PRACTICAL : 01

AIM : Study of different network devices in detail. (Repeater, HUB, Switch, Bridge,
Router, Gateway)

➢ REPEATER :

• A Repeater is a powerful network hardware device that regenerates an incoming signal from the
sender before retransmitting it to the receiver.
• It is also known as a signal booster, and it helps in extending the coverage area of networks.
• The Incoming data can be in optical, wireless or electrical signals. It works at the Physical Layer of the
OSI Model.
• The repeater then sends the refreshed signal.
• A repeater can extend the physical length of a LAN.
• The location of a repeater on a link is vital. A repeater must be placed so that a signal reaches it before
any noise changes the meaning of any of its bits.

❖ Types of Repeaters :

According to the types of signals that they regenerate, repeaters can be classified into two categories :

• Analog Repeaters : They can only amplify the analog signal.

• Digital Repeaters : They can reconstruct a distorted signal.

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 According to the types of networks that they connect, repeaters can be categorized into two types :

• Wired Repeaters : They are used in wired LANs.

• Wireless Repeaters : They are used in wireless LANs and cellular networks.

According to the domain of LANs they connect, repeaters can be divided into two categories :

• Local Repeaters : They connect LAN segments separated by small distance.

• Remote Repeaters : They connect LANs that are far from each other.

➢ HUB :

• A Hub is a physical layer networking device which is used to connect multiple devices in a network.
They are generally used to connect computers in a LAN.
• A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected to the network is plugged in to
one of these ports.
• When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to every other port, without considering whether it
is destined for a particular destination or not.

❖ Types of Hubs :

• Passive Hub : Passive hubs connects nodes in a star configuration by collecting wiring from nodes.
• Active Hub : Active hubs amplify and regenerate the incoming electrical signals before
broadcasting them.

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➢ SWITCH :

• Switches are networking devices operating at layer 2 or a data link layer of the OSI model.
• They connect devices in a network and use packet switching to send, receive or forward data packets
or data frames over the network.
• A switch has many ports, to which computers are plugged in.
• When a data frame arrives at any port of a network switch, it examines the destination address, performs
necessary checks and sends the frame to the corresponding device(s).
• It supports unicast, multicast as well as broadcast communications.

➢ BRIDGE :

• A Bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs together with a larger
Local Area Network (LAN).
• The mechanism of network aggregation is known as bridging.
• The bridge is a physical or hardware device but operates at the OSI model’s data link layer and is also
known as a layer of two switches.
• The major difference between the bridge and the repeater is that the bridge and the repeater is that the
bridge has a filtering capability.

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❖ Types of Bridges :

• Transparent Bridge : They are used to connect multiple network segments with other bridges to
make routing decisions.
• Source-Route Bridge : Source Routing Bridges decides route between two hosts.
• Translational Bridge : Translational Bridges are used for changing one type of networking system
to another.

➢ ROUTER :

• Routers are networking devices operating at layer 3 or a network layer of the OSI model.
• They are responsible for receiving, analysing, and forwarding data packets among the connected
computer networks.
• When a data packet arrives, the router inspects the destination address, consults its routing tables to
decide the optimal route and then transfers the packet along this route.

➢ Types of Routers :

• Wireless Router : They provide WIFI connection WIFI devices like laptops, smartphones etc.
• Broadband Routers : They are used to connect to the Internet through telephone and to use voice
over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology for providing high:speed Internet access.
• Core Routers : They can route data packets within a given network, but cannot route the packets
between the networks.

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 • Edge Routers : They are low:capacity routers placed at the periphery of the networks.
• Brouters : Brouters are specialised routers that can provide the functionalities of bridges as well.

➢ GATEWAY :

• A Gateway is a network node that forms a passage between two networks operating with different
transmission protocols.
• The most common type of gateways, the network gateway operates at layer 3, i.e., network layer of the
OSI (open systems interconnection) model.
• However, depending upon the functionality, a gateway can operate at any of the seven layers of OSI
model.
• It acts as the entry – exit point for a network since all traffic that flows across the networks should pass
through the gateway.
• Only the internal traffic between the nodes of a LAN does not pass through the gateway.

❖ Types of Gateways :

On basis of direction of data flow, gateways are broadly divided into two categories :

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 • Unidirectional Gateways : They allow data to flow in only one direction.
• Bidirectional Gateways : They allow data to flow in both directions.

On basis of functionalities, there can be a variety of gateways :

• Network Gateway : This is the most common type of gateway that provides as interface between
two dissimilar networks operating with different protocols.
• Cloud Storage Gateway : It is a network node or server that translates storage requests with
different cloud storage service API calls
• Internet To Orbit Gateway (I2O) : It connects devices on the Internet to satellites and spacecraft
orbiting the earth.
• IoT Gateway : IoT gateways assimilates sensor data from IoT (Internet of Things) devices in the
field and translates between sensor protocols before sending it to the cloud network.

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 PRACTICAL : 02

AIM : Study of Different Types of Cables. Practical Implement Cross Wire Cables
& Straight through Cable using Clamping Tools.

• A Cable, also known as a cord, plug, or connector transmits power or data between devices or positions,
which is covered in plastic by one or more wires.
• It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also known as
Bounded Media/Guided Media.

❖ Types of Cables :

I. Twisted Pair Cable : Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each
other. A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern. The
degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per foot. Increasing
the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference. The frequency range for twisted pair cable
is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

❖ Twisted Pair is of Two Types :

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) : UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around
one another. It is used in telecommunication.
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) : A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh
surrounding the wire that allows the higher transmission rate.

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II. Coaxial Cable : The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made up of
copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor
from the outer conductor. Coaxial cable is a very commonly used transmission media, for example,
TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.

III. Optical Fibre Cable : Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical Fibers coated in plastic that are
used to send the data by pulses of light. The plastic coating protects the optical Fibers from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring. Fiber optics provide faster data transmission
than copper wires.

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• Apparatus (Components) : RJ-45 connector, Clamping Tool, Twisted pair Cable.

• Procedure : To do these practical following steps should be done:

1. Start by stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable. Be very
careful at this point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing so could alter
the characteristics of your cable, or even worse render is useless. Check the wires, one more
time for nicks or cuts. If there are any, just whack the whole end off, and start over.

2. Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your other hand.
You do not want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket. Category 5 cable
must only have 1/2 of an inch of 'untwisted' wire at the end; otherwise, it will be 'out of spec'.
At this point, you obviously have ALOT more than 1/2 of an inch of un-twisted wire.

3. You have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable. If you are using a pre-made
cable, with one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install the crossed over
end. Below are two diagrams, which show how you need to arrange the cables for each type
of cable end. Decide at this point which end you are making and examine the associated
picture below.

• Diagram shows you how to prepare Cross wired connection :

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• Diagram shows you how to prepare straight through wired connection :

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 PRACTICAL : 03

AIM : Study of basic network command and Network Configuration Commands.

➢ Network Command:

• Networking commands are tools used in command line interfaces to execute various network tasks.
• They allow users to diagnose network problems, modify network settings, transfer files, and establish
distant connections.
• These commands provide essential functionality for network administrators and troubleshooters,
allowing for efficient network control and troubleshooting.

➢ Network Configuration Commands:

• Some of Major Commands are as follows:

1. IPCONFIG :

• It gives information about the IP address.

• It also provides commands to enable or disable an interface.

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 • Options for ipconfig :

a) /all : The "/all" option of the ipconfig command displays the full configuration information.
b) /flushdns : The "/flushdns" option clears the DNS table stored in the cache of the local
machine
c) /registerdns : The "/registerdns" option refreshes all DHCP leases and re-registers the DNS
names in the local machine's cache.

2. PING :

• This command tests the connection between the local machine and the host server.
• This command sends a small amount of data to the host server, and the host server replies to the
computer.
• Command to enter in Prompt – ping [IP-Address]

• Options for ping :

a) -a : The "-a" option resolves the hostname to the respective IP address.

b) -w timeout : The option "-w timeout" sets the timeout, the time after which the data packet
will be rejected for each ping. The timeout is in milliseconds.

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 3. TRACERT :

• The tracert command traces the route from a computer to a host server.
• It traces the connection for a fixed maximum number of hops.
• It is used to diagnose path-related problems.
• Command to enter in Prompt – tracert [IP-address] or tracert

• Options for tracert :

a) -d : The "-d" option tells the tracert not no resolve the IP addresses to hostnames.
b) -h maximum_hops : The "-h maximum_hops" option sets the maximum number of hops for
which the tracert command will trace the connection.
c) -w timeout : The "-w timeout" option sets the timeout time for each reply.

4. NETSTAT :
• This command displays the connections active on the computer and the ports the computer is
listening to.
• The command displays the four parameters: proto, local address, foreign address, and state.

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 • The proto column shows the type of connection, and the local address shows the IP address and
the port number of the connection local machine.
• Command to enter in Prompt - netstat

• Options for netstat :

a) -a : The "-a" option of the netstat command displays all connections and listening ports.
b) -r : The "-r" option displays the routing table of the local machine.
c) -e : The "-e" option of the netstat command displays the statistics of the ethernet connection.

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 5. ARP :

• The arp command is a short form for Address Resolution Protocol.

• This command is used to display and modify the IP to the physical address translation table used
by the address resolution protocol.
• Command to enter in Prompt - arp [options]

• Options for arp :

a) -a : The "-a" command in arp displays current ARP entries by interrogating the current
protocol data.

6. HOSTNAME :

• Display the name of current host / user.

• hostname command in Linux is used to obtain the DNS (Domain Name System) name and set
the system’s hostname or NIS (Network Information System) domain name.
• Command to enter in Prompt – hostname

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 7. NSLOOKUP :

• NSLOOKUP command is used to troubleshoot network connectivity issues in the system.

• Using the nslookup command, we can access the information related to our system’s DNS server,
i.e., domain name and IP address.
• Command to enter in Prompt – nslookup

8. SYSTEMINFO :

• We can access the system’s hardware and software details, such as Processor data, booting data,
Windows Version, etc..
• Command to enter in Prompt – systeminfo

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