1

How did the Israeli state depict the Yemeni Jews who were brought to Israel under

‘Operation Magic Carpet’?

Per Meir-Glitzenstein (2011), during Operation Magic Carpet, which took place between

1949 and 1950, more than 40,000 Yemenite Jews, who made up the bulk of their population,

were airlifted to Israel. They arrived due to an Israeli initiative coordinating with Jewish

organizations, the Government of Aden, and Yemeni authorities. Despite the devastation caused

by the immigration from Yemen, it was depicted as liberation, miraculous, and transcendence

fusion of messianic and propagandistic concepts. "Operation Magic Carpet" became one of the

symbols of the state's relations with its Mizrahi residents in the ensuing years, praised in poetry,

literature, historical research, and the shared history of Yemenite immigrants in Israeli. Streets

were given its name. These Jews were portrayed as oppressed people under hostile Arab rule

who were also doomed to poverty and social degradation.

Why did Israel’s neighboring states refuse to grant citizenship to Palestinian refugees who

fled the wars of 1948 and 1967?

Denying Palestinian refugees citizenship is based on ongoing debates about the reasons

for the migration and who is to blame for it. Firstly, Morris (1989) claims that the departure was

the product of a plan created before or during the war or was an unintentional result of the war.

He also claims that the Zionist leadership organized and promoted the departure. According to

Morris, among the numerous Arabs who evacuated Palestine were members of the upper and

middle classes who departed freely, intending to return once the Arab states had won the war and

taken control of the nation. Secondly, the scarcity of arable land/resources in host countries and

the fact that most of them, except Egypt, were new nation-states. Thirdly, according to AFSC
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(n.d.), it was difficult for Israel's neighboring governments to issue citizenship because they had

fled freely rather than being expelled. Any attempts to do so would endanger the sustainability of

a Jewish demographic majority in the new state.

What were the main causes of the 1967 Israeli-Arab war?

The Six-Day War was a short-lived but brutal confrontation between the Arab

nations of Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Israel in June 1967 (Editors of History.Com,

2018). Between Israel and the Arab states, there had been political unrest and military

warfare for several decades before the Six-Day War. Additionally, issues regarding the

consumption of Jordan River water and Israeli farming along the borderline were

causing animosity between Israel and Syria (Al Tahhan, 2018). The Six-Day War's

main cause was a string of territorial claims. Midway through the 1960s, Palestinian

guerillas were staging attacks over the Israeli border with support from Syria, which

prompted Israel Defense Forces incursions in retaliation. According to Britannica

(2022), the conflict was also sparked by Soviet intelligence reports that said Israel was

preparing a military operation against Syria and escalating uneasiness with its Arab

neighbors.

Why did the Israeli army and senior leadership promote the false idea that Israel was

under an “existential threat” in the lead-up to the 1967 war?

The State of Israel endured the military threat posed by the Arabs prior to the Six-Day War.

Despite the IDF's numerical disadvantage, the military leadership expressed faith in its capacity to

overwhelm the Arab forces, albeit dependent on a retaliatory attack (Kurz, Michael & Siboni, 2018).

Kramer (2017) makes the interesting claim that Egypt's President Gamal Abdel Nasser, who had

vowed to wipe Israel off the face of the earth, was the catalyst for the Israeli army and senior leadership
 3

spreading the idea that Israel was under an "existential danger." There was a genuine and not

unwarranted sense of existential peril. Israel's ability to dissuade hostile Arab endeavors from

changing the status quo and carrying out the declared objective of annihilating Israel had been

jeopardized by Nasser's crossing of the "red lines" and insurmountable challenges (Taylor &

Francis, 2006).

Why was the phrase “A land without a people for a people without a land” useful for

establishing the early kibbutz settlements by Zionists in Palestine?

This term is noteworthy because it implies that Israel, the location of the Jews' ancestral

country, was a nation unto itself at the time (the nineteenth century). The idea that there is

"nobody's land" was crucial in building the early Kibbutz settlements by Zionists in Palestine.

For example, Edward Said used the phrase to dispute Israel's legitimacy to exist, arguing that the

Zionists' claim to the region was based on the fallacious notion that Palestine was an uninhibited

territory. Furthermore, Rashidi Khalidi claims Palestine was desolate and thinly populated with

crops (Muir, 2008). Therefore, using the interpretation of this phrase, Zionist ‘pioneers’ in

Palestine got the inspiration from the phrase "conquest of the land," "conquest of labor," and

"taming of the wilderness." The Zionists were inspired to continue their premeditated "cleaning"

of the Arab population since they believed Palestine was vacant and lacked a unique Palestinian

culture.

What was the rationale for the Palestinian rejection of the 1947 U.N. partition plan?

The Arab Higher Committee, Arab Leaders, and the Arab League reportedly opposed the

1947 U.N. secession for Palestine proposal, which the Jewish Agency adopted for Palestine.

They claim that it breached the UN Charter's tenets of sovereignty, which gave people the right
 4

to determine their fate because it refused to acknowledge any form of geographical division. The

transfer of one-third of Palestine, including the majority of its best agricultural land, to new

immigrants and the inequity in the proposed population swap, according to Bose (2009), led the

Palestinian Arab leadership to oppose partition as untenable. In addition, they "found that Zionist

claims to that land had no legal or ethical foundation from a survey of Palestine history." Only an

Arab State covering all of Palestine, according to the Arab Higher Committee, would be in

accordance with the UN Charter.

Which territories came under Israeli military occupation after the 1967 war?

Israel seized all of historical Palestine in 1967 and additional land from Egypt and Syria.

Israel won territory that was three and doubled its size by the conclusion of the war, having

driven additional 300,000 Palestinians from their homes, including 130,000 who had been

uprooted in 1948. (Al Tahhan, 2018). Between 5 June and 10 June, according to the Office of the

Historian (n.d.), Israel had control over the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank cities

of Bethlehem, Nablus, Jericho, and Hebron, East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights that Arabs

had previously occupied. According to United Nations (1979), the Israel-Egypt peace accord

signed by U.S. president Jimmy Carter and Egyptian president Anwar Sadat in 1982 resulted in

the Sinai Peninsula's position being restored to Egypt's complete sovereignty.

What led to the Arab Revolt of 1936-39?

The Arab Revolt of 1936–1939 was the longest-running nationalist uprising against the

British-mandated sovereignty of Palestine, claims Just Vision (n.d.). A significant increase in

Jewish immigration, partially due to the emergence of Nazism in pre-war Germany, was the

catalyst for the Arab Revolt. Palestinian riots in Tel Aviv and Jaffa in April 1936 resulted in
 5

rising unrest across the country. The uprising's objectives were to change British policy by

restricting or stopping sizable Jewish immigration, forbidding future property transactions with

Jews, and allowing Palestinians to form their independent Government. In a nutshell, Kelly

(2017) claims that the Mandatory Palestine uprising demanded the termination of the open-ended

Jewish immigration and land-purchasing strategy with the proclaimed objective of creating a

"Jewish National Home" and Arab freedom.

Why did Zionism arise as a movement in Europe in the late 1800s?

According to Halperin (2015), the formation of Zionism was influenced by several

crucial developments in Europe. For instance, some Jews became Zionists due to the

enlightenment and emancipation in Western and Central Europe and the state centralization and

enlightened absolutism in Eastern Europe. Similar to 1882, when Tsar Alexander II was

assassinated, his more liberal laws were repealed, pogroms broke out, and trust in integration and

modernization halted. Notably, the establishment of Zionism was influenced by the advent of

several Jewish political alternatives to liberalism in the 1880s, including nationalism, socialism,

and regionally structured variants of collectivism. This movement began in this environment as a

specific type of nationalism based on the notion that Jews could only achieve political and

cultural fulfillment in their own country.

What was the British Government's objective in issuing the 'White Paper?

White papers are policy documents created by the Government that outline its

recommendations for potential legislation (U.K. Parliament, n.d.). For instance, the British

Government’s 1939 White Paper to Palestine was intended to convert Palestine to Judaism or to

make the Arab population the dominant group in Palestine. Additionally, the White Paper aimed
 6

at restricting Jewish immigration to 75,000 within the next five years (Hurewitz, 1979). Like the

White Paper rejected the Peel Commission's proposal to divide Palestine, it advocated

constructing a Jewish national home- an independent Palestinian state by 1949. Lastly, it aimed

at restricting the sale of land.

What does the 1951 Israeli Law of Return state?

All non-Israeli Jews and Gentiles who convert to Judaism are eligible to settle in Israel and

gain full Israeli citizenship under the 1950 Law of Return, as revised in 1970. (Britannica, 2022).

However, to get married in Israel, converts must show that they were converted by an Orthodox

rabbi endorsed by the nation's chief Jewish religion, which has the power to decide on personal

status issues like judicial separation and cohabitation. An Orthodox rabbi is a person who has

earned the right to serve as the spiritual leader and religious teacher of a Jewish community or

congregation through the academic study of the Hebrew Bible and Talmud.

What does U.N. Resolution 242 state about the rights of Palestinian refugees?

According to Quigley (2007), the U.N. Security Council passed resolution 242 in

November 1967. This resolution outlined a strategy for addressing the Palestine issue more

broadly and undoing the effects of the Israeli-Arab conflict. "A just settlement of the refugee

problem" was addressed in a provision of Security Council Resolution 242 from 1967. The

Center for Israel Education (1967) resolution asserts that Palestinian refugees have a legal right

to return to their country, calls for the removal of Israeli forces from the occupied territories, and

requests that the U.N. serve as a mediator in any future negotiations akin to those that took place

between 1948 and 1949. Through this, Palestine would retake control of its political

independence, territorial integrity, and sovereignty.

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Who is considered the father of Zionism?

Theodor Herzl is regarded as the founder of Zionism.

The Israeli security fence/wall was constructed in response to …?

The wall constructed in 2002 was built to further Israel's takeover plans and strengthen its

oppressive system toward the Palestinian people. The wall, one of the characteristics

characterizing the crime of apartheid, figuratively solidifies the existence of segregated zones

and slums for Palestinians (STOP THE WALL, n.d.).

How did the 1967 Arab-Israeli war change the relationships between Arab states towards

Israel and the Palestinian question (in comparison to before 1967)?

Shaum (2019) asserts that Israel had no diplomatic ties with Arab nations prior to the 1967

Arab-Israeli war, citing proof from the Arab oil-producing nations' imposition of an oil export

ban on nations that had cordial relations with Israel after 1967. As a result, numerous nations in

Asia and Africa severed connections with Israel. Despite supporting the emergence of

Palestinian nationalism, the Arab backing for the Palestinians gradually decreased after the Arab-

Israeli war's conclusion in 1967. (Telhami, 2017). A new chapter in diplomatic relations between

Israel and the Arab countries began with the Israeli army's triumph. For instance, the signing of

peace accords with Jordan and Egypt in 1994 and 1979, respectively, Israel is evidence that

Israel maintains full diplomatic relationships with each of its Arab neighbors. Israel inked

agreements establishing diplomatic ties with Morocco, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and

Sudan in 2020 (Focus Economics, n.d.).

Which Government issued the Balfour Declaration?

 8

According to History.Com Editors (2020), the Balfour Declaration was issued by the

British Government in 1917 under the reign of Foreign Secretary Arthur James during WWI. It

stated Britain's support for creating a "Jewish homeland" in Palestine, which was at the time an

Ottoman territory with a tiny minority of Jews.

How did Anwar Sadat and Yitzhak Rabin pay for making peace with their enemies?

Extremists murdered these two because they negotiated peace deals with adversaries.

Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by Yigal Amir, a 27-year-old Jewish law

student with ties to the extreme-right Jewish organization Eyal, after attending a peaceful protest

in Tel Aviv's Kings Square, according to History.Com Editors (2020). At his arraignment, Amir

admitted to the murder and said that he killed Rabin because the prime minister planned to "hand

our country to the Arabs." According to UPI (1981), Sadat's peace agreement with Israel

infuriated Islamists, especially the extreme Egyptian Islamic Jihad, which contributed to his

murder.

How do Israeli settlements in the West Bank complicate the possibility of a Palestinian

state?

Israel's settlement in the West Bank severely limits Palestine's sovereignty, which has

become of contention between the two nations. Palestinians claim that extremist Israeli settlers

frequently harass them, sometimes while Israeli soldiers look on. According to reports, there

have been numerous violent attacks by extremist settlers, many of whom were armed, who have

burned their fields and uprooted their olive trees. Furthermore, Israel has taken land from the

West Bank to create a network of roadways linking settlements to Israel and one another. Most

of these routes are off-limits to Palestinian motorists, restricting their mobility rights and
 9

rendering West Bank driving more challenging and time-consuming (The Conversation, 2019).

Additionally, the West Bank is littered with Israeli army security checkpoints that are supposed

to shield Israelis from terrorist assaults but rather restrict and make it more difficult for

Palestinians to move around.

What key political-economic policies were shared by Egypt, Iraq, and Iran during the

1950s and 60s?

According to Yousef (2004), Middle Eastern nations had some of the lowest levels of

socioeconomic development before 1950. He continues by saying that Egypt and other Middle

Eastern nations saw strong economic growth in the 1960s and 1970s, partly as a result of

significant expenditures in physical capital. According to the United Nations (1953), there are a

variety of political, physical, economic, and social factors that contribute to commonalities

amongst regions in the Middle East. For several centuries, the majority of the area was under the

control of the Ottoman Empire. Although its control over some remote provinces was limited,

most of the region was governed by the same economic, commercial, and monetary policies. A

few obstacles prevented the movement of people and goods between its different centers.

Which stakeholders did the 1905 Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Iranian Islamic

Revolution of 1979 have in common?

The main groups present in the 1905 Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Iranian

Islamic Revolution of 1979 were; landowners, clergy, intellectuals, and merchants (Afary, n.d.).

What were the primary factors that led to the Iranian Islamic revolution?
 10

First, Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran, amassed hundreds of millions of dollars by using the

nation's oil resources and international assistance. Resentment was raised among the populace as

a result. Second, according to Vasapollo (2020), the Shah tried to contrast nationalist propaganda

trying to consolidate the country around the guiding myth of the historic Persian nationality,

which felt like it was under cultural invasion due to the Shah's attempt to seclude the minorities.

What were the differences in the causes of the first (1990) and second (2003) Gulf Wars?

According to Britannica (n.d.), Saddam Hussein's Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990 with the

apparent goals of capturing Kuwait's substantial oil reserves, paying off a significant debt Iraq

owed Kuwait, and enhancing Iraqi authority in the area. On the other hand, according to Ohio

History Central (n.d.), the second Gulf War (2003) was sparked by reports that Saddam

Hussein's regime in Iraq had created or was on the verge of creating chemical and biological

weapons and other types of WMD.

How did the Oslo Accords of 1993 complicate the Palestinian-Israeli conflict rather than

solve it?

Notably, the region was embroiled in war less than ten years after the Oslo treaty was

signed. Because both parties believed Oslo had fallen short of their expectations, the accords

broke. Notably, the Oslo Accord was founded on an anticipated exchange of "land and

economics in exchange for security" as the quid pro quo. The Palestinians contended that even

though the deal made no express promise to halt settlement construction, the Israelis must have

understood this to be completely self-evident and that such restrictions would be a minimum

requirement for Palestinian approval of any agreement. However, out of fear, they believed that

Arafat was creating an offensive army rather than a police force.

 11

In contrast, the Israelis expected the Palestinians to provide them with security. Similarly,

the Palestinian Authority's failure to stop terrorist acts coming from its territory violated the

agreements. Therefore, tensions were considerably more intense than before the Oslo deal due to

the dread of the unknown and perceptions of betrayal.

What reforms did the governments of Iran and Turkey have in common between WWI

and WWII?

Between World Wars 1 and 2, both nations experienced revolutions. Firstly, they abolished

Sharia courts with new legal codes based on Italian laws. In 1926, the Turkey parliament passed

the Turkish Civil Code abolishing the established Sharia precepts, while Reza Shah of Iran

passed the Commercial Code in 1925, an Italian-influenced Criminal Code. Secondly, they both

had gender equality in 1926 and the French-influenced Civil Code in 1928 that abolished Sharia

laws. Forms were witnessed whereby in Iran, women had access to university education (1936),

while in Turkey, women gained the right to vote in municipal elections (1930) as well as

participate in parliament (1934). Thirdly, both countries changed names; in 1935, Persia changed

its name to current-day Iran under the rule of Reza Shah and later under the rule of his son

Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, which gave it absolute power (Holocaust Encyclopedia, n.d.). On the

other side, the Ottoman era came to an end with the war, a population shift between Turkey and

Greece, the separation of the Ottoman Empire, and the abolishment of the sultanate, and the

Turks established the modern, secular nation-state of Turkey with Atatürk's changes (Barlas,

2016).

Why did the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) orchestrate a coup d'etat (an

overthrow) of Mohamed Mossadegh, Iran's leader, in 1953?

 12

The British intelligence sources, in collaboration with the American Central Intelligence

Agency (CIA), sponsored and provided funding to the Iranian military to topple Mohamed

Mossadeq, according to History.com Editors (2009). His communist sympathies and threat to

encircle Iran in Soviet orbit if given a chance to remain in power served as the foundation for the

CIA's financing and backing.

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