1.

Historical Context

Ancient Greek art spans a period between about 900 and 30 BCE and is divided into four
periods: Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. Throughout that period, artists
worked with a wide variety of materials including bronze and stone for sculpture; terracotta
for vases and figurines; various pigments for painting; and gold, silver, and bronze for
coinage.

Geometric
The Geometric Period is characterized by its use of geometric patterns and shapes
in its iconography. The focus of the art also shifted from the more fluid, amorphous shapes
of the Mycenaean period and onto more recognizable depictions of the people and animals
of the Athenian polis.

During this period of Ancient Greek art, there were two prominent types of
monumental votive vessels: kraters and amphorae. Kraters were used to decorate male
graves, where amphorae decorated female graves. They generally had a slim neck and a
widened center with two side handles.

One of the defining features of Geometric Period pottery is called ‘horror vacui’ , or
the ‘fear of empty space’. This manifested in filling entire surfaces with intricate details or
patterns. Vases, for the most part, were thus completely covered with iconography, resulting
in rich and artistic decoration.

Archaic Period, ca. 700-480 B.C.

The art of Archaic Period Greece reflects this heightened international influence in
technique, tools, and iconography. With continuously advancing technologies, artists were
able to create realistic human imagery for the first time. They were also able to produce
ornately detailed, colorful pottery.

Two defining pottery styles emerged during Ancient Greece’s Archaic Period. The
first of these is known as black-figure pottery, which was made from red pottery with black
glaze decoration. The second pottery technique was called red-figure, which featured the
outlining of figures in black, leaving them red on the inside. Initially, these vessels were
decorated with mainly war scenes, specifically from the Iliad or Odyssey. However, as time
went on they also evolved into calmer scenes such as symposia or mythical storylines.
The Archaic Period of Ancient Greek art also saw dramatic innovation in sculpture
production. These naturalized sculptures called kouroi appeared. Kouroi were
commemorative, semi-lifelike statues representing idealized young men during their prime.
Also existing was the less famous, clothed female counterpart: the kore.

Classical Period, ca. 480-323 B.C.

This period saw the introduction and expansion of many things that represent Ancient
Greece to modern viewers, and one could not look at the classical style without considering
its architecture.
 There were three recognizable architectural styles during the Classical Period: the
Doric Order, Ionic Order and Corinthian Order.The Doric Order was simple, with plain pillars,
capitals, and pediments. The Ionic Order was slightly more ornamented, with pillars that
looked like a rolled scroll. The Corinthian Order was the most detailed of the three, with
intricate, organic pillar and capital designs.

Classical art is also easily recognizable from its near-perfect depictions of the human
form in life-size and monumental sculpture. Greek artists became increasingly focused on
the study of human anatomy and musculature, evolving from the Archaic kouroi to more
naturalistic, physically accurate depictions of the human form.

Hellenistic Period, ca. 323-31 B.C.

The Hellenistic Period in Ancient Greek art began with the death of Alexander the
Great in 323 BC. The leadership of the massive empire that he had accrued throughout the
Mediterranean, North Africa, and parts of Asia was subsequently divided into three regions
and assumed by generals, splintering the empire. However, Greek art continued to expand
on the classical ‘Hellenism’ of the empire in art with more international influence.

During this period, sculptors pursued and perfected naturalism—an artistic interest
that Greek artists had been developing over hundreds of years.

One of the most iconic statues of the period, the Nike of Samothrace, also known as the
Winged Victory (c. 190 BCE), commemorates a naval victory. This Parian marble statue
depicts Nike, now armless and headless, alighting onto the prow of the ship. The prow is
visible beneath her feet, and the scene is filled with theatricality and naturalism as the statue
reacts to her surroundings.

Venus de Milo
Also known as the Aphrodite of Melos (c. 130–100 BCE), this sculpture by Alexandros of
Antioch, is another well-known icon of the Hellenistic period. Today the goddess’s arms are
missing. It has been suggested that one arm clutched at her slipping drapery while the other
arm held out an apple, an allusion to the Judgment of Paris and the abduction of Helen.

2. Artistic Characteristics

Greek art was closely intertwined with mythology, as the gods and goddesses were revered
and celebrated in both public and private spaces. Artists skillfully depicted mythological
scenes and heroic tales in their works, imbuing them with a sense of grandeur and
significance. Notable examples include the famous statue of Aphrodite, the goddess of love
and beauty, and the mythological pottery known as black-figure and red-figure vases, which
portrayed mythical narratives and daily life.Greek art was also characterised by many
qualities. These include the depiction of beauty in an idealised manner and figures in
sculpture became more naturalistic in their portrayal of proportion and balance. It also
depicted the belief in mathematical congruence to determine beauty.
 3. Prominent Artists

Praxiteles (375-335 BCE)

One of the most famous and greatest sculptors of ancient Greece, Praxiteles’ career
bridged the Late Classical Period and the Hellenistic Period of Greek art. One of his main
concerns as an artist was to introduce as much realism as possible into his work, and this
approach helped to determine the direction of Greek sculpture. He is best known for his
smaller scale works of female subjects, including the famous Hermes with the Infant
Dionysus (Olympia Archaeological Museum) and his Aphrodite of Cnidus (Knidos).

Myron (active 480-440 BCE)

Myron was one of the greatest sculptors of Early Classical Greek sculpture. He was
famed for his sculptures of powerful athletes and life-like animals. He produced mainly
bronze sculpture and was considered a versatile and innovative artist in his time. His most
famous statue, which exists only in the form of copies by Roman artists, is the famous
bronze figure of a disc thrower known as Discobolus (c.425 BCE).

Phidias (488-431 BCE)

Phidias is generally regarded as one of the greatest sculptors of Classical Antiquity,
and the greatest carver of High Classical Greek sculpture. Also a painter and architect,
Phidias was celebrated for his bronzes and especially his chryselephantine statues (in gold
and ivory). Among his many famous works of Greek sculpture he is probably best known for
his 40 foot statue of the goddess Athena at the Parthenon.

Apelles (352-308 BC)

Apelles has passed down in history as antiquity’s greatest painter. All his paintings
are lost but ancient tales of his deeds and talent still survive.The young artist is Alexander
the Great's court painter, whom ancient writers considered the greatest artist of their time.
According to Pliny's Natural History of 77 A.D., Alexander commissioned Apelles to paint a
portrait of his favourite concubine, Campaspe.The story illustrates art's transformative
powers: Apelles fell in love with his sitter as he captured her beauty on canvas. Alexander so
esteemed his painter that he presented Campaspe to Apelles as a reward for the portrait.

4. Notable Artworks

The Pergamon Altar (180-160 BC)

Classical Greek art changed rapidly as Greece itself went through wars and imperial
transformations. In what is called the Hellenistic age it became much more emotional,
sensual and even sensationalist. The furious sculptures on the Pergamon altar – which can
be seen in its own museum in Berlin – are full of passion and psychological drama.

Parthenon Frieze
The Parthenon is one of the most iconic buildings in the Ancient World. This building
dedicated to the goddess Athena stands tall upon the ancient Athenian acropolis and serves
as a reminder of times past.
Kylix (Drinking Cup) (530-520 BCE)
This vase honors Dionysos as the god of both wine and the theater. When the
drinker raised the cup to his mouth, it doubled almost as a theatrical mask, with the handles
serving as ears and the circular hollow representing a mouth. The round, wide eyes staring
back at the viewer symbolize the intoxicating effects of the drink, the wine god’s gaze, or
both. Drinking vessels decorated in this manner are called eye cups. Sometimes a nose
appeared between the eyes, but the painter of this cup drew boxers, perhaps to celebrate
the winner of a local match.

The Dying Gaul (c. 230-220 BCE) by Epigonus.

This depicted a typical example of the expressive nature of Hellenistic sculptures.
The figure was of a Gaul, as was evident from his haircut and the ring around his neck,
otherwise referred to as a “torque”. He appears caught in the process of dying, which is
shown in his posture and broken sword next to him. What makes this sculpture so unique is
that it captures a moment of death, inevitably evoking emotions in the viewer that stir the
feelings of defeat and hopelessness.

5. Innovations and Techniques

Greek innovations in art are perhaps seen most clearly in figure sculpture. Previous
and contemporary ancient cultures had represented the human figure in a simple standing
and rather static pose so that the people represented often looked as lifeless as the stone
from which they were carved. Greek sculptors, though, inched towards a more dynamic
result. In the Archaic period the stance becomes a little more relaxed, the elbows a little
more bent and both tension and movement are thus suggested. By the Classical period
statues have broken away from all convention and become sensuous, writhing figures that
seem about to jump off the plinth. Greek sculpture and art, in general, began a
preoccupation with proportion, poise, and the idealized perfection of the human body that
was continued by the Romans and would go on to influence Renaissance art and many
sculptors thereafter.

Contrapposto Technique
Greek sculptures revolutionized the representation of the human form, capturing a
sense of realism and dynamic movement. One notable technique employed by Greek
sculptors was the contrapposto stance. This technique involved placing the weight of the
body on one leg while the other relaxed, resulting in a more natural and lifelike pose. This
innovative approach to sculpture set the stage for the exploration of movement and
anatomical accuracy.

Tempera and Encaustic

In painting wood and marble, tempera and encaustic techniques are used. Tempera
(also called egg tempera) was a method of painting that superseded the encaustic painting
method, only to be itself replaced by oil painting. Tempera employs an emulsion of water,
egg yolks or whole eggs (occasionally with a little glue, honey or milk) to bind color
pigments.Encaustic, on the other hand, is a technique in which the colors are mixed with
wax, applied to the surface, and then `burnt in' with a red-hot rod. Encaustic was more
durable than tempera, though more laborious, and had some of the richness of tone of oil
painting, a medium unknown to the Greeks.

6. Art Movement

A. Classical Antiquity

The term Antiquity was first used by Renaissance writers who distinguished between
Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the more recent times they were living in. It can refer to any
period before c.500 AD, but usually refers to Classical Antiquity that specifically means the
civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome.

Classical Antiquity begins with the period of the writing of Homer's Illiad c.800 BC to the
decline of the Western Roman Empire c.500 AD. It is the achievements in literature, drama,
art, architecture, philosophy and science from this period that form the basis of our Western
Civilization even to this day.

7. Influences and Relevance

➢ Art

One of the many fields in which ancient Greece has had a deep influence is art. The first to
develop the concept of aesthetic beauty, ancient Greeks created spectacular sculptures that
have inspired artists from the Renaissance until today. Furthermore, Greek mythology was a
major source of inspiration for many European painters, which depicts the many tales and
myths in their works.

Example: Psyche Revived by Cupid’s Kiss, Antonio Canova (first version 1787–
1793), Louvre, Paris |

➢ Architecture

Ancient Greek architecture has influenced many architectural styles of today. The use of
columns and pediments for example, is a direct legacy from ancient Greece and is
omnipresent in modern-day public buildings, such as parliament buildings, museums and
even memorials. Come to think of it, the use of architecture as an art form, more than a
utilitarian science, comes from ancient Greek culture and is visible in constructions like the
Acropolis of Athens or the sanctuary of Delphi.

Example: The Parthenon, Nashville, United States

 ➢ Literature

As far as literature is concerned, the ancient Greeks were the first to create complex
literature, which still influences us to this day. One of the oldest literature styles is
poetry, and more specifically, epic poetry, mostly used to depict the story of a hero.
The oldest surviving epic poetry works are the Iliad and the Odyssey, written by
Homer, roughly around 800 BC. But it was mostly during the Classical era that
ancient Greek literature blossomed with new styles emerging such as history. It was
Herodotus, a man who lived in the 5th-century BC, who first started researching and
collecting historical archives to compile them into a narrative. In philosophy, the
works of Plato, Aristotle and Socrates have influenced the establishment of modern
ethics and Hippocrates wrote medical essays that are still read in medical schools.

8. Critiques and Controversies

During times the arts faced various criticisms and controversies that had an impact, on the
art scene;

A. One criticism revolves around the portrayal of nudity in art with some viewing it as
inappropriate or immoral.
B. Another controversy arises from the idealized representation of figures leading to
debates about realism versus idealism in art.
C. The use of mythology and religious themes also drew criticism as some believed it
perpetuated superstition or challenged established beliefs.
D. The influence of politics was a point of contention with artworks often serving as
propaganda tools for rulers or city states.
E. Gender disparities were evident in art, where male subjects received more attention
than female figures.
F. There were debates surrounding innovation versus adherence to styles and
techniques.

Here are just some of the ways ancient Greeks inventions have uniquely contributed to world
culture, many of which are still going strong today:

● Columns
● Stadiums
● Human Sculpture
● Democracy
● Jury System
● Mechanical Devices
● Mathematical Reasoning
● Geometry
● Medicine
● Olympic Games
● Philosophy
● Astronomy
● Science
● Theatre
9. Legacy and Revival
Examples of Greek Era Revival:

❖ Architecture in Greek - the Old Royal Palace now the home of the Parliament
of Greece, the Academy and University of Athens, the Zappeion, and the
sNational Library of Greece. The most prominent architects in this style were
northern Europeans such as Christian and Theophil Hansen and Ernst Ziller
and German-trained Greeks such as Stamatios Kleanthis and Panagis
Kalkos.
❖ Greek Temples - Temples would be destroyed due to warfare in the Greek
World or from lack of repairs. Some of these temples such as the temple of
Poseidon Soter (The Savior) would be rebuilt outside of Athens after the
defeat of the Persian Empire in 449 BCE. From the 3rd century BCE onward,
the construction of large temples became less common; after a short 2nd
century BCE flourish, it ceased nearly entirely in the 1st century BCE.
Thereafter, only smaller structures were started, while older temples
continued to be renovated or brought to completion if in an unfinished state.

10. Key Takeaways

★ Greek art spans several distinct eras, each contributing significantly to the
broader tapestry of art history.
★ The Geometric period (900-700 BCE) marked the early stages, characterized
by abstract geometric motifs on pottery. The significance lies in its transitional
role, paving the way for more intricate artistic expressions.
★ The Archaic period (700-480 BCE) witnessed the evolution of stylized human
figures in sculpture, particularly in the kouros and kore statues.
★ This era set the foundation for classical ideals of beauty and proportion,
showcasing a newfound emphasis on realism. The pinnacle of Greek art,
however, arrived with the Classical period (480-323 BCE), epitomized by the
Parthenon sculptures and the works of renowned sculptors like Phidias. Here,
the emphasis on harmony, balance, and idealized forms reached its zenith,
influencing generations of artists across cultures.
★ The Hellenistic period (323-31 BCE) marked a departure, introducing
emotional intensity, dynamic compositions, and diverse subject matter. Greek
art's enduring significance lies in its profound impact on Western art, serving
as a timeless reference point for aesthetic principles and sparking a dialogue
that continues to resonate in the ever-evolving landscape of artistic
expression.