes Vermeer’s View of Delft, self-portraits by artists such as Frans Hals and Judith
Leyster, and numerous still life paintings by Gerrit Heda, among many others.

Influence of Science
Science and close observation continued to be important for northern European painters.
Vermeer is known to have used a camera obscura to study the subject of his paintings in great
detail. You can see an example of Vermeer’s scientific approach in The Art of Painting. The
painting is a statement of the artist’s realistic observations of the interior of a Dutch painter’s
studio, rendered with great attention to lighting, perspective, and proportions.

Art of the Catholic Church

In Italy and in other predominantly Catholic areas, religious subjects remained popular with
artists. Baroque artists sought to engage the emotions of viewers through dramatic visual
elements. Their artworks were dynamic, with bold lighting, sharp angles, expressive gestures,
and rippling fabrics. Rome, the seat of the papacy, had become the center of Italian art by this
time. The Catholic Church was the most prominent patron for most of the art that Italian
Baroque artists produced. An example of art from this region of Europe is the work of the
sculptor and architect, Gian Lorenzo Bernini (The Ecstasy of St. Theresa). Other examples are
the works of painters such as Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (such as the Crucifixion of St.
Peter), and Artemisia Gentileschi (Judith Slaying Holofernes).

Baroque Art in Spain

In Spain, the wealthy King Philip IV was the primary artistic patron. His court painter was Diego
Velazquez, whose approach to technique and composition were revolutionary for the time. He
used postures, expressions, and perspectives to engage viewers in a dramatic way. You can
see an example in his work Las Meninas (1656 CE).